GE ELEC 1 - PEE

Each week, about 1.6 million people are added to the world’s population. As a result, the number of people on the
earth is projected to increase from 6.7 to 9.3 billion or more between 2008 and 2050, with most of this growth
occurring in the world’s developing countries.

Can the world provide an adequate standard of living for a projected 2.6 billion more people by 2050 without causing
widespread environmental damage?
- Many argue that both population growth and resource consumption per person are important causes of the
environmental problems we face.
- To some analysts, the problem is the sheer number of people in developing countries with 82% of the world’s
population.
- Some analysts argue there is no reason we cannot continue doing so, and they believe that the planet can
support billions more people. They also see a growing population as our most valuable resource for solving
environmental and other problems and for stimulating economic growth by increasing the number of
consumers. As a result, they see no need to control the world’s population growth.
- Some people view any form of population regulation as a violation of their religious or moral beliefs.
- The planet already has too many people collectively degrading the earth’s natural capital.

Population Characteristics
Population is a group of individuals of the same species that live together in a region.

 Population Ecology - the study of populations (especially population abundance) and how they change over
time
It studies the spatial and temporal patterns in the abundance and distribution of organisms and of the mechanisms that
produce those patterns includes understanding, explanation and prediction of population growth, regulation and
dynamics or demography.
Two Kinds of Multicellular Organisms

 Unitary Organisms
Consist of animal population.
Its form is highly determinate consisting usually of a strictly defined number of parts (such as legs or wings)
established only during embryogenesis. Their pattern of development and final form are predictable.

 Modular Organisms
neither timing nor form is predictable.
These organisms grow by the repeated iteration of modules, usually to yield a branching pattern.
Examples of modular organisms include plants and many sessile benthic invertebrates.
In modular organisms, a single genetic individual (or genet) can consist of many modules (or ramets) capable of
existence as individuals.
In plants, a genet is an individual that has arisen from a seed. A ramet is a new plant which has arisen through
vegetative propagation and is now a completely independent plant with its own roots and shoots.
POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
A population has several characteristics or attributes which are a function of the whole group and not of the individual.
Different populations can be compared by measuring these attributes. These attributes are population density, natality,
mortality, distributions, etc. The study of the group characteristics of a population, their changes over time and
prediction of future changes is known as demography.
I. Population Density
The size of the population is represented by its fundamental property called density. It is generally expressed as the
number of individuals or the population biomass per unit area or volume.
Two Types of Densities
1. Crude Density
- Crude density is the density per unit of total space. Generally, populations do not occupy all the space as whole
because all area may not be habitable.
2. Specific (or Ecological) Density
- Specific density is the density per unit of habitable space. It includes only that portion of total space that can actually
be colonized by the population.

Let’s Try
Malta has a population of 440 000 and an area of 316 km2. Calculate the population density of Malta. Give your
answer to the nearest integer.
1392 people per km2

Hong Kong has a population density of 6700 people/km2 and an area of 1100 km2. Calculate the population of Hong
Kong.
7,370,000 people

II. Natality
Natality refers to the rate of reproduction or birth per unit time. It is an expression of the production of new
individuals in the population by birth, hatching, germination or fission.

 Potential Natality - The maximum number of births produced per individual under ideal conditions of
environment. Also called absolute natality or maximum natality
Natality varies from organism to organism. It depends upon the population density and environmental factors.
- if the population density is usually low, the birth rate is also low.
- If population density is unusually high, the birth rate may also below due to poor nutrition or physiological or
psychological problems related to crowding.
The maximum or absolute natality is observed when the species exists under ideal ecological and genetic conditions.

III. Mortality
Mortality refers to the number of deaths for every 1,000 people per year. The death rate is correlated with the
conditions of country, for example, with the levels of prosperity, health, or the occurrence of war.
Mortality can be expressed in the following two ways:

1. Minimum or Specific or Potential Mortality:

- It represents the minimum of theoretical loss of individuals under ideal or nonlimiting condition. Thus, even under
the best conditions individuals of a population would die of old age determined by their physiological longevity. So it
is constant for a population.
2. Ecological or Realized Mortality:
- It refers to the death of individuals of a population under existing environmental conditions. Since it varies with
environmental conditions, it is never constant. The maximum mortality occurs at the egg, larval, seedling and old age.
Mortality is affected by a number of factors, such as, density, competition, disease, predation and environment.

IV. Population Growth

The growth is one of the dynamic features of species population. Population size increases in a characteristic way.
When the number of individuals of population is plotted on the y-axis and the times on the x-axis, a curve is obtained
that indicates the trend in the growth of population size in a given time. This curve is called population growth curve.
There are two types of growth curves:
1. Sigmoid Curve (S-Curve)
When a few organisms are introduced in an area, the population increase is very slow in the beginning, in the middle
phase, the population increase becomes very rapid and finally in the last phase population increase is slowed down
until an equilibrium is attained and which the population size fluctuates according to variability of environment.
The level beyond which no major increase can occur is referred to as saturation level or carrying capacity.
2. J-Shaped Curve
The second type of growth curve is J-shaped. Here in the first phase there is no increase in population size because it
needs some time for adjustment in the new environment. Soon after the population is established in the new
environment, it starts multiplying rapidly. This increase in population is continued till large amount of food materials
exist in the habitat. After some time, due to increase in population size, food supply in the habitat becomes limited
which ultimately results in decrease in population size.
V. Age Distribution
Age distribution is another important characteristic of population which influences natality and mortality. Mortality,
usually varies with age, as chances of death are more in early and later periods of lifespan. Similarly, natality is
restricted to certain age groups, as forn example, in middle age-groups in higher animals. According to Bodenheimer
(1958), the individuals of a population can be divided into pre-reproductive, reproductive and post-reproductive
groups.

VI. Population Fluctuations

The size and density of natural population show a changing pattern over a period of time.
There are three types of variations in the pattern of population change:
1. Non-fluctuating:
When the population remains static over the years.
2. Cyclic:
- The cyclic variations may be (a) seasonal, and (b) annual. Sometimes seasonal changes occur in the population and
there are additions to the population at the time of maximum reproduction and losses under adverse climatic
conditions. Common examples of seasonal variations are met in mosquitoes and houseflies which area abundant in
particular season
and so also the weeds in the field during the rainy season. When the population of a species shows regular ups and
downs over the years, it is called annual cyclic variation.
3. Irruptive
When the change in population density does not occur at regular intervals or in response to any obvious environmental
factor, it is said to be irruptive fluctuation. In this there is a sudden exponential or logarithmic increase in population
density in short time followed by equally quick drop in population density due to deaths, and final return to normal
level or even below that level.

Birth, Death, and Changes

Factors that Cause Populations to Change

 Density-Dependent factors
Population increases → Resources decreases → Health decreases → Mortality Increases → Reproduction decreases

Density-dependent mortality or density-dependent reproduction.

Density-dependent forms of mortality include parasites, disease, starvation, and predation.

Six Countries Where Hunger is Most Severe

AFGHANISTAN

The economic situation in Afghanistan deteriorated rapidly after the Taliban took control more than a year ago.
More than 90% of the population has been pushed into poverty. More than six million people do not have enough
food to eat, and hunger continues to rise.

ETHIOPIA

Escalating conflict and extreme weather caused by climate change have worsened access to food in Ethiopia. The
political situation, particularly in Tigray, remains volatile and violence has forced people to flee their homes and
agricultural fields. At the same time, southern Ethiopia is currently experiencing the worst drought in 40 years.

NIGERIA

Conflict is a key driver of hunger in Nigeria. Ongoing violence causes disruptions in markets and farming, severely
limiting people’s ability to earn income and forcing families to leave their homes. It can be extremely difficult for
humanitarian organizations to reach people living in areas controlled by armed groups to provide the support they
need.

SOMALIA

Crisis levels of hunger – combined with rising rates of cholera and measles –are hitting Somalia as a result of conflict,
prolonged drought, and rising food prices. Approximately 1.8 million children in Somalia – more than half of the
country’s children – are suffering from acute malnutrition and several areas are on the brink of famine.

SOUTH SUDAN

In South Sudan, an anticipated fourth consecutive year of widespread flooding, conflict, and a weak economy are
likely to intensify the hunger crisis in the world’s newest nation. An estimated 87,000 people were struggling to
survive in famine conditions between April and June 2022.

YEMEN

Families living in war-torn Yemen face what has been called the “world’s worst humanitarian crisis.” A fragile truce
was agreed upon in 2022, but civilians continue to bear the brunt of the conflict as thousands have been forced to
flee their homes. Imports of food, fuel, and medicines are severely limited, and hunger continues to grow: 161,000
people are expected to experience famine conditions this year.

Density-Independent factors

Are those factors that act on a population independent of the size of the population.
Typical density-independent causes of mortality are weather, accidents, and environmental catastrophes like
volcanoes, floods, landslides, fire, etc.

The rate at which animals reproduce is a basic component of population dynamics. The rate of natural increase is the
difference between birth and death rates. It measures the degree to which a population is growing. Since birth and
death rates are measured as the number of births (or deaths) occurring per 1000 population, the difference is
divided by 10 to convert this rate into a percentage.

Rate of Natural Increase = (Birth rate – Death Rate) / 10

Factors affect a population's birth rate:

The amount and quality of food available

Age at first reproduction

The birth interval

The average number of young produced

Major Causes of Human Population Change

Agricultural Revolution

Industrial revolution

Progressing growth

How Can We Slow Human Population Growth?

Family Planning provides educational and clinical services that help couples choose how many children to have and
when to have them. Such programs vary from culture to culture, but most provide information on birth spacing,
birth control, and health care for pregnant women and infants.

Family planning has been a major factor in reducing the number of births throughout

most of the world, mostly because of increased knowledge and availability of contraceptives. According to the U.N.
Population Division, 58% of married women ages 15–45 in developed countries and 54% in developing countries
used modern contraception in 2008.

Family planning has also reduced the number of legal and illegal abortions performed each year and decreased the
number of deaths of mothers and fetuses during pregnancy. Studies by the

U.N. Population Division and other population agencies indicate that family planning is

responsible for at least 55% of the drop in total fertility rates (TFRs) in developing countries, from 6.0 in 1960 to 3.0
in 2008
Between 1971 and 2008, for example, Thailand used family planning to cut its annual population growth rate from
3.2% to 0.5% and its TFR from 6.4 to 1.6 children per family. Another family planning success involves Iran, which
between 1989 and 2000, cut its population growth rate from 2.5% to 1.4%.

Some analysts call for expanding family planning programs to include teenagers and sexually active unmarried
women, who are excluded from many existing programs.

Another suggestion is to develop programs that educate men about the importance of having fewer children and
taking more responsibility for raising them.

Proponents also call for greatly increased research on developing more effective and more acceptable birth control
methods for men.

The experiences of countries such as Japan, Thailand, South Korea, Taiwan, Iran, and China show that a country can
achieve or come close to replacement level fertility within a decade or two. Such experiences also suggest that the
best ways to slow and stabilize population growth are through investing in family planning, reducing poverty, and
elevating the social and economic status of women.

Empowering Women

Studies show that women tend to have fewer children if they are educated, hold a paying job outside the home, and
live in societies where their human rights are not suppressed. Although women make up roughly half of the world’s
population, in most societies they do not have the same rights and educational and economic opportunities as men
do.

Introduction and Scope of Ecology

Ecology

 The study of the relationships of living organisms with one another and with their environment.

 The word ecology comes from the Greek words oikos and logos, and literally means "study of the home."

Levels of Ecological Organization

Organism

It is the lowest level of organization in an ecosystem.

An organism or individual is a single organism, plant, animal, or microorganism, such as bacteria and fungi, capable
of independent existence, functioning independently, and can reproduce.

Thus, an individual is the smallest component of the ecosystem and its building block.

organisms can be classified into two types: eukaryotes and prokaryotes

2. Population

A population is a group of similar individuals, usually of a given species occupying a particular habitat at a particular
time.

This group consists of organisms that feed and move together and interbreed among themselves to reproduce.

It is the second smallest of all the levels of organization in an ecosystem.

Populations can vary in size.

3. Community

includes populations of different species living together and sharing the same habitat in a given area.

Various factors determine the characteristics of a community. They are its role in the ecosystem, the range of its
various populations, the geographic area where it resides, the diversity of the species, and the interactions between
various populations.

4. Ecosystem

The term ‘ecosystem’ was introduced by A.G. Tansley in 1935.

It is a functional unit of nature consisting of more than a community of living organisms and their interaction with
non-living ones.

Ecosystems can vary in size based on the scope of the study.

two types of ecosystems in nature such as terrestrial and aquatic.

Components of Ecosystem
Biotic

The living components of an ecosystem.

Classification of Biotic Components

based on the energy requirement source

Producers

Consumers

Decomposers

2. Abiotic

are the physical and/or the chemical factors that act on the living organisms at any part of their life. These are also
called as the ecological factors. The physical and chemical factors are characteristic of the environment. Light, air,
soil, and nutrients, etc. form the abiotic components of an ecosystem.

The abiotic factors vary from ecosystem to ecosystem.

In an aquatic ecosystem, the abiotic factors may include water pH, sunlight, turbidity, water depth, salinity, available
nutrients and dissolved oxygen.

In terrestrial ecosystems can include soil, soil types, temperature, rain, altitude, wind, nutrients, sunlight etc.

Limiting Factors

Abiotic Factors

involve the physical and chemical characteristics of the environment. Some of these factors include: amounts of
sunlight, annual rainfall, available nutrients, oxygen levels and temperature.

Biotic Factors

involve interactions between different populations, such as competition for food and habitat.

5. Biosphere

is the region of the earth that encompasses all living organisms: plants, animals and bacteria.

it is a feature that distinguishes the earth from the other planets in the solar system. "Bio" means life.

the term biosphere was first coined by a Russian scientist (Vladimir Vernadsky) in the 1920s.

The biosphere can be divided into relatively large regions called biomes.

A biome has a distinct climate and certain living organisms (especially vegetation) characteristic to the region and
may contain many ecosystems.

The major types of biomes include: aquatic, desert, forest, grassland and tundra.

Three Factors that Sustain Life on Earth

The one-way flow of solar energy into the earth's systems. As radiant energy, it is used by plants for food production.
As heat, it warms the planet and powers the weather system. Eventually, the energy is lost into space in the form
of infrared radiation. Most of the energy needed to cycle matter through earth's systems comes from the sun.

The cycling of matter. Because there are only finite amounts of nutrients available on the earth, they must be
recycled in order to ensure the continued existence of living organisms.

The force of gravity. This allows the earth to maintain the atmosphere encompassing its surface and provides the
driving force for the downward movement of materials in processes involving the cycling of matter.

Food Chain

- is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats another.

Trophic Levels

- First Trophic Level

Producers, also known as autotrophs, make their own food.

- Second Trophic Level

Primary Consumers

Herbivores

- Third Trophic Level

consumes primary consumer

Apex Predator – predator that exists at the very top of the food chain.

Decomposers

- like fungi and bacteria complete the food chain.

- They turn organic wastes, such as decaying plants, into inorganic materials, such as nutrient-rich soil.

Food Web

- It consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem

- All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web
Biomass

 Food webs are defined by their biomass.

 Biomass is the energy in living organisms.

 Autotrophs, the producers in a food web, convert the sun's energy into biomass.