Soft Computing

Chapter 5 : Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA

For BTI, Computer Engineering, MPSTME
Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
• Genetic algorithm are good at taking larger, potential huge, search space and navigating them looking for
optimal combinations of things and solutions which we might not find in a life time.
• Genetic algorithms (GAs) are optimization and search algorithms inspired by the process of natural
selection and evolution. They are used to find approximate solutions to complex optimization and search
problems.
• A genetic algorithm is an adaptive heuristic search algorithm inspired by "Darwin's theory of evolution in
Nature.

• Are different from traditional optimization method • GA processes a number of designs at the same
• Design space converted to genetic space time.
• It work with coding of variables • GA possess number of designs at the same time.
• GA uses a population of points at one time • GA uses randomized operators for improvement
• Coding discretizes the search space
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
Genetic Algorithm Neural Network
1 A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search technique used in Neural networks are non-linear statistical data modeling
computing to find exact or approximate solutions to tools. They can be used to model complex relationships
optimization and search problems between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data.
2 If you have a problem where you can quantify the worth When you have a number of items in different classes, a
of a solution, a genetic algorithm can perform a directed neural network can "learn" to classify items it has not
search of the solution space. (E.g. find the shortest route "seen" before. (E.g. face recognition, voice recognition)
between two points)
3 A genetic algorithm takes a long time to find an acceptable A neural network takes a long time to "learn", but then it
solution. can almost instantly classify new inputs.
4 Genetic algorithms are an optimization technique Neural Networks are used for regression/classification
5 Genetic algorithms (usually) work on discrete data Neural networks, on the other hand, (usually) work on
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
Parameter Genetic Algorithm Traditional Algorithm

Search are inspired by the principles of biological follow a deterministic and rule-based
Strategy evolution and natural selection. use a approach to solving problems. They
population-based search strategy that often rely on a predefined set of rules,
involves creating a population of potential equations, or heuristics to iteratively
solutions (chromosomes), evolving these manipulate data or perform
solutions over generations through computations to find an optimal or
selection, crossover, and mutation satisfactory solution
operations, and favoring individuals with
higher fitness.
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
Parameter Genetic Algorithm Traditional Algorithm
Exploration vs. emphasize exploration, searching the tend to focus more on exploitation,
Exploitation solution space broadly to discover refining the current solution based on
diverse candidate solutions. well-defined rules and heuristics.
Solution can handle a wide range of problem typically assume a fixed, explicit
Representation representations, including binary representation of the problem's
strings, real-valued vectors, variables and constraints
permutations, and more.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
Parameter Genetic Algorithm Traditional Algorithm

Convergence do not guarantee convergence to a often aim for quick convergence to

global optimum due to their a known solution or an optimal
stochastic nature value based on established rules.
Problem are more versatile and are are commonly used for solving
Types particularly suited for solving well-structured problems with clear
complex, non-linear, and multi- mathematical formulations, such as
objective optimization problems sorting, searching, and
mathematical optimization.
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts
Advantages Disadvantages
• The parallel capabilities of genetic algorithms • Genetic algorithms are not
are best. efficient algorithms for solving
• It helps in optimizing various problems such as simple problems.
discrete functions, multi-objective problems, • It does not guarantee the quality
and continuous functions. of the final solution to a
• It provides a solution for a problem that problem.
improves over time. • Repetitive calculation of fitness
• A genetic algorithm does not need derivative values may generate some
information. computational challenges.
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Basic concepts

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Encoding

Encoding of chromosomes is the first question to ask when starting to solve a problem with GA.
Encoding depends on the problem heavily.
In this chapter some encodings will be introduced that have been already used with some success
Binary Encoding
Binary encoding is the most common one, mainly because the first research of GA used this type of
encoding and because of its relative simplicity.
In binary encoding, every chromosome is a string of bits - 0 or 1.
Binary encoding gives many possible chromosomes even with a small number of alleles. On the
other hand, this encoding is often not natural for many problems and sometimes corrections must be
made after crossover and/or mutation

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Encoding Example of chromosomes with tree encoding

Tree Encoding
Tree encoding is used mainly for evolving programs or expressions, i.e. for genetic
programming.
In the tree encoding every chromosome is a tree of some objects, such as functions or
commands in programming language.
Tree encoding is useful for evolving programs or any other structures that can be encoded in
trees. Programing language LISP is often used for this purpose, since programs in LISP are
represented directly in the form of tree and can be easily parsed as a tree, so the crossover (+ x (/ 5 y))
and mutation can be done relatively easily.

Example of Problem: Finding a function that would approximate given pairs of values
The problem: Input and output values are given. The task is to find a function that will give
the best outputs (i.e. the closest to the wanted ones) for all inputs.
( do_until step wall )
Encoding: Chromosome are functions represented in a tree.
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Encoding
Value Encoding
Direct value encoding can be used in problems where some more complicated values such as real numbers are
used. Use of binary encoding for this type of problems would be difficult.
In the value encoding, every chromosome is a sequence of some values. Values can be anything connected to
the problem, such as (real) numbers, chars or any objects
Value encoding is a good choice for some special problems. However, for this encoding it is often necessary to
develop some new crossover and mutation specific for the problem.
Example of Problem: Finding weights for a neural network
The problem: A neural network is given with defined architecture. Find weights between neurons in the neural
network to get the desired output from the network.
Encoding: Real values in chromosomes represent weights in the neural network

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Encoding

Permutation Encoding
Permutation encoding can be used in ordering problems, such as travelling salesman problem or
task ordering problem.
In permutation encoding, every chromosome is a string of numbers that represent a position in a
sequence.

Permutation encoding is useful for ordering problems. For some types of crossover and mutation
corrections must be made to leave the chromosome consistent (i.e. have real sequence in it) for
some problems.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Selection
Introduction
As you already know from the GA outline, chromosomes are selected from the population to be parents
for crossover. The problem is how to select these chromosomes. According to Darwin's theory of
evolution the best ones survive to create new offspring. There are many methods in selecting the best
chromosomes. Examples are roulette wheel selection, Boltzman selection, tournament selection, rank
selection, steady state selection and some others.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Roulette Wheel Selection

Parents are selected according to their fitness.
The better the chromosomes are, the more chances to be selected they have.
The size of the section in the roulete wheel is proportional to the value of the
fitness function of every chromosome - the bigger the value is, the larger the
section is.
See the following picture for an example.
A marble is thrown in the roulette wheel and the chromosome where it stops
is selected. Clearly, the chromosomes with bigger fitness value will be
selected more times.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.
Rank Selection
The previous type of selection will have problems when they are big differences between the
fitness values. For example, if the best chromosome fitness is 90% of the sum of all fitnesses then
the other chromosomes will have very few chances to be selected.
Rank selection ranks the population first and then every chromosome receives fitness value
determined by this ranking. The worst will have the fitness 1, the second worst 2 etc. and the best
will have fitness N (number of chromosomes in population).
You can see in following picture, how the situation changes after changing fitness to the numbers
determined by the ranking.

Situation after ranking (graph of order numbers)

Situation before ranking (graph of fitnesses)
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Creation of offspring
• The creation of offspring involves combining genetic information from
two parent individuals to produce one or more new individuals, known as
offspring or children.
• Mimics the principles of natural selection and genetic evolution to search
for optimal solutions to a problem.
• The new created offspring can then be muted (DNA modification)
• Motivated by a hope that new offspring will be better than the old one.
• The more suitable they are, the more chances they have to reproduce.
• This continues until iterations or best possible solution is met.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Crossover and mutation are two basic operators of GA. Performance of GA depends on
them very much. The type and implementation of operators depends on the encoding and
also on the problem.
• There are many ways how to perform crossover and mutation. In this chapter we briefly
describe some examples and suggestions how to perform them several enco
• Binary Encoding
• Crossover
• Single point crossover - one crossover point is selected, binary string from the beginning of
the chromosome to the crossover point is copied from the first parent, the rest is copied
from the other parent

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Crossover and mutation

• Two point crossover - two crossover points are
selected, binary string from the beginning of the
chromosome to the first crossover point is copied
from the first parent, the part from the first to the
second crossover point is copied from the other
parent and the rest is copied from the first parent
again
• Uniform crossover - bits are randomly copied
from the first or from the second parent
• Arithmetic crossover - some arithmetic operation
is performed to make a new offspring

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Crossover and mutation

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Parameters of GA
Basic recommendations if you have decided to implement your genetic algorithm. These recommendations are
very general. You will probably want to experiment with your own GA for a specific problem, because there is
no general theory available that would help you to tune GA parameters for any problem.
• Recommendations are often results of empiric studies of GAs that were often performed on binary encoding
only.
• Crossover rate
• Crossover rate should be high generally, about 80%-95%. (However some results show that for some problems crossover
rate about 60% is the best.)
• Mutation rate On the other side, mutation rate should be very low. Best rates seems to be about 0.5%-1%.
• Population size
• It may be surprising, that very big population size usually does not improve performance of GA (in the sense of speed of
finding solution). Good population size is about 20-30, however sometimes sizes 50-100 are reported as the best. Some
research also shows, that the best population size depends on the size of encoded string (chromosomes). It means that if you
have chromosomes with 32 bits, the population should be higher than for chromosomes with 16 bits.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Parameters of GA
• Selection
• Basic roulette wheel selection can be used, but sometimes rank selection can be better. Check the
chapter about selection for advantages and disadvantages. There are also some more
sophisticated methods that change parameters of selection during the run of GA. Basically, these
behave similarly like simulated annealing. Elitism should be used for sure if you do not use other
method for saving the best found solution. You can also try steady state selection.
• Encoding
• Encoding depends on the problem and also on the size of instance of the problem. Check the
chapter about encoding for some suggestions or look to other resources.
• Crossover and mutation type
• Operators depend on the chosen encoding and on the problem. Check the chapter about
operators for some suggestions. You can also check other sites.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Applications of GA
Genetic algorithms have been used for difficult problems (such as NP-hard problems),
for machine learning and also for evolving simple programs. They have been also used
for some art, for evolving pictures and music.
The advantage of GAs is in their parallelism. GA is travelling in a search space using
more individuals (and with genotype rather than phenotype) so that they are less likely to
get stuck in a local extreme like the other methods.
They are also easy to implement. Once you have the basic GA algorithm implemented,
you have just to write a new chromosome (just one object) to solve another problem.
With the same encoding you just change the fitness function - and you are done.
However, for some problems, choosing and implementation of encoding and fitness
function can be difficult.

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

Applications of GA
The disadvantage of GAs is in the computational time. GAs can be slower than other methods. But sice we can
terminate the computation in any time, the longer run is acceptable (especially with faster and faster computers).
To get an idea about some problems solved by GAs, here is a short list of some applications:
Nonlinear dynamical systems - predicting, data analysis
Designing neural networks, both architecture and weights
Robot trajectory
Evolving LISP programs (genetic programming)
Strategy planning
Finding shape of protein molecules
TSP and sequence scheduling
Functions for creating images

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 1
• Select initial population randomly between 0 to 31 of some size say 4, let randomly selected number are
01100, 11001, 00101 and 10011.
• Step 2
• X value of 01100, 11001, 00101 and 10011 are 12, 25,05 and 19
• Step 3
• Calculate fitness function by using 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 for 12, 25,05 and 19.
• 144, 625, 25 and 361
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 4
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥
• Compute the probability of selection Probi = σ𝑛 = =
𝑖=1 𝑓 𝑥 𝑖 (144+625+25+361) 1155
12
• Probi= 1155
= 0.1247 Similarly 0.5411, 0.0216 and 0.3126
• In percentage 12.47 %, 54.11%, 2.16% and 31.26%
• Step 5
𝑓 𝑥
• Expected count = [𝐴𝑉𝐺.𝑓 𝑥𝑖 ]
𝑖

σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑓 𝑥
• (𝐴𝑉𝐺. 𝑓 𝑥) 𝑖 = [ 𝑛𝑖
𝑖
] = 1155/4=288.75
• For string 1 Expected count = 144/ 288.75 = 0.4987
• Similarly for other strings 2.1645, 0.0866, 1.2502
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 6 Roulette Wheel Selection 13%

String Probability Value

31%
1 12.47%
String 1
2 54.11% String 2
String 3
3 02.16%
String 4
4 31.26% 2%

54%

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 6 Roulette Wheel Selection
String Expected Count Actual count
1 0.4987 1
2 2.1645 2
3 0.0866 0
4 1.2502 1

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 7 Crossover

String Initial Mating Mate (randomly Crossover site (Offspring after

Population Pool Selected) (Randomly crossover) New
Selected) Population

1 01100 01100 2 4 01101

2 11001 11001 1 4 11000
3 00101 11001 4 2 11011
4 10011 10011 3 2 10001
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 7 Crossover
String New Population X value 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 Fitness Value New Population
1 01101 13 169 01101
2 11000 24 576 11000
3 11011 27 729 11011
4 10001 17 289 10001
Sum 1763
Average 440.75
Maximum 729

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Numerical example of Genetic algorithm

• Consider the problem of Maximizing the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 where x is from 0 to 31.
• Step 8 Mutation
String New Population Mutation chromosome for New Population 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 Fitness
flipping Value

1 01101 10000 11101 𝑓 29 = 841

2 11000 00000 11000 𝑓 24 =576
3 11011 00000 11011 𝑓 27 =729
4 10001 00100 10101 𝑓 21 = 441
Sum 2587
Average 646.75
Maximum 841
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Stopping Conditions of Genetic Algorithm.

• Stops when
• Maximum number of generations are evolved
• When specific time is elapsed
• No change in fitness function

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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working principle, encoding,
fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic
algorithm.

• Parallel genetic algorithm.

• Easy to implement
• Most of the Process of GA are executed without interaction
• only interaction occurs during reproduction phase.
• Where only parents are involved during production.
• In parallel GA (PGA) basic tasks are distributed to processors
• Little time is spent on communication of processors
• Faster and can find more accurate result
• As it allows increased population size without the cost of
increased processing time
• Increased genetic diversity possible
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Genetic Algorithms Fundamentals of GA: Basic concepts, creation of offspring, working
principle, encoding, fitness function, reproduction, crossover and mutation, numerical example of
Genetic algorithm, parallel genetic algorithm. Hybrid Systems: Neural Fuzzy, Fuzzy Genetic,
Genetic algorithm based

Thank You Chapter 5

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