Human apparatus of movement

The movements of the person are realized by means of locomotor system (LMS). The
LMS carries out function of overcoming of terrestrial gravity (gravitation) therefore it is called
the anti-gravitation device.
The LMS is subdivides on passive (a skeleton and its connections) and active part
(muscles). With participation of muscles orientation of an organism in space is provided and
balance is regulated. Together with a skeleton of a muscles create the form of an organism,
provide vertical position of a body of the person in space.
All departments of CNS participate in realization of movements.
At the spinal level are accomplished only simple coordination motions.
The brain stem provides coordination of the correct placing of a body in space due of cervical
and labyrinth reflexes (R. Magnus) and normal distribution of a muscular tone. With
participation of a cerebellum fluency, accuracy, necessary force of the movement are realized.
Most precise, skilled coordinations of voluntary movements are carried out by means of cortex
and basal nuclei.
Skeletal muscles are innervated by motor fibers. Each motor fiber is a motor-neuron’s
apophysis which innervates group of muscle fibers. The motor-neuron with group of the muscle
fibers innervated by it is called as motor unit. In eyeball muscles motor units contain less than 10 muscle
fibers, and in shin muscles (fast and slow motor units) - 2000.
In muscles are three types of specialized receptors: primary terminations of spindles,
secondary terminations of spindles and tendinous receptors of Golgi. These receptors react no
mechanical irritations and participate in coordination of movements.
The small oblong structures are located in the thickness of muscles and are called as
muscular spindles. In a capsule of a spindle there is a bunch of muscle fibers, which are called
intrafuzal muscle fibers. The sensitive terminations of afferent of Ia group (primary
terminations) and the sensitive nervous terminations of afferent of group II (secondary
terminations) are located on the intrafuzal fibers. Impulsation from spindles going through
afferents of Ia group excites motor-neurons of the own muscle and inhibits motor-neurons of
antagonists-muscles.
Afferents of group II excite motor-neurons of flexors and inhibit motor-neurons of extensors.
Motor-neurons of a spinal cord are subdivided on α and γ.
α- motor-neurons innervate fibers of skeletal muscles (extrafuzal),
and γ - motor-neurons - intrafuzal fibers (stretching receptors).
Spindles have also an efferent innervation, they are innervated by the axons going from
γ- motor-neurons.
Tendon receptors of Golgi are in a zone of connection of muscle fibers with a tendon.
Articulate receptors react to position of a joint and to changes of an articulate corner (figure of
intrafuzal fiber).
Skin and its appendages are closely tied with all organs and systems of an organism.
Skin carries out a multitude of important functions: protective, respiratory, absorbing,
secretory, pigment formation. Skin takes part in vascular reactions, thermal control, exchange
processes, neuroreflex reactions of an organism. Sensitivity of skin and feeling of the movement
are connected with carrying out impulses on two ways:
1) Lemniscus - transmits signals about a touch to skin, pressure upon it and the movements in
joints. The I-st neurons are in spinal ganglion, their axons as a part of back columns go back to
medulla nuclei (Gaulle and Burdach's nuclei), the II neurons are located here. Their axons enter
to specific nuclei of talamus (the III neuron). Their axons go to a somatosensor zone of cortex.
2) The spinal-thalamic way - the I neuron is located in spinal gangli, the II neuron is localized in
gray substance of a spinal cord, and their axons after a recross in spinal cord enter in thalamus, a
medial geniculate bodies, go in nuclei of a brain stem and hypothalamus. In a thalamus is the
III neuron, its axons go to a somatosensory zone of cortex.
 Fibers of spinal-cerebellum tract pass through finiculus lateralis, its function is conduct
impulses from skin and muscles to cerebellum.

Central regulation of movements

The motive system (depending on purpose functions) carries out 4 types of movements:
1. Maintenance of a certain pose;
2. Orientation movements.
3. Movement of a body in space (locomotion);
4. Manipulational movements
Brain management of the movements is subdivided into 2 levels:
1. Subcortical level - is responsible for the inborn and automated movements.
2. Cortical level - is responsible for performance of voluntary and skilled movements.

I. Maintenance of a certain pose

Pose – prolonged, close to isometric contraction of groups of muscles which provide a
certain position of a trunk and extremities at rest and at the movement.
Neurons of the CNS participate in maintenance of a pose of various levels. First of all,
brain stem, cerebellum, basal nuclei.
Mechanisms of regulation of a in maintenance of a pose: cervical, adjusting reflexes, and
vestibulo-spinal reflexes – tonic reflexes. Tonic reflexes: static and static-kinetic.

The departments of CNS regulating motor functions.

Medulla and pons varolii. Organization of reflexes of maintenance of a pose by means of
an afferentation from receptors of a vestibulum and semicircular channels to vestibular nuclei,
further by vestibulospinal tract impulses go to the motorneurons of a spinal cord.
Midbrain. Role of a red nuclei and black substance. Red nuclei are connected with cortex, a
subcortex, a spinal cord, a cerebellum. Red nuclei regulate a tone of skeletal muscles. Change
appears after section of cat’s brain made below red nucleus is decerebrate rigidity (the tone of
extensors-muscles raises). It appears as result of lack of inhibition influences of a red nuclei on a
tone of extensor-muscles.
Black substance regulates sequence of chewing and swallowing acts, provides the precise,
skilled movements of fingers of hands. Neurons of these nuclei synthesize dopamine and are
connected with basal nuclei. Damage of black substance leads to violation of a plastic tone of
muscles.
Cerebellum’s role in regulation of motor functions: coordination of voluntary and
involuntary movements, including accuracy of reaction and maintenance of balance. Motor
zones of a cerebellum are closely connected with motor zones of cortex and other motor
departments of a brain. At violationof regulatory functions of a cerebellum are observed the
following symptoms: an astasia, an asthenia, an atony, an ataxy, an adynamy, a dismetry, a
disartria, adiadochokinesia etc. Patients with damage of a cerebellum can't touch a nose tip at the
closed eyes (fingernose test).
Basal nuclei (corpus striatum and pale sphere). These structures, thalamus with nuclei of
a midbrain form striopallidar system. Cortex of a brain and striopallidar system participate in the
coordination and in integration of voluntary and involuntary motor reactions of an organism. In
clinic violations such as atethosis – the involuntary slow worm-shaped movements of fingers, a
chorea – a spasm of mimic face muscles and extremities, and also Parkinson's syndrome – an
akinesy, a hypotone, a static tremor (trembling at rest). There is an opinion that these change are
connected with violations of functions of striopallidar system.
Brain cortex’s role. The motor zone of cortex is in pre-central area (gyrus). Motor zone
includes 2 fields (according Brodman - 4 and 6th fields). The field 4 – the central zone of the
motor analyzer or primary zone, is characterized by existence of giant pyramidal cells of Betz.
From here the pyramidal tract through which voluntary movements are realized starts. The motor
zone has the distinct somatotopic organization, is divided into the sites corresponding to
departments of an opposite half of a body which are presented in cortex as if turned head over
heels. Thus the most important parts of a body in the physiological relation have more extensive
cortical representation. The field 6 – is considered as a secondary motor zone (a premotor zone).
In it almost there are almost absence giant pyramidal cells. This zone also regulates voluntary,
but slower and difficult movements. Additional motor zones are on the medial part and frontal
lobes of a brain.
II. Orientation movements
At orientation in space of rather visual coordinates one of the main tasks is fixing of a
look which is carried out by oculomotor system.
Fast jumps of eyes (saccages), are necessary for fixing of a look, are divided on voluntary and
involuntary. The involuntary saccages are regulated by a cerebellum, voluntary saccages - by
cortex of large hemispheres. The coordinated movements of eyes and the head are regulated by
special system of reflexes.
Central component of coordinated movement of eyes and head are superior colliculi of
quadrigemina and system of cervical, optic and vestibular reflexes.

ІІІ. Movement of a body from one place in another – a locomotion.

For a locomotion is necessary force which changes an initial state of an organism.
This overcoming of gravity, resistance of environment and force of inertia of a body.
During a locomotion it is necessary to maintain balance continuously. The most widespread
types of a locomotion – walking and run. Centers of its regulation are motor neurons of spinal
cord, where is occurred interchange of excitation and inhibition processes. Structures of a spinal
cord are under the influence of the highest departments of a brain: a brain stem, a cerebellum,
large hemispheres of a brain with thalamical nuclei, striopallidar system and corresponding
zones of cortex.
The difficult movements are carried out according to the rigid program, the feedback (return
afferentation) has a significant role. Feedback is carried out by spino-bulbar communications.
During a locomotion process is occurred a continuous correction of motion programs which is
carried out by means of nuclei of the dorsal columns (Gaulle and Burdach's tracts).

ІV. The Manipulatory movements (voluntary movements)

Manipulatory movements caused by motivations.
Brain structures are responsible for these movements: cerebral cortex, basal ganglion and
cerebellum.
As many departments of CNS take part in regulation of the movements violation of a muscular
tone and coordination of the movement can be used for diagnostics.
They are shown by decrease in a tone of muscles (hypotone) increase of a tone of muscles (hyper
tone), violation of stability when standing and walking (ataxy), asymmetry of movements of the
right and left side (asinergy), violation of accuracy (dismetry), increase (hyperkinesis) or
increase of motor activity (hypokinesis) etc.

Composer in English: docent Baizhanova N.S.

Department of normal physiology with course valeology