MODULE 1

SYSTEMS OF EARTH AND KEY TERMS IN DISASTER

MANAGEMENT

SYLLABUS:
Systems of earth: Lithosphere - composition, rocks, soils; Atmosphere-layers, ozone layer, greenhouse
effect, weather, cyclones, atmospheric circulations, Indian Monsoon; hydrosphere Oceans, inland water
bodies; biosphere.

Definition and meaning of key terms in Disaster Risk Reduction and Management- disaster, hazard,
exposure, vulnerability, risk, risk assessment, risk mapping, capacity, resilience, disaster risk reduction,
disaster risk management, early warning systems, disaster preparedness, disaster prevention, disaster
mitigation, disaster response, damage assessment, crisis counselling, needs assessment.

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PERVIOUS KTU QUESTIONS(CE)

1. a) Explain the difference between Hazards and Disaster. (8)

b) Define the terms Risk, Vulnerability and crisis. (7)
2. Explain the concept of ‘Green House effect. (8)
3. Explain the origin of Cyclones, types and its impacts. (10)
4. What is the purpose of Disaster Management? (5)
5. Explain the term Vulnerability with respect to earthquake. (7)
6. Explain the below terms. (10)
a) Exposure
b) Resilience
c) Disaster risk reduction
d) Capacity
7. What is disaster mitigation? (6)
8. Explain the below terms. (10)
a) Early warning Systems
b) Disaster Preparedness
c) Disaster Risk Management
d) Disaster Prevention

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DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Disaster management refers to the conservation of lives and property during natural or human-made
disasters. Disaster management plans are multi-layered and are planned to address issues such as floods,
hurricanes, fires, mass failure of utilities, rapid spread of disease and droughts. Disaster management can
be of either natural disasters or man-made disasters.

LITHOSPHERE

Earth has four concentric zones. The innermost zone is the ’Inner core. This zone is a solid mass of iron
which has a radius of about 1,216 km, covering the inner core is the outer core. This is a layer of molten
liquid containing nickel and iron. It is about 2,270 km thick. The outer core is covered by solid ’Mantle’,
which is about 2,900 km thick. The outermost hardened exterior zone is known as Crust. The crust varies
in thickness from about 5 km. The crust and the mantle which is hard and brittle is lithosphere

Fig 1: Structure of the earth and Lithosphere

Lithosphere is the outer layer (oceanic and continental) of earth that includes the crust and solid part of
the mantle. Lithosphere interacts with atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere and forms Pedosphere.
Pedosphere has both biotic and abiotic components.

There are two types of Lithospheres:

1. The oceanic lithosphere which is about 5 km to 8 km thick composed of basalt.

2. The continental lithosphere which is 30 km to 40 km thick.

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Earth has seven major plates, which includes Africa. Antarctica, Australia, Eurasia, North America, South
America and Pacifica, and a number of minor ones. A few important minor plates include Adria. Arabia.
Caribbean. Nazca, Philippines, etc. These plates are composed of oceanic and continental lithosphere.
They move independently over the mantle relative to one another, below the outer rigid lithosphere. This
area known as asthenosphere is about 100 km to 200 km thick, they move with at restricted independence
from the seven large plates.

The plates periodically reorganize themselves with new plate boundaries being formed, while certain
others closing up. In addition to these movements, the plates also change in shape. The plates have three
different motions:
1. They are Moving apart, thereby creating divergent boundaries
2. Gliding horizontally along each other, thereby creating wrench and transform boundaries
3. Moving towards one another, and creating convergent boundaries

Composition of Lithosphere

The lithosphere contains minerals, rocks and soil. It has more than 100 chemical elements and most of
them are rare. More than 99 percentage of the volume includes elements like oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium. Only a few elements are present in pure forms in the
earth’s crust called native elements, they include copper, gold, lead, mercury, nickel, platinum and silver.
These elements contained in ores are found in different combinations as minerals. Minerals are naturally
occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids that have definite chemical compositions. Certain minerals are
composed of single element. For instance, diamond and graphite composed of only carbon. Below table
shows elements present in earth crust.

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ROCKS

Lithosphere has various types of rocks. Rocks are naturally occurring hard and consolidated inorganic
materials, composed of one or a large number of minerals. Certain other materials, like coal and limestone
are developed from plant and animal remains.

There are various types of rocks. They are:

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks

These rocks are formed by solidification of magma in the interior, or lava on the surface of earth. Igneous
rocks are composed of primary minerals, which are predominantly silicates. They sometimes overlap with
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the precipitation from solutions, and consolidation of remnants of biotic
components like plants and animals. These rocks contain both original primary minerals (Quartz, Mica)
and altered as well as newly synthesized secondary minerals (Clay, calcite, gypsum).

Metamorphic Rocks

Also known as Thermal rocks as they are formed from pre-existing rocks (igneous or sedimentary) due to
change in the temperature and pressure in solid state is known as metamorphic rocks. These rocks are
formed when magma intrudes through pre-existing igneous or sedimentary rocks. All types of pre-existing
rocks could undergo metamorphism. Further, igneous and metamorphic rocks get weathered and form
sediments. These sediments get deposited and lithified into sedimentary rocks

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SOIL

Soil is the surface layer of the land. It is a natural body that contains a variable mixture of broken and
weathered materials and decaying organic matter, which covers the earth in a thin layer. It takes long
period of time for the soil to form through the natural process. The formation takes place from the
weathering and decomposition of rocks and minerals. Soil is a dynamic layer of earth’s crust which is
constantly changing and developing. The upper limit of soil is air or water and its lateral margins grade to
deep water or barren areas of rock or even ice.

Soil accomplishes various functions, which include the following:

1. It provides mechanical support to the plant.
2. It has the ability of holding water as it has the property of porosity. This ability makes soil a
reservoir of water
3. Soil provides micro and macro nutrients, as well as ideal pH required for the growth of the micro-
organisms, plants and animals.
4. Soil prevents excessive leaching of nutrients.
5. Soil houses bacteria that fix nitrogen and other elements; fungi, protozoa and other micro-
organisms. These organisms’ aids in the decomposition of organic matte

Different types of soil are given below:

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LAYERS OF ATMOSPHERE

Atmosphere is the various gases that encircle the earth. The gases contained in the atmosphere include
nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, neon, etc., The below table shows the composition of gases
present in the atmosphere.

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Atmosphere contains water vapor, certain other fine materials like soot, dust of rock and soil, sores, pollens
and salt grains from sea water. The atmosphere is divided in to a number of concentric layers that extend
from sea level to outer space. Atmosphere is classified in to various types as shown below:

Based on chemical composition atmosphere is divided in to two.

1. Homosphere
Homosphere Extends to a distance of about 88Km from the surface of earth. It consists of
gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide. This layer is homogeneous in
composition.
2. Heterosphere
The atmosphere lies above homosphere is heterosphere. The air composition is not
uniform. The lower most layer have the heaviest molecules and upper layer has the lightest
elements. Based on the gases present, heterosphere is further divided to four.

a. Molecular Nitrogen Layer(88Km-200Km)

b. Oxygen Layer (200Km-1125Km)
c. Helium Layer (1125Km-3540Km)
d. Hydrogen Layer (3540Km-9660Km)

Based on the temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four parts.

1. Troposphere
The bottom dense part, containing 70 percent of the mass, close to the ground is troposphere. It
reaches up to 11 km from the ground. Clouds, storms, fog and haze are found only in troposphere.
The temperature in this layer decreases at about -6.4°C/km with height. This decrease of
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 temperature with altitude is called lapse rate. The boarder of troposphere is called Tropopause.
Tropopause acts like a lid over troposphere. Temperature stops decreasing with height from
tropopause.

2. Stratosphere
Stratosphere is a clear layer above troposphere that extends to a height of about 50 km from earth’s
surface. This layer does not have clouds, storms or dust. Clouds are not formed since water vapors
are absent in these regions. Ozonosphere is an important layer found within stratosphere. Ozone
layer is found in this layer. Ozone absorbs and prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations from
reaching earth, thereby protect the life on earth. The maximum concentration of ozone occurs at
22 km from the ground level. Above the stratosphere, there is a small layer called stratopause
where temperature neither increases nor decreases with height.

3. Mesosphere
The portion of the atmosphere above stratosphere, between 50 km and 80 km is known as
mesosphere. It starts from the edge of Stratopause. Though the temperature in mesosphere near
stratosphere is higher by about 10°, it falls to -75°C at 80 km. The density of air at this height is
about 1/1000 as that of sea level. Mesosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication as
ionisation occurs here. The sunlight passing through this layer converts individual molecules to
charged ions. These ionised particles are concentrated as a zone in this layer, which is named D-
layer. The D-layer reflects radio waves transmitted from earth. Just above the mesosphere is a
small layer called Mesopause, where temperature is stable.

4. Thermosphere
Thermosphere extends from 80 km to about 60,000 km from earth. Here the temperature increases
to about 2000°C. The property of thermosphere is radically different from the others. Ions are
abundant in thermosphere. In thermosphere that most of the approaching meteoroids burn up
before reaching earth.

5. Exosphere
The region beyond thermosphere is called exosphere. It consists of only hydrogen and helium
atoms. This region has very high temperature due to solar radiation.

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Base on the chemical reaction atmosphere is classifies in to two.

1. Chemosphere
A region of the upper atmosphere between altitudes of 40 and 80 km in which chemical processes driven
by sunlight are significant. The chemosphere overlaps the upper stratosphere and the mesosphere

2.Ozonosphere
In this region intense chemical reaction takes place with the help of oxygen. Ozone layer is present in this
region.

OZONE LAYER

Ozonosphere is an important layer found within stratosphere. Ozone is found in this layer. Ozone absorbs
and prevents the harmful ultraviolet radiations from reaching earth, thereby protecting life. Without Ozone
layer, life would not have been possible on earth. The maximum concentration of ozone occurs at 22 km
from the ground level.

Depletion of ozone layer

Due to human activities ozone layer is becoming thin. The thinning of this layer is called ozone depletion.
The ozone layer is located in the lower part of the stratosphere between 15 km and 35 km. Concentration
of ozone is the maximum at about 25-30 km. The level of ozone is maintained at this level by Ozone-
Oxygen Cycle. When ultra-violet radiation that spread out from the sun strikes the oxygen molecule, it
splits the molecule into two individual oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms, thus produced, combines with
Oxygen (𝑂2 ) molecule and produce ozone molecule (𝑂3). This reaction is aided by either Nitrogen or
Oxygen, which absorbs the excess energy that is liberated. Ozone thus formed will be split by ultra-violet
rays into a molecule of oxygen and an atom of oxygen (O). It is through this repeated circular ozone and
oxygen formation that the concentration of ozone is maintained in the stratosphere. The concentration of
ozone in the atmosphere is determined by the rate of its formation and destruction in the above manner.
Due to severe depletion of ozone in the atmosphere ’ozone holes’ are created. Ozone holes, which were
discovered in 1985, are overhead areas having less than 220 Dobson Units (DU). The chemistry of ozone
depletion by CFCS, BFCS and Nitric oxides are now discussed.

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Depletion by CFCs and BFCs

CFCS and BFCS are stable compounds in the atmosphere that have the property of living longer (50 to
100 years). Due to their long life, they rise up to the stratosphere. Through the action of UV radiation from
the Sun on these compounds, Chlorine (Cl) and Bromine (Br) radicals are released. These radicals act as
catalysts, and initiate breaking down of ozone molecules. It is estimated that a single such radical of either
Cl or Br is capable of breaking down over a lakh of ozone molecules. Due action, Ozone concentration is
decreasing at a drastic rate of four percent per decade. As a result of the inherent long life of CFCs and
BFCs, they continue to deplete ozone layer in a recurrent manner.

Depletion by Nitric Oxide

One molecule of nitric oxide (NO) combines with ozone; it gets oxidised to nitrogen dioxide and Oxygen.
This NO2 combines with another O3 molecule to become NO3 (Nitrate) and O2. The NO2 and NO3 then
combine to form N2O5 (Dinitrogen pentoxide). Even the atomic oxygen(O) readily combines with NO2
to yield NO3. Due to this series of actions and reactions, ozone is completely utilised, and thereby
depleted. Large quantities of nitrogen are emitted by aircrafts that community decided to withdraw the
operation of jet aircrafts that emit oxides of nitrogen. This step has also helped in reducing the depletion
of ozone to a very large extent near stratosphere.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Certain physical processes that take place in the troposphere are responsible for the weather and climate
of that particular place. To understand clearly about the process of greenhouse effect, it is needed to know
about Incoming solar radiation and the outgoing radiation.

Incoming Solar Radiation

Atmosphere behaves like a complex mega heat engine. A large number of processes like air movements
(storms and cyclones), evaporation and formation of clouds, precipitation, etc. take place in the
atmosphere. Only two in a billionth of the solar energy reaches Earth, of which only a small portion is
responsible for the physical and biological processes. Solar radiation contains X-rays, gamma rays,

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ultraviolet (UV) rays, visible light, infrared rays, microwaves, radio waves etc. Of all the energy received
by earth: UV, visible and infrared portions constitute over 95 per cent. The harmful UV radiation is
prevented from reaching earth by the ozone layer. The solar radiation which ultimately reaches the earth
comprises mainly of visible light, which is composed of seven colours. While travelling through the
atmosphere, a portion of the radiation energy is reflected by clouds, and some are scattered and absorbed
by gases and particles. The scattered radiation that reaches earth is called diffuse radiation. Only a small
quantity of the scattered radiation (22 per cent) reaches earth’s surface.

Outgoing Solar radiation

If the entire energy that is received from sun retained in its earth’s surface, the planet would be very hot
and would become an inhabitable place. The earth, after heating up of its surface, reflects a certain amount
of energy. Some of this heat energy is transmitted to the upper layers of air through conduction. The heat
energy so emitted from the earth’s surface is in the form of long wave radiation, and is called outgoing
radiation. While a portion of the outgoing radiation is absorbed by certain gases in the atmosphere and
retained as heat energy and the remaining energy escapes into the outer space. Gases capable of absorbing
outgoing radiation are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, etc. They are called Green House
Gases (GHG). Due to the effect of Greenhouse gases, Earth is prevented from cooling down drastically.
GHGS thus act like a blanket and provide earth with an ideal climate for life to flourish. This known as
Greenhouse effect. The intensity of Greenhouse effect varies from place to place depending upon the
concentration of GHGS. For instance, the quantity of vapour-and carbon dioxide is less in dry places like
deserts. The usage of carbon dioxide and the release of oxygen is high in places were like forests where
trees are in abundance.

WEATHER

When radiation from insolation strikes earth, its top layer gets heated. The heat energy so created through
the interplay of insolation and outgoing radiation is transferred to the overlying atmosphere through
activities like conduction and convection. Due to this, as well as the movement of earth, air moves in all
directions-both horizontally and vertically. This movement of air is the basis of weather. Weather is the
atmospheric conditions that exist for a short duration which can span over few hours to a number of days.
Weather conditions can fluctuate very often. The average weather or atmospheric conditions over a fairly
long period of time like months, years or even decades; in a particular area is called climate.

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TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the index of heat that is sensible. It indicates the kinetic energy of molecules, or the speed
at which the molecules move. While in air and water, molecules keep on moving and change their location
very often and in solids the molecules involve in a vibration movement and not moving. The speed at
which this vibration takes place is described as temperature. A body having higher temperature has the
property of transmitting it to another one having lower temperature. Temperature is measured using
thermometer, and is reported in either Celsius, Kelvin or Fahrenheit scales. The earth’s temperature varies
in an altitudinal and horizontal manner in the troposphere

Altitudinal Variation

In the troposphere, temperature decreases with height. It decreases at a rate of -6.4°C/km. This rate at
which temperature decreases with height is called lapse rate. The lapse rate is not uniform and it varies
due to different conditions like pollution in the atmosphere.

Horizontal Temperature Variation

Temperature varies at different times of the day at different locations due to various reasons and factors.
It also varies at different months and seasons of the year. A few reasons for this variation are :

(a)The hour of the day:

More solar energy is received during the noon, when sun’s rays strike vertically overhead; than hours in
the morning hours, when the rays strike at angles.

(b)Insolation:

The phenomenon of day and night occurs as a result of the revolution and rotation of earth. Due to
revolution one half of the globe is exposed to sunlight and the other half is in darkness. The temperature
of any given area is based on the insolation of that area. The length of daylight and the angle at which the
rays fall on earth also determine the amount of insolation and the temperature of that particular area.

(c) Distance from the Equator:

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The sun rays strike in perpendicular manner on the equator. Near to the poles it strikes at an angle. Due to
this, areas farther away from equator will experience lesser temperature as compared to the areas near the
equator.

(d) The tilt of the axis:

The earth’s axis is tilted at angle of 66½ degrees to the plane of the ecliptic. This tilt is maintained
throughout its orbit. This tilting of the axis leads to seasonal variations. Due to this, the months closer to
June are summer months in this hemisphere. During this period, the northern hemisphere receives greater
amount of solar energy, and hence, higher temperature. Places near to the equator receive more solar
energy resulting in higher temperature.

(e) Distance from the Equator:

The heating of earth’s surface differs according to the type of the surface in an area. For instance, rocky
surfaces get heated rapidly, while water takes considerably long time to get heated up. In the same way,
rocky surfaces loose heat rapidly as against water which loose heat slowly. In any given place, different
types of surfaces exist. Hence, there will be a mixture of heating and cooling properties.

CYCLONES

The atmospheric pressure in a given area has an important role to play with respect to the formation of a
cyclone. When a flow of air moves along curved isobars which is a net centripetal acceleration pulls it
toward the centre of a curvature, making the air to rotate. Such wind (called gradient wind) is called
cyclone. If the movement of the gradient wind is in the anticlockwise direction in the northern hemisphere.
It is called cyclone and anticyclone in southern hemisphere.

During a cyclone, the surface air moves towards the centre having low pressure and hence converges. The
converged air has the property of ascending in the centre within the low-pressure area. The reverse
happens in a high-pressure area. Air tends to sink in the centre of a high-pressure area during anticyclones.

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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS

When Earth rotates on its axis, the rotation causes the deflection in the wind flow due to Coriolis force.
Coriolis force is a force which is produced due to the rotation of the earth. In addition to this, a low-
pressure belt is formed over the tropical regions, since the equatorial region is heated throughout the year.
This belt is called the Inter-Tropical Convergent Zone (ITCZ). This zone is also known as doldrums.
This is not a conspicuous belt, but a discontinuous one that fluctuates in its position and intensity. Even
with disruptions like weather fronts and storms, there is a consistent pattern to how air moves around our
planet’s atmosphere. This pattern, called atmospheric circulation.

This is caused because the Sun heats the Earth more at the equator than at the poles. It’s also affected by
the spin of the Earth. In the tropics, near the equator, warm air rises. When it gets about 10-15 km (6-9
miles) above the Earth surface it starts to flow away from the equator and towards the poles. Air that rose
just north of the equator flows north. Air that rose just south of the equator flows south. When the air
cools, it drops back to the ground, flows back towards the Equator, and warm again. Now the warmed air
rises again, and the pattern repeats. This pattern, known as convection, happens on a global scale. It also
happens on a small scale within individual storms.

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The Indian Monsoon

Monsoon is a regional wind that blows towards land at a certain season and blow from the landmasses
during other season. These wind blows in the opposite direction in summer and winter. Though monsoon
winds blow over all parts of the world, it is well-developed over India and the South-east Asian regions.
The Indian subcontinent has two types of winds.

1. South-West Monsoon
2. North-East Monsoon

South-West Monsoon

The south-east trade winds originate from the southern hemisphere in the Indian Ocean. When these winds
cross the equator, they get deflected towards the right by the Coriolis force, becoming the south-west trade
winds. These winds gather large quantities of moisture as they pass over the Indian Ocean.

As the SW monsoon winds approaches the Indian Peninsula, they are diverted into two-the Arabian Sea
Branch and the Bay of Bengal Branch. When the moisture laden Arabian Sea branch reaches the south-
western side of India, they are blocked by the Western Ghats. When the mountain range blocks the
horizontal flow, the wind ascends along the slope of the mountain range, gets cooled down and form
clouds. These clouds then result in precipitation. Kerala gets the south-west monsoon mostly during early
June every year. These winds then take a west turn and continue their journey, and spread over the northern
parts of India bringing in rains to these areas. Monsoon winds normally reach Delhi in the first week of
July and could last till end September/early October.

North-East Monsoon

Since North-East winds originate mainly from the land masses of the north-east region of India, they are
relatively dry. When these winds pass over the Bay Bengal towards south, they gather moisture and cause
rainfalls over parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Cyclone formation is common over Bay
of Bengal during the north-east monsoon season. The cyclones also bring in abundant rainfall over Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Tamil Nadu.

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HYDROSPHERE

Hydrosphere forms over 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. In terms of area, it comes to 3,62,000 km2.
Water is found in the oceans as well as on land. Life is made possible on earth due to the availability of
water. The hydrosphere has a direct influence on weather and climate conditions on Earth. This occurs
due to the important role played by the worldwide oceanic circulations. The average depth of oceans is
around 3.7 km. The floor of the oceans has mountain ranges and valleys, isolated volcanic peaks, and vast
plains. Many of these mountain ranges and valleys exceed in size of their counterparts on land. As on date
less than 10 per cent of the ocean floor has been surveyed.

OCEANS

Water in oceans is saline in nature. This salinity occurs due to the dissolved materials (mainly salts)
contained in it. The mean salinity of sea water is around 34.7 g/kg. The lowest value being 33 and highest
being 36 g/kg. Though sea water contains a mixture of several dissociated salts, NaCl is the most important
one. Additional salts are always added to the oceans through various processes. However, seawater salinity
is stable due to various mechanisms that remove salt from the oceans. Salt is spread to the atmosphere
when wind blows sprays of sea water. The salt particles in the atmosphere enable water molecules to stick
to it, and this falls on the land with rain and snow.

a) Oceans as moderator of climate

Water in oceans is constantly in movement in regular patterns due to the activity of winds. These
movements of water in oceans are called ocean circulations or ocean currents. These currents arise due
to the interplay of wind and water. Oceans as Moderator of Climate Oceanic circulations have a profound
and significant influence in heating up the globe, and hence, its climate. When water moves up from the
colder and deeper parts of the ocean to the warmer surface, the heat is carried with it. Due to the interplay
of various factors, the ocean water moves around the globe, and with it the heat or cold is transferred.
This heat transfer plays a major role in impacting earth’s climate. When extremes of incidents, like rainfall
or droughts occur, the normal path of the ocean current can be disturbed and climate change could occur.

b) Oceans as Heat Reservoir

Oceans play a role of a heat reservoir, moderating extreme temperatures. The water in the upper portion
of oceans store higher heat than in the entire atmosphere. During spring and summer seasons, the oceans
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are cooler than the nearby lands. During winters oceans are warmer than the land masses. Due to this
temperature difference in sea and land, there is heat energy transfer from land to water and vice-versa.

c) Oceans as Carbon Reservoir

The oceans are the largest carbon reservoirs of earth. Periodically it gives off large amounts of carbon into
the atmosphere. Through certain biological and chemical exchange processes it plays an important role in
carbon cycle.

d) Oceans and Sea Ice

The sea ice plays an important element in the Earth’s climate system, The polar ice extends between 17
and 27 million km2, depending on the seasons. It covers around one-tenth of the land area and 6.5 per cent
of the oceans. Of the total ice, about 90 per cent is located in the Antarctic as ice shelf. nine per cent in
the Greenland ice sheet and the balance in the various glaciers around the world. It is estimated that if all
the ice in Greenland and Antarctica is to suddenly melt, the sea would rise to an approximate height of 70
m.

WATER ON LAND

Fresh water constitutes the basis for life on land. On land, water is found in all the three states. In liquid
form. the water is found in lakes, rivers and streams and also as ground water and soil moisture. The water
found in these sources is fresh in nature. In solid form water is found as glacial ice, ice caps and ground
ice. The fresh water in earth is perpetually being interchanged between the surface of the earth and
atmosphere by a process of evaporation and precipitation. This interchange is known as water cycle or
hydrological cycle. In the hydrological cycle, solar energy causes water from the oceans to evaporate and
change to atmosphere vapour. Evaporation also takes place from inland water bodies like lakes, rivers,
streams, etc. The evaporated water rises to the upper layers of the atmosphere, where it is cooled and
condensed. The condensed water falls back to the earth as precipitated form. Rain, snow and dew are
different forms of precipitation. The water that falls on the earth runs along the ground and flows into
rivers and in turn returns to the sea. A part of the rainwater that falls on the land drip into the ground is
known as ground water. The ground water is used by human beings and plants.

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BIOSPHERE

Biosphere is an important realm of Earth. The totality of life on earth and its interdependency on abiotic
environmental factors. Biosphere consists of the complex interdependency between biotic and abiotic
environmental components. Basically, biosphere is a thin envelop that encircles most of the earth, and
supports life. It is the global sphere in which the biota interacts with lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. It is totally dependent on, and involves complex interactions between the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Biosphere is the spherical terrestrial layer that comprises of the lower part
of the atmosphere. the seas and the upper layers of the soil wherein living organisms exist naturally. All
forms or life including human beings’ dwell in biosphere. The health of the biosphere is determined by
the availability of oxygen, moisture, temperature, air pressure and soil.

COMPONENTS OF BIOSPHERE

Biosphere is a giant ecosystem that consists of two major ecosystems:

(a) Terrestrial ecosystem

(b) Aquatic ecosystem

a) Terrestrial ecosystem

The terrestrial ecosystem consists of plants, animals, microorganisms their dependencies and
interdependencies with the non-living items around it on the land. A terrestrial ecosystem is made up of
either natural ecosystem or artificial/man-made ecosystem.

b) Aquatic ecosystem

Aquatic ecosystem consists of marine and fresh water ecosystem. While seas and oceans form the
marine ecosystem; the rivers, pond, lakes, and wetlands form fresh water ecosystem. Aquatic ecosystems
provide human beings with a wide range of services. Some of the services include the availability of water
for day to day uses, foods like fish and crustaceans, breaking down: of chemical and organic wastes,
recreation, etc. The aquatic ecosystem provides the human beings with a wealth of natural resources.

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DISASTER MANAGEMENT

A sudden occurrence of an accident that causes huge loss of life and property is called as a disaster. It is
also called as a calamity. Disaster is an event or series of events, which gives rise to casualties & damage
or loss of properties, infrastructures, environment, essential services or means of livelihood on such a scale
which is beyond the normal capacity of the affected community to cope with.

Disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability & insufficient capacity or measures to
reduce the potential chances of risk. A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the vulnerable
population and causes damage, casualties and disruption. For e.g.: earthquake in an uninhabited desert
cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how strong the intensities produced. An earthquake is disastrous
only when it affects people, their properties & activities. Thus, disaster occurs only when hazards and
vulnerability meet.

Types of Disasters

a) Natural Disaster
A disaster caused by natural factor is called as a natural disaster.
E.g.: Earthquake, flood, cyclone etc.

b) Man-made disaster
A disaster caused due to the human activities.
E.g.: Wars, fire accidents, industrial accidents etc.

HAZARD

A hazard can be defined as a potentially damaging physical event, social and economic disruption or
environmental degradation. Typical examples of hazards can be absence of rain (leading to drought) or
the abundance thereof (leading to floods). Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements and incorrect
agricultural techniques, can also been seen as hazards which could lead to possible disasters. Hazards can
be the creation of man or the environment.

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Natural hazards

Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural phenomena (hazards with meteorological,
geological or even biological origin). Examples of natural hazards are cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and
volcanic eruption which are exclusively of natural origin.
Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio‐natural hazards since their causes are both natural and
manmade.

Manmade hazards

Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human negligence. Manmade hazards are associated with
industries or energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam
failure, wars or civil strife etc.

EXPOSURE

Exposure refers to people, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that are thereby
subject to potential losses. Vulnerability: Vulnerability refers to the characteristics and circumstances of
a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard. There are many
aspects of vulnerability, arising from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors.
Examples may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of
public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures.

RISK

There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors. Examples may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate
protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and
preparedness measures.

Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a specific
time period. Risk is a function of the probability of particular hazardous event and the losses each would
cause.”

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The level of risk depends upon:
▪ Nature of the hazard
▪Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
▪Economic value of those elements

A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards and is likely to be adversely

affected by its impact. Risk can be calculated using the following equation.

Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree of Vulnerability.

There are different ways of dealing with risk, such as:

a) Risk Acceptance means an informed decision to accept the possible consequences and likelihood
of a particular risk.
b) Risk Avoidance is an informed decision to avoid involvement in activities leading to risk
realization.
c) Risk Reduction refers to the application of appropriate techniques to reduce the likelihood of risk
occurrence and its consequences.
d) Risk Transfer involves shifting of the burden of risk to another party. One of the most common
forms of risk transfer is Insurance.

Risk Assessment

A risk assessment is a process to identify potential hazards and analyze what could happen if a hazard
occurs. Disaster risk assessments include: the identification of hazards; a review of the technical
characteristics of hazards such as their location, intensity, frequency and probability; the analysis of
exposure and vulnerability, including the physical, social, health, environmental and economic
dimensions; and the evaluation of the effectiveness of prevailing and alternative coping capacities with
respect to likely risk scenarios.

Risk Mapping

Risk mapping is a process of analyzing the hazard, vulnerability and capacity through a scientific
methodology. The process of risk map preparation includes analysis of several variables and parameters
which are sub-sets of base categories; hazard, vulnerability and capacity. Hence, preparation of multi

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hazard risk map is a combination of all risk elements on several hazards. This process is important in risk
map preparation and obviously in disaster management field for appropriate implementation of disaster
risk reduction activities.

Elements at risk during/after disaster are:

• People
• Livestock
• Rural housing stock
• Houses
• Crops, trees, telephone, electric poles
• Boats, looms, working implements
• Personal property
• Electricity, water and food supplies
• Infrastructure support

Disaster Risk Reduction

Disaster risk reduction involves structural and non-structural measures. Structural measures include the
use of physical or engineering solutions (such as ocean wave barriers or earthquake resistant buildings) to
avoid disaster or reduce its impacts. Non-structural measures involve the use of policies, laws, education
and awareness creation, and practices to avoid or reduce the impacts of disaster.

CAPACITY

Capacity refers to all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a community, organization or
society to manage and reduce disaster risks and strengthen resilience. It is important to emphasize people’s
capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from disasters, rather than simply focusing on the
vulnerability that limits them. The classifications are:
a) Physical Capacity
People whose houses have been destroyed by the cyclone or crops have been destroyed by the
flood can salvage things from their homes and from their farms. Some family members have skills,
which enable them to find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or permanently.

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 b) Socio‐economic Capacity
Rich people have the capacity to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they are seldom hit
by disasters because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with stronger materials.
However, even when everything is destroyed, they have the capacity to cope up with it.
Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes a disaster only when there is greater vulnerability
and less of capacity to cope with it. In other words the frequency or likelihood of a hazard and the
vulnerability of the community increases the risk of being severely affected.

MITIGATION

Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the vulnerable conditions
to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster. Therefore, mitigation activities can be focused on the
hazard itself or the elements exposed to the threat. Examples of mitigation measures which are hazard
specific include water management in drought prone areas, relocating people away from the hazard prone
areas and by strengthening structures to reduce damage when a hazard occurs. In addition to these physical
measures, mitigation should also aim at reducing the economic and social vulnerabilities of potential
disasters.

a) Structural mitigation: Dams, windbreaks, terracing, hazard resistant buildings.

b) Non-structural mitigation: Education programs and policies, e.g., land-use, zoning, crop
diversification, building codes, forecasting and warning.

DISASTER RESILIENCE

Disaster resilience is the ability of individuals, communities, organisations and states to adapt to and
recover from hazards, shocks or stresses without compromising long-term prospects for development.
Disaster resilience is determined by the degree to which individuals, communities and public and private
organisations are capable of organizing themselves to learn from past disasters and reduce their risks to
future ones, at international, regional, national and local levels.

The core elements of disaster resilience are as follows:

a) Context: It deals with whose resilience is being built such as a social group, socio-economic or
political system, environmental context or institution.
b) Disturbance: These disturbances take two forms Stresses and Shocks.

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 c) Capacity To Respond: The ability of a system or process to deal with a shock or stress depends on
sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Sensitivity is the degree to which a system will be affected by,
or will respond to, a given shock or stress. This can vary considerably for different factors within
a system. For example, women accounted for up to 80% of those who died during the 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, and death rates among women were almost four times higher than those among
men in the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone. Limited mobility, skills set and social status exacerbated
sensitivity to the shock. Adaptive capacity means how well the system can adjust to a disturbance
or moderate damage, take advantage of opportunities and cope with the consequences of a
transformation.
d) Reaction: A range of responses are possible, including: bounce back better, where capacities are
enhanced, exposures are reduced, and the system is more able to deal with future shocks and
stresses; bounce back, where pre‐existing conditions prevail; or recover, but worse than before,
meaning capacities are reduced. In the worst‐case scenario, the system collapses, leading to a
catastrophic reduction in capacity to cope with the future.

Shocks

Shocks are sudden events that impact on the vulnerability of the system and its components. There are
many different types of disaster-related shocks that can strike at different levels. These include disease
outbreaks, weather-related and geophysical events including floods, high winds, landslides, droughts or
earthquakes. There can also be conflict-related shock such as outbreaks of fighting or violence, or shocks
related to economic volatility.

Stresses

Stresses are long-term trends that undermine the potential of a given system or process and increase the
vulnerability. These can include natural resource degradation, loss of agricultural production,
urbanisation, demographic changes, climate change, political instability and economic decline.

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EARLY WARNING SYSTEM (EWS)

EWS is a socio-technical system designed to generate and circulate meaningful warning information in a
timely manner to enable a target system take a proactive response to a hazardous threat in order to avoid
disaster or reduce its impacts. The term ‘socio-technical’ because an early warning system comprises all
the steps from detection of the threat, through communication to target community or people, to the ability
of the target to understand and respond appropriately to the warning.

Disaster Preparedness

It consists of the knowledge and capacities of institutions, communities and individuals to effectively
anticipate, respond to, and recover from the impacts of likely, imminent or active hazard events or
conditions. Disaster Prevention: Disaster Prevention is the elimination or reduction of the likelihood of
occurrence of natural hazard event, or their adverse impacts. Examples of disaster prevention actions
include flood protection embankments. Disaster Mitigation: It refers to a set of measures to reduce or
neutralise the impact of natural hazards by reducing social, functional, or physical vulnerability.

Disaster Response

Disaster response (relief) is the provision of assistance or intervention through the emergency services
during or immediately after a crisis in order to save lives, reduce further impacts on health and public
safety and to meet the basic subsistence needs of affected populations.

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Damage Assessment is the process for determining the nature and extent of the loss, suffering, and/or
harm to the community resulting from a natural, accidental or human-caused disaster. Damages are
normally classified as:

a) Severe: The target facility or object cannot be used for its intended purpose. Complete
reconstruction is required.
b) Moderate: The target facility or object cannot be used effectively for its intended purpose unless
major repairs are made.

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 c) Light: The target facility or object can be used for intended purpose but minor repairs would be
necessary.

EMERGENCY

Emergency is a disruption of the functioning of society, causing human, material or environmental

damages and losses which do not exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using only its own
resources. Emergency is a situation in which normal operations cannot continue and immediate action is
required so as to prevent a disaster. Example – forest fire, oil spills, road accidents, outbreak of epidemics
etc.

When an emergency or a disaster affect a city or a region, efforts are conducted initially to care for the
wounded, to restore lifelines and basic services, and subsequently to restore livelihoods and to reconstruct
communities. Such efforts can be structured in three phases:
(i) Response phase: where activities such as search & rescue, rapid damage and needs
assessments, and the provision of first aid are conducted; followed by the opening and
management of temporary shelters for those left homeless as well as the provision of
humanitarian assistance to those affected.
(ii) Rehabilitation phase: where basic services and lifelines are restored, even on a temporary
basis, including the road network and other essential facilities including bridges, airports, ports
and helicopter landing sites.
(iii) Recovery phase: where reconstruction efforts are carried out on the basis of a more precise
assessment of damage and destruction of infrastructure. In addition, efforts are conducted to
reconstruct infrastructure when needed and to restore the livelihoods of those affected.

CRISIS COUNSELLING

Crisis counselling is the process of alleviating the emotional and psychological disturbances of persons
affected by disaster in order to restore a sense of control and mastery and to aid the process of recovery
and reconstruction. Normally, disasters overwhelm the physical and psychological capacity of people to
cope. This can lead to emotional and psychological disturbances which can affect a person’s ability to
make right decisions or adopt reasonable responsive actions. Crisis counselling addresses these problems
and is a crucial part of recovery and reconstruction.

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NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Needs assessment is a process of estimating the financial, technical, and human resources needed to
implement the agreed-upon programmes of recovery, reconstruction, and risk management. Post-damage
needs assessment is normally a rapid, multi-sectoral assessment that measures the impact of disasters on
the society, economy, and environment of the disaster-affected areas.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programs and measures which can be taken
up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover
from its losses.

The steps involved in Disaster management Cycle

The different approaches involved are:

a) Before A Disaster (Pre-Disaster):
Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused by a potential hazard. E.g.: Carrying
out awareness campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of the disaster
management plans at household and community level etc. Such risk reduction measures taken
under this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.
b) During A Disaster (Disaster Occurrence):
Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and suffering is
minimized. Activities taken in this stage are called emergency response activities.

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 c) After A Disaster (Post-Disaster):
Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and
rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as
response and recovery activities.

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