COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE I HANDOUT

Module Introduction
The course covers: General introduction on history of the development of concrete, Mechanical behaviors
of concrete and reinforcing steel, Design of beams and one-way solid slabs in the ultimate limit states and
checking the satisfaction of serviceability limit states requirements according to the Ethiopian Standards,
Structural detailing of beams and one way solid slabs.
Course Objectives
After Successful completion of this course, students will be able to
 Know the mechanical properties of concrete and reinforcing steel,
 Know the different limit states in reinforced concrete structures and the application of the basic
limit-states design equation according to Ethiopian Building Code Standards,
 Be able to carry out the structural design of singly reinforced beams, one way slabs and doubly
reinforced beams in the ultimate limit state,
 Be able to carry out the structural design of reinforced concrete beams for shear in the ultimate
limit state
 Be able to carry out the structural design for anchorage,
 Be able to check the serviceability limit state of excessive crack width and deflections in beams
and one-way solid slabs,
 Be able to design structural elements subjected to flexure and shear

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Course Outline
Chapter 1. Introduction to reinforced concrete
 Introduction
 Plain and reinforced concrete
 Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete for structures
 The design processes
 Design philosophies
 Materials
 Ethiopian standard‘s recommendation for limit state design

Chapter 2. Limit state design for flexure

 Introduction
 Distribution of stress and strains in RC sections subjected to flexure
 Ultimate Limit State for flexure
 Types of flexural
 Analysis and design of beams and one-way slabs for flexure

Chapter 3. Limit state design for shear

 Introduction
 Diagonal tension in homogeneous elastic beams
 Behavior of beams falling in shear
 Factors affecting the shear strength of beams without web reinforcement
 Truss model for beams falling in shear
 Design of beams for vertical shear according to Ethiopian standards
 Development, Anchorage and splicing of reinforcement

Chapter 4. Serviceability limit state

 Introduction
 Elastic Analysis of Beam Sections
 Serviceability Limit States of Cracking
 Serviceability Limit States of Deflection

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Assessment/Evaluation
Continuous Assessment (50%)
 Tests and Quizzes.……………………..20%
 Mini Project and presentation.…………20%
 Assignments/Home Assignment……..….10%
Final Exam……………………………………….50%
Attendance Requirements: Minimum 80%
References
1. Robert Park and Thomas Paulay, Reinforced Concrete Structure, Reprint: 2010
2. Gurcharan Singh and Jagdish Singh, Theory and Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, 6th Edition, 2009
3. Er.H. Mehra and Prof. V.N. Vazirani, Limit State of Reinforced Concrete Structures, 2nd Edition, 2004
4. Arthur H Nelson, Design of concrete structures, McGraw-Hill, 14th Edition, 2010
5. James MacGregor Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, 5th Edition.
6. W.H. Mosley, R. Hulse, J.H Bungey, Reinforced Concrete Design, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007 Jack C.
McCormac, Design of Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 2005

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 CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction
Concrete is a conglomerate, artificial stone like material obtained by hardening and curing a mixture of
mainly cement, water and aggregates and sometimes admixtures.
Plain concrete, a heterogeneous construction material, is weak in resisting tension in any form, but strong
in resisting compressive load.
The expected or required strength of concrete can easily be achieved by altering the proportions of the
ingredients and/or by changing the ingredients with different properties.
The strength properties of concrete can be improved by adding chemical admixtures or any other
additives.
Concrete has excellent formability, high fire and weather resistance, and high compressive strength.
On the other hand it is a relatively brittle material with less tensile strength which prevents its economical
use in structural members that are subjected bending, shear and tension.
To produce a concrete member which has to resist tensile loads by developing bending tensile stresses,
reinforcing steel rods (rebar) are used. Such a material is called as reinforced concrete.
A reinforced concrete is a composite material where concrete and steel act together to bear the loads
acting on it.
Apart from tensile stresses, steel can be wisely used to resist other stresses like shear, torsion and also a
part of compressive stresses where necessary by forming a pattern of skeleton.
Thus the skeleton of reinforcement confines the brittle concrete and imparts to some extent ductility.
The earthquake resistant design of reinforced concrete structures is focused to avoid brittle failure of
concrete by making the reinforced concrete sufficiently ductile.
If the reinforcement and concrete has to resist stresses to their full efficiency, a technique called pre-
stressing can be done.
The art of proportioning the concrete is called concrete mix design. The art of deciding the size, shape
and quantity of steel to be provided in reinforced concrete structural component and the fashion how to
detail the rebar to bring out a skeleton of reinforcements is called the reinforced concrete structural
design. The major aim of structural design is to produce design for a safe, serviceable and durable
structure. The process of structural design requires conceptual thinking, sound knowledge of engineering,
imagination, knowledge of relevant design codes and bye-laws backed up by experience and judgment.
The process of structural design involves the following stages:
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1. Structural planning and configuration
2. Action of loads, their classification and combinations
3. Analysis for the stress resultants
4. Design of components
5. Drawing, detailing and preparation of schedules

1.2 Behavior of plain concrete/reinforced concrete under loads

1.2.1 Behavior under compressive load:

The compressive stress behavior of plain concrete is studied by testing cube specimens of 150 mm sides
or cylinder specimens of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm depth in compression testing machine.
The compressive strength of concrete is defined as the load, at which the standard specimen fails when
subjected to uni-axial compression under a specified rate of loading, divided by the area of load
application.
Experiments have shown that the stress-strain relationship of concrete under direct compression is non-
linear. Mainly, it is a function of grade of concrete. Figure below shows typical stress-strain curve
obtained from cubes of different strengths loaded in uni-axial compression.

25

Stress 20
N/mm2
10

0.002 Strain

Figure 1.1 Stress strain relationship of concrete under compression

From the stress-strain curves the following important points should be noted.
1. The maximum compressive stress occurs approximately at a strain of 0.002.
2. The value of failure strain of low grade concrete is more than that of high grade concrete.
3. Ultimate or failure strain varies between 0.003 and 0.005.
4. The variation is almost linear up to half of the maximum strength.

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 5. There is no fixed ratio of stress/strain to define modulus of elasticity E of concrete and this is
usually taken as secant modulus.

1.2.2 Tensile strength of concrete

The tensile strength of plain concrete can be determined indirectly by split tensile test.
The test method consists of applying a diametrical compressive force along the length of the
cylindrical concrete specimen of 150 mm diameter and 300 mm length at a prescribed rate of loading
till failure occurs.
This load induces tensile stresses on the plane containing the applied load relatively high compressive
stresses in the area immediately around the applied load. Tensile failure occurs rather than
compressive failure because the areas of load application are in the state of triaxial compression,
thereby allowing them to withstand much compressive stresses than would be indicated by uniaxial
compressive strength test results.
Thin plywood bearing strips are used so that the load is applied uniformly along the length of the
cylinder. The maximum load sustained by the specimen is divided by appropriate geometrical factors
to obtain the splitting tensile strength of concrete. Generally, the tensile strength of concrete is
between 1/8th and 1/12th of cube compressive stress.

Figure 1.2 Split test

The splitting tensile strength of concrete is calculated as T = 2P/πLD.

Where, T = Split tensile strength in MPa or kN/sq.m
P = Maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine in N or kN
L = Length of the specimen in mm or m.
D = Diameter of the specimen in mm or m.
Tensile strength of concrete can also be determined by flexural test.

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Flexural test specimens can be prepared to specified sizes, tested by supporting simply at the ends by
applying load either at the mid span or at third points as per the specification.
The modulus of rupture (maximum tensile stress) fcr can be determined by the flexure formula,
fcr = M/Z =6M/bh2 (1.1)
where M = the maximum bending moment and
Z = the section modulus,
b= width of specimen and h=overall depth of specimen.
In flexure test a plain concrete beam, generally 150mm*150mm*750mm long is loaded in
flexure at the third points of a 600mm span until it fails due to cracking on the tension face
as shown in figure. It can be estimated by,
fr=M/Z=6M/bh2, flexure test

Figure 1.3. Flexure test.

Figure 1.4 Failure mode of plain concrete.

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1.3 Modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio:
Since concrete is an inelastic material the modulus of elasticity which is the ratio of stress to strain with
in the elastic limit, cannot be determined uniquely. If the tangent to the curve is drawn at the origin, the
slope of this line is known as initial tangent modulus and corresponds to elastic deformation. As the
stress-strain relationship of concrete is not a straight line, this modulus is of not much importance.
The slope of the tangent at any point is called tangent modulus, which gives the rate of change of stress
with strain at that point. In practice it is of interest to know the stress corresponding to strain at a point or
the ratio of stress upon strain at a point. To obtain this ratio for the use in design, a straight line is drawn
from the origin to the desired point on the stress-strain curve. The slope of this line which is the ratio of
stress to strain at the point under consideration is called the secant modulus. The short term static modulus
of elasticity of concrete refers to secant modulus.

Figure 1.5. Stress-strain curve for concrete showing tangent modulus and secant modulus

Creep of concrete:
Creep is defined as plastic deformation under constant load or stress. Concrete under the action of
constant load or stress continues to deform with time.
This plastic deformation grows rapidly and reaches highest intensity in the first three to four months after
application of load and then continues to increase gradually approaching the limiting value in a period of
five years.
Since the creep increases at a faster rate in early stages, the erection of walls on newly formed concrete
should be prolonged otherwise cracks develop in walls after a period of 6 to 12 months.
The variation of creep deformation with time is schematically shown in figure below. It can be seen from
the figure that at any time when the load is removed the elastic recovery takes place immediately while

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part of creep deformation recovers at a slower rate leaving permanent deformation locked inside the
concrete material.

Figure 1.6. Creep property

Factors influencing creep:

(a) Magnitude of stress: Creep grows with the increase of stress level in concrete specimen.
(b) Age at loading: Loading at an earlier age causes high creep strain.
(c) Rate of loading: Creep increases with increase in the rate of loading.
(d) Humidity: Creep is reduced with increase in humidity or moisture content of the surrounding air.
(e) Composition of concrete: An increase in water-cement ratio and the amount of cement per unit
volume of concrete increases creep.
Shrinkage of concrete:
The property of diminishing in volume of concrete during the process of hardening is termed shrinkage.
The factors affecting shrinkage are:
(a) Environmental condition (humidity and temperature)
(b) Water-cement ratio
(c) Duration of exposure (not duration of loading)
(d) Percentage of steel
Greater the percentage of steel lesser is the shrinkage, because the reinforcement restrains the shrinkage.
The shrinkage is also a time dependent process.
For computational purpose it may be assumed that 50% of ultimate shrinkage occurs in the first one
month and the remaining 75% in six months from the commencement of drying.

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Creep and shrinkage occur simultaneously, and jointly influence the behavior or reinforced concrete
member. In limit state method, it is necessary to assess deformations due to creep and shrinkage from
serviceability considerations.

1.4 Behavior of reinforced concrete member under flexure:

A beam is a structural member carrying transverse load and/or moment contained in the centroidal plane,
cause bending moment and shear force along the span.
If a transverse vertical load is applied to a simply supported beam it would bend in such a way that the
layers or fibers above the neutral plane are subjected to compressive stresses and that below the neutral
plane, to tensile stresses as shown in the figure below.
In the design theories, it is assumed that the entire tensile stress developed in the tensile zone is resisted
by the reinforcements alone as the concrete is weak in tension.

Figure 1.7. Reinforced concrete beam supports loads with acceptably low deformations.

The internal forces set up within the beam comprises of total compressive force C and the total tensile
stress T acting at the centers of gravity of the stress block with a lever arm z.
Two equilibrium conditions must be satisfied at a section subjected to bending.
(1) Internal compressive force C = Internal tensile force
Since the internal compressive and tensile forces are equal and acting in opposite direction they constitute
a couple and the moment of the couple, called as moment of resistance, is the resistance set up by the
beam to counteract the external unbalanced moment (i.e., bending moment). Hence the required second
equilibrium condition to be satisfied is given by,
(2) Moment of internal couple = External bending moment.
Let ζc = Maximum compressive stress;
ζs = Maximum tensile stress
x = Depth of neutral axis from the top fiber.
Total compressive force C = Average stress x Area of cross section on which it acts
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 1
C  c b x
2
(1.2)
Similarly, total tensile force T   s  As , where As = Total area of cross section of steel rebars
Moment of resistance can be expressed as M = Cz = Tz (1.3)

Figure 1.8 Behavior of reinforced concrete member under flexure:

1.5 Reinforcing Steel

1.5.1 Behavior of steel under tension

The steel used in reinforced concrete structures are of different types such as plain round bars of circular
cross section, deformed bars or ribbed steel bars having spiral ribs in the surface of circular cross section,
thermo mechanically treated bars (TMT bars), and steel wire fabrics.
The round bars generally called as mild steel have lesser strength than the deformed bars and TMT bars.
The stress strain relationship for all the types of reinforcements are shown in the figure below.
It can be noted that the mild steel exhibits a definite yield point where as the other higher strength steels
show a smooth transition from elastic to plastic stages of stresses.
In high strength steels, the stress corresponding to a strain value of 0.002 is said to be the proof stress,
which is equivalent to the yield stress in case of mild steel.
Apart from single reinforcing bars, welded wire reinforcement also called as welded wire fabric is often
used for reinforcing slabs and other surfaces such as shells and for shear reinforcements in thin beam
webs particularly in prestressed beams.
Welded wire reinforcement consists of sets of longitudinal and transverse cold drawn steel wires at right
angles to each other and welded together at all points of intersection.
The size and spacing of wires may be the same in both directions or may be different, depending on the
requirements of the design.

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The size of wires used in the welded wire fabric may vary from 2 mm diameter to 6 to 7 mm diameter.
For prestressing the steel is used in three forms: round wires, stranded cable and alloy steel. Prestressing
steels have high yield strength more than 1000 N/mm2.
Strength of reinforcing steel: - Reinforcing steel is capable of resisting both tension and compression.
Compared with concrete, it is a high strength material. For instance, the strength of ordinary reinforcing steel
is about 10 & 100 times, the compressive & tensile strength of common structural concrete.
Typical stress-strain curves for mild-steel and high-yield (cold-worked) steel are shown in figures below.

Figure 1.9. Typical stress-strain curves for mild-steel and high-yield (cold-worked) steel

The strength of mild steel is taken as yield point or yield stress of steel whereas for high-yield steel is based
on specified proof stress of steel. 0.2% proof stress is specified in most codes to determine strength of high-
yield steel. A 0.2% offset is drawn parallel to the linear part of the stress-strain curve to determine 0.2% proof
stress.
The shape of the stress-strain curve is similar for all steel, and differs only in the value of strength of steel, the
modulus of elasticity, ES being for all practical purposes constant.

ES is taken as 200GPa. For a design of RC members, reinforcing steel up to grade of 550MPa can be used.

If steel with grade beyond 550MPa is used for RC member, the sections are under utilizing the reinforcement.
This is because the width of concrete crack is wide if the steel is fully stressed.

Why Only Steel as Reinforcing Material?

1. While setting, cement concrete shrinks a little and grips reinforcing bar perfectly;
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  To develop perfect bond between cement concrete and steel
 Enables concrete to transmit its stress to steel after it has cracked.
2. The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is almost the same as that of cement concrete. Due to this fact
no internal stresses are set up within reinforced concrete due to rise and fall in temperature.

3. It is cheapest metal and is available in abundance.

4. The tensile strength of steel is quite high to resist bending stress accordingly.
5. Coating of cement concrete around steel bar protects steel from corrosion and other adverse effects of
atmospheric agencies.

1.6 Reinforced Concrete (as a composite material)

It is known that plain concrete is quite strong in compression, weak in tension. On the other hand, steel is a
high cost material which able to resist both tension & compression.
The two materials (plain concrete & reinforcing steel) are best be utilized in logical combination if steel bars
are embedded in the plain concrete in tension zone close to the surface.
In this case, plain concrete is made to resist the compressive stresses and reinforcing steel resists the tensile
stresses. Both plain concrete & reinforcing steel bar together assumed to act as one composite unit and it is
termed as reinforced concrete (RC).
The tensile stresses developed in the section are transferred to reinforcing steel by the bond between the
interfaces of the two materials.
In all RC members, strength design is made on the assumption that concrete does not resist any tensile
stresses. All the tensile stresses are assumed to be resisted by the reinforcing steel imbedded in tension zone.
Sometimes if necessary, reinforcing steel is provided in compression zone to assist the concrete resisting
compression in addition to reducing creep deformation.
Reinforcing steel & concrete may work readily in combinations due to the following reasons.
1. Bond between the bars & the surrounding concrete prevents slip of the bars relative to the
concrete. Adequate concrete cover for steel bar and embedment length of bar are required to
transfer stress between steel and concrete without slipping.
2. Proper concrete mixes provide adequate impermeability of concrete against bar corrosion.
0 0
3. Sufficiently similar rates of thermal expansion (0.00001/ C to 0.000013/ C for concrete and
0
0.000012/ C for steel) introduce negligible stresses between steel and concrete under
temperature changes.

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Advantages of Reinforced Concrete:
1. It is monolithic. This gives it more rigidity.
2. It is durable. It does not deteriorate with time.
3. While it is plastic, it can be moldable into any desired shape.
4. It is fire, weather and corrosion resistant.
5. By proper proportioning of mix, concrete can be made water-tight.
6. It maintenance cost is practically nil.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete:
1. It is difficult to demolish in case of repair or modification.
2. It is too difficult to inspect after the concrete has been poured.
3. Low tensile strength.
4. Forms and shoring.
5. Relatively low strength per unit of weight or volume.
6. Time-dependent volume changes.

1.7 The Design Processes

The art of deciding the size, shape and quantity of steel to be provided in reinforced concrete structural
component and the fashion how to detail the rebar to bring out a skeleton of reinforcements is called the
reinforced concrete structural design. The major aim of structural design is to produce design for a safe,
serviceable and durable structure.
The process of structural design involves the following stages:
1. Structural planning and configuration
2. Action of loads, their classification and combinations
3. Analysis for the stress resultants
4. Design of components
5. Drawing, detailing and preparation of schedules
The main object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure or part structure that will result in a
safe and economical solution. For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the following
steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of structure and
etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
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 3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces,
torsions & bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.

1.8 Design Philosophies

Basic design concepts
The main object of reinforced concrete design is to achieve a structure or part structure that will result in a
safe and economical solution.
For a given structural system, the design problem consists of the following steps:
1. Idealization of structure for analysis (dimension of members, support condition of structure and etc.)
2. Estimation of loadings.
3. Analysis of idealized structural model to determine stress-resultants (axial forces, shear forces, torsions
& bending moments) and their effects (deformations).
4. Design of structural elements (if assumed dimensions are adequate).
5. Detailed structural drawings and schedule of reinforcing bars.
Structural design should be performed to satisfy three criteria:
 Strength
 Serviceability
 Economy.

Strength pertains to the general integrity and safety of the structure under extreme load conditions. The
structure is expected to withstand occasional overloads without severe distress and damage during its
lifetime.
Serviceability refers to the proper functioning of the structure as related to its appearance,
maintainability, and durability under normal, or service load conditions, deflection, vibration, permanent
deformation, cracking, and corrosion are some design considerations associated with serviceability.
Economy concerns the overall material and labor costs required for the design, fabrication, erection, and
maintenance processes of the structure. To achieve safe and economic structures, three philosophies of
design had been adopted by codes of practices.
Over the years, various design philosophies have evolved in different parts of the world, with regard to
reinforced concrete design.

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A ‗design philosophy‘ is built up on a few fundamental premises (assumptions), and is reflective of a way
of thinking.
The earliest codified design philosophy is the working stress method of design (WSM).
Close to a hundred years old, this traditional method of design, based on linear elastic theory, is still
surviving in some countries, although it is now sidelined by the modern limit states design philosophy.

Historically, the design procedure to follow the WSM was the ultimate load method of design (ULM),
which was developed in the 1950s. Based on the (ultimate) strength of reinforced concrete at ultimate
loads, it evolved and gradually gained acceptance. This method was introduced as an alternative to WSM
in the ACI code in 1956 and the British Code in 1957.
Probabilistic concepts of design developed over the years and received a major impetus from the mid-
1960s onwards. The philosophy was based on the theory that the various uncertainties in design could be
handled more rationally in the mathematical framework of probability theory. The risk involved in the
design was quantified in terms of a probability of failure.
Such probabilistic methods came to be known as reliability-based methods. However, there was little
acceptance for this theory in professional practice, mainly because the theory appeared to be complicated
and intractable (mathematically and numerically). In order to gain code acceptance, the probabilistic
‗reliability-based‘ approach had to be simplified and reduced to a deterministic format involving multiple
(partial) safety factors (rather than probability of failure).
The European Committee for Concrete (CEB) and the International Federation for Pre-stressing (FIP)
were among the earliest to introduce the philosophy of limit states method (LSM) of design, which is
reliability-based in concept. Based on the CEB-FIP recommendations, LSM was introduced in the British
Code CP 110 (1973). In the United States, LSM was introduced in a slightly different format (strength
design and serviceability design) in the ACI 318−71 (now ACI 318-95).
Thus, the past several decades have witnessed an evolution in design philosophy — from the traditional
‗working stress method‘, through the ‗ultimate load method‘, to the modern ‗limit states method‘ of
design.

1.8.1 Working stress method (WSM)

This was the traditional method of design not only for reinforced concrete, but also for structural steel
and timber design.

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The conceptual basis of WSM is simple. The method basically assumes that the structural material
behaves in a linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be ensured by suitably restricting the
stresses in the material induced by the expected ‗working loads‘ (service loads) on the structure.
As the specified permissible (‗allowable‘) stresses are kept well below the material strength (i.e., in the
initial phase of the stress-strain curve), the assumption of linear elastic behavior is considered justifiable.
The ratio of the strength of the material to the permissible stress is often referred to as the factor of safety.

The stresses under the applied loads are analyzed by applying the methods of ‗strength of materials‘ such
as the simple bending theory. In order to apply such methods to a composite material like reinforced
concrete, strain compatibility (due to bond) is assumed, whereby the strain in the reinforcing steel is
assumed to be equal to that in the adjoining concrete to which it is bonded. Furthermore, as the stresses in
concrete and steel are assumed to be linearly related to their respective strains, it follows that the stress in
steel is linearly related to that in the adjoining concrete by a constant factor (called the modular ratio),
defined as the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete. However, the main assumption
of linear elastic behavior and the tacit assumption that the stresses under working loads can be kept within
the ‗permissible stresses‘ are not found to be realistic.

Many factors are responsible for this such as the long-term effects of creep and shrinkage, the effects of
stress concentrations, and other secondary effects. All such effects result in significant local increases in
and redistribution of the calculated stresses. Moreover, WSM does not provide a realistic measure of the
actual factor of safety underlying a design. WSM also fails to discriminate between different types of
loads that act simultaneously, but have different degrees of uncertainty. This can, at times, result in very
un-conservative designs, particularly when two different loads (say, dead loads and wind loads) have
counteracting effects.
Nevertheless, in defense against these and other shortcomings leveled against WSM, it may be stated that
most structures designed in accordance with WSM have been generally performing satisfactorily for many
years. The design usually results in relatively large sections of structural members (compared to ULM and
LSM), thereby resulting in better serviceability performance (less deflections, crack-widths, etc.) under
the usual working loads. The method is also notable for its essential simplicity — in concept, as well as
application.
Thus, design format used in WSD method may be expressed as:

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f (stress due to service design loads)  fallow(material strength)
The main drawbacks of WSD method are as follows:
1. Concrete is not elastic material.
 The inelastic behavior of concrete starts right from very low stresses.
 The actual stress distribution of concrete in section cannot be described by a triangular
stress diagram.

2. Since factor of safety is applied on the strength of materials, there is no way to account for different
degrees of uncertainty associated with different types of loadings.
3. It is difficult to account for creep and shrinkage by computations of elastic stresses. Beside these
drawbacks, the method does not ensure consistence safety of structure and also provide uneconomical
section.

1.8.2 Ultimate load method (ULM)

With the growing realization of the shortcomings of WSM in reinforced concrete design, and with
increased understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete at ultimate loads, the ultimate load method
of design (ULM) evolved in the 1950s and became an alternative to WSM. This method is sometimes also
referred to as the load factor method or the ultimate strength method. In this method, the stress condition
at the state of impending collapse of the structure is analyzed, and the non-linear stress−strain curves of
concrete and steel are made use of.
The concept of ‗modular ratio‘ and its associated problems are avoided entirely in this method. The safety
measure in the design is introduced by an appropriate choice of the load factor, defined as the ratio of the
ultimate load (design load) to the working load.
The ultimate load method makes it possible for different types of loads to be assigned different load
factors under combined loading conditions, thereby overcoming the related shortcoming of WSM.
This method generally results in more slender sections, and often more economical designs of beams and
columns (compared to WSM), particularly when high strength reinforcing steel and concrete are used.
However, the satisfactory ‗strength‘ performance at ultimate loads does not guarantee satisfactory
‗serviceability‘ performance at the normal service loads. The designs sometimes result in excessive
deflections and crack-widths under service loads, owing to the slender sections resulting from the use of
high strength reinforcing steel and concrete.
Design format used in USD method may be expressed as:

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Strength provided (Stress block) Action due to ultimate loads (analysis of structure)

The main draw backs of USD method are as follows:

1. Since load factor is used on the service loads, there is no way to account for different degrees of
uncertainty associated with variation in material strengths.
2. There is complete disregard for control against excessive deflections.

1.8.3 Limit states method (LSM)

The philosophy of the limit states method of design (LSM) represents a definite advancement over the
traditional design philosophies. Unlike WSM, which based calculations on service load conditions alone,
and unlike ULM, which based calculations on ultimate load conditions alone, LSM aims for a
comprehensive and rational solution to the design problem, by considering safety at ultimate loads and
serviceability at working loads.
The LSM philosophy uses a multiple safety factor format which attempts to provide adequate safety at
ultimate loads as well as adequate serviceability at service loads, by considering all possible ‗limit states‘
(defined in the next section). The selection of the various multiple safety factors is supposed to have a
sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate consideration of different kinds of failure, types of
materials and types of loads. In this sense, LSM is more than a mere extension of WSM and ULM. It
represents a new ‗paradigm‘ — a modern philosophy.
1. Limit States.
When a structure or structural element becomes unfit for its intended use, it is said to have reached a limit
state. The limit states for reinforced concrete structures can be divided into three basic groups:
I. Ultimate limits states.
These involve a structural collapse of part or all of the structure. Such a limit state should have a very low
probability of occurrence, because it may lead to loss of life and major financial losses. The major
ultimate limit states are as follows:
a) Loss of equilibrium of a part or all of the structure as a rigid body. Such a failure would generally
involve tipping or sliding of the entire structure and would occur if the reactions necessary for equilibrium
could not be developed.
b) Rupture of critical parts of the structure, leading to partial or complete collapse. The majority of this
document deals with this limit state. Chapters 3 consider flexural failures; Chapter 4 shear failures; and so
on.

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c) Progressive collapse. In some structures, an overload on one member may cause that member to fail.
The load acting on it is transferred to adjacent members which, in turn, may be overloaded and fail,
causing them to shed their load to adjacent members, causing them to fail one after another, until a major
part of the structure has collapsed. This is called a progressive collapse. Progressive collapse is prevented,
or at least is limited, by one or more of the following:
i. Controlling accidental events by taking measures such as protection against vehicle collisions or
explosions.
ii. Providing local resistance by designing key members to resist accidental events.
iii. Providing minimum horizontal and vertical ties to transfer forces.
iv. Providing alternative lines of support to anchor the tie forces.
v. Limiting the spread of damage by subdividing the building with planes of weakness sometimes referred
to as structural fuses.
A structure is said to have general structural integrity if it is resistant to progressive collapse. For example,
an explosion or a vehicle collision may accidentally remove a column that supports an interior support of
a two-span continuous beam. If properly detailed, the structural system may change from two spans to one
long span. This would entail large deflections and a change in the load path from beam action to catenary
or tension membrane action. Most building Codes require continuous ties of tensile reinforcement around
the perimeter of the building at each floor to reduce the risk of progressive collapse. The ties provide
reactions to anchor the catenary forces and limit the spread of damage. Because such failures are most apt
to occur during construction, the designer should be aware of the applicable construction loads and
procedures.
d) Formation of a plastic mechanism. A mechanism is formed when the reinforcement yields to form
plastic hinges at enough sections to make the structure unstable.
e) Instability due to deformations of the structure. This type of failure involves buckling
f) Fatigue. Fracture of members due to repeated stress cycles of service loads may cause collapse.
II. Serviceability limits states.
These involve disruption of the functional use of the structure, but not collapse. Because there is less
danger of loss of life, a higher probability of occurrence can generally be tolerated than in the case of an
ultimate limit state. Design for serviceability is discussed in Chapter 4. The major serviceability limit
states include the following.
a)Excessive deflections for normal service. Excessive deflections may cause machinery to malfunction,
may be visually unacceptable, and may lead to damage to nonstructural elements or to changes in the
Page | 21
distribution of forces. In the case of very flexible roofs, deflections due to the weight of water on the roof
may lead to increased depth of water, increased deflections, and so on, until the strength of the roof is
exceeded. This is a ponding failure and in essence is a collapse brought about by failure to satisfy a
serviceability limit state.
b) Excessive crack widths. Although reinforced concrete must crack before the reinforcement can function
effectively, it is possible to detail the reinforcement to minimize the crack widths. Excessive crack widths
may be unsightly and may allow leakage through the cracks, corrosion of the reinforcement, and gradual
deterioration of the concrete.
c) Undesirable vibrations. Vertical vibrations of floors or bridges and lateral and torsional vibrations of
tall buildings may disturb the users. Vibration effects have rarely been a problem in reinforced concrete
buildings.
III. Special limit states.
This class of limit states involves damage or failure due to abnormal conditions or abnormal loadings and
includes:
a) Damage or collapse in extreme earthquakes,
b) Structural effects of fire, explosions, or vehicular collisions,
c) Structural effects of corrosion or deterioration, and
d) Long-term physical or chemical instability (normally not a problem with concrete structures).
2. Limit state design process
Limit-states design is a process that involves
1. The identification of all potential modes of failure (i.e., identification of the significant limit states),
2. The determination of acceptable levels of safety against occurrence of each limit state,
3. Structural design for the significant limit states.

For normal structures, step 2 is carried out by the building-code authorities, who specify the load
combinations and the load factors to be used.
For unusual structures, the engineer may need to check whether the normal levels of safety are adequate.
For buildings, a limit-states design starts by selecting the concrete strength, cement content, cement type,
supplementary cementitious materials, water–cementitious materials ratio, air content, and cover to the
reinforcement to satisfy the durability requirements of Euro code.

Page | 22
Next, the minimum member sizes and minimum covers are chosen to satisfy the fire-protection
requirements of the local building code.
Design is then carried out, starting by proportioning for the ultimate limit states followed by a check of
whether the structure will exceed any of the serviceability limit states. This sequence is followed because
the major function of structural members in buildings is to resist loads without endangering the occupants.
For a water tank, however, the limit state of excessive crack width is of equal importance to any of the
ultimate limit states if the structure is to remain watertight.
In such a structure, the design for the limit state of crack width might be considered before the ultimate
limit states are checked. In the design of support beams for an elevated monorail, the smoothness of the
ride is extremely important, and the limit state of deflection may govern the design.

1.9 Ethiopian standard’s recommendation for limit state design

1.9.1 Actions
The term action is used in the Euro codes in order to group together generically all external influences on
a structure‘s performance.

It encompasses loading by gravity and wind, but includes also vibration, thermal effects, fire and seismic
loading. Separate combinations of actions are used to check the structure for the design situation being
considered.

For each of the particular design situations an appropriate representative value for each action is used.

The main actions to be used in load cases used for design are:

a) Permanent action (G) action that is likely to act throughout a given reference period and for
which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible, or for which the variation is always in the
same direction (monotonic) until the action attains a certain limit value.
e.g. self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by
shrinkage and uneven settlement.
The characteristic value of a permanent action Gk  may be a single value if variability is known
to be low (e.g. the self-weight of quality-controlled factory-produced members). If the variability
of G cannot be considered as small, and its magnitude may vary from place to place in the
structure, then an upper value Gk,sup and a lower value Gk,inf may occasionally be used.

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b) Variable action (Q) action for which the variation in magnitude with time is neither negligible
nor monotonic. e.g. imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, wind actions or snow
loads.
Up to four types of representative value may be needed for the variable and accidental actions. The
types most commonly used for variable actions are:
 The characteristic value Qk and combinations of the characteristic value with other variable
actions, multiplied by different combination factors:
 The combination value 0Qk
 The frequent value 1Qk
 The quasi-permanent value 2Qk .Explanations of the representative values and the design
situations in which they arise are given below. The ‗x ‘ factors generally reduce the value of a
variable action present in an accidental situation compared with the characteristic value.
A. Combination value of 0Qk. The combination value is used for checking:
1. Ultimate limit states;
2. Irreversible serviceability limit states (e.g. deflections which fracture brittle fittings or
finishes).
It is associated with combinations of actions. The combination factor 0 reduces Qk because
of the low probability of the most unfavorable values of several independent actions
occurring simultaneously.
B. Frequent value 1Qk .The frequent value is used for checking:
1. Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;
2. Reversible serviceability limit states, primarily associated with frequent combinations. In
both cases the reduction factor 1 multiplies the leading variable action. The frequent value
1Qk of a variable action Q is determined so that the total proportion of a chosen period of
time during which Q exceeds 1Qk is less than a specified small part of the period.
C. Quasi-permanent value 2Qk .
The quasi-permanent value is used for checking:
1. Ultimate limit states involving accidental actions;
2. Reversible serviceability limit states. Quasi-permanent values are also used for the
calculation of long-term effects (e.g. cosmetic cracking of a slab) and to represent
combinations of variable seismic actions. The quasipermanent value 2Qk is defined so that
Page | 24
 the total proportion of a chosen period of time during which Q exceeds 2Qk is a
considerable part (more than half) of the chosen period
c) accidental action (A) action, usually of short duration but of significant magnitude, that is unlikely
to occur on a given structure during the design working life. e.g. explosions, or impact from
vehicles
d) NOTE 1 an accidental action can be expected in many cases to cause severe consequences unless
appropriate measures are taken.
e) NOTE 2 Impact, snow, wind and seismic actions may be variable or accidental actions, depending
on the available information on statistical distributions

1.10 . Load combinations for design

The values of actions to be used in design are governed by a number of factors.
These include:
1. The nature of the load. Whether the action is permanent, variable or accidental, as the confidence
in the description of each will vary.

2. The limit state being considered. Clearly, the value of an action governing design must be higher for
the ultimate limit state than for serviceability for persistent and transient design situations.
Further, under serviceability conditions, loads vary with time, and the design load to be considered
could vary substantially. Realistic serviceability loads should be modeled appropriate to the aspect of
the behavior being checked (e.g. deflection, cracking or settlement). For example, creep and
settlement are functions of permanent loads only.
3. The number of variable loads acting simultaneously. Statistically, it is improbable that all loads will
act at their full characteristic value at the same time.

To allow for this, the characteristic values of actions will need modification. Consider the case of
permanent action Gk  and one variable action Qk  only. For the ultimate limit state the characteristic
values should be magnified, and the load may be represented as
GGk+QQk, (1.4)
Where the  factors are the partial safety factors.
The values of G and Q will be different, and will be a reflection of the variabilities of the two loads
being different.
Page | 25
The gamma factors account for:
1) The possibility of unfavorable deviation of the loads from the characteristic values
2) Inaccuracies in the analyses
3) Unforeseen redistribution of stress
4) Variations in the geometry of the structure and its elements, as this affects the determination of the
action effects.
Now consider the case of a structure subject to variable actions Q1 and Q2 simultaneously.
If Q1 and Q2 are independent, i.e. the occurrence and magnitude of Q1 does not depend on the
occurrence and magnitude of Q2 and vice versa, then it would be unrealistic to use Q,1Qk,1+Q,2Qk,2,
as the two loads are unlikely to act at their maximum at the same time. Joint probabilities will need to
be considered to ensure that the probability of occurrence of the two loads is the same as that of a
single load. It will be more reasonable to consider one load at its maximum in conjunction with a
reduced value for the other load. Thus, we have two possibilities:
Q,1Qk,1+0,2(Q,2Qk,2) or (1.5)

0,1(Q,1Qk,1)+ (Q,2Qk,2) (1.6)

Multiplication by 0 is said to produce a combination value of the load. It should be noted that the
values of  and 0 vary with each load. The above discussion illustrates the thinking behind the
method of combining loads for an ultimate limit state check. Similar logic is applied to the estimation
of loads for the different serviceability checks.
I. Ultimate limit state

The following ultimate limit states shall be verified as relevant:

a) EQU: Loss of static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as a rigid body, where:
 Minor variations in the value or the spatial distribution of actions from a single source are
significant, and
 The strengths of construction materials or ground are generally not governing;
b) STR: Internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural members, including
footings, piles, and basement walls, etc., where the strength of construction materials of the structure
governs;
c) GEO: Failure or excessive deformation of the ground where the strengths of soil or rock are
significant in providing resistance;

Page | 26
 d) FAT: Fatigue failure of the structure or structural members.

1.11 . Combinations of actions

1) Persistent and transient situations – fundamental combinations.

In the following paragraphs, various generalized combinations of loads are expressed symbolically.
It should be noted that the ‗+‘ symbol in the expressions does not have the normal mathematical meaning,
as the directions of loads could be different. It is best to read it as meaning ‗combined with‘.
EN 1990 gives three separate sets of load combinations, namely EQU (to check against loss of
equilibrium), STR (internal failure of the structure governed by the strength of the construction materials)
and GEO (failure of the ground, where the strength of soil provides the significant resistance).
Equilibrium: Equilibrium is verified using the load combination set in the code, which is as follows:
G,jGk,j+Q,1Qk,1+Q,i0,iQk,i (1.7)

G,jsupGk,j,sup is used when the permanent loads are unfavourable, and

G,j,infGk,j,inf is used when the permanent actions are favorable.
Numerically,
G,j,sup  1.1 ,
G,j,inf  0.9 , and
Q 1.5 when unfavorable and 0 when favorable.
The above format applies to the verification of the structure as a rigid body (e.g. overturning of retaining
walls).
A separate verification of the limit state of rupture of structural elements should normally be undertaken
using the format given below for strength.
In cases where the verification of equilibrium also involves the resistance of the structural member (e.g.
overhanging cantilevers), the strength verification given below without the above equilibrium check may
be adopted.
In such verifications,  G,j,inf  1.15 should be used.
Strength: when a design does not involve geotechnical actions, the strength of elements should be verified
using load combination Set B. two options are given. Either combination (6.10) from EN 1990 or the less
favorable of equations (6.10a) and (6.10b) may be used.
G,jGk,j+Q,1Qk,1+Q,i0,iQk,i (1.8)
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Numerically,
G,jsup  1.35 ,
G,j,inf  1.0 , and
Q  1.5 when unfavorable and 0 when favorable (EN1990).
G,jGk,j+Q,i0,iQk,i (1.9)

G,jGk,j+Q,1Qk,1+Q,i0,iQk,i (1.10)

=0.925
The above combinations assume that a number of variable actions are present at the same time.
Qk,1 is the dominant load if it is obvious, otherwise each load is in turn treated as a dominant load and the
other as secondary. The dominant load is then combined with the combination value of the secondary
loads. Both are multiplied by their respective  values.

Now turning to the factors G,inf and G,sup it will be noted that the numerical values are different in the
verification of equilibrium and that of strength.
For instance, in an overhanging cantilever beam, the multiplier for self-weight in the cantilever section
will be 1.1 G,sup  and that in the anchor span will be 0.9G,cnf .
The possible explanation for G,sup being 1.1 and not 1.35 as in the strength check is that
a) The variability in self-weight of the element is unlikely to be large.
b) The factor 1.35 has built into it an allowance for structural performance (which is necessary only for
strength checks)
c) The loading in the cantilever will also generally include variable actions, partial safety factors for
which will ensure a reasonable overall safety factor.
When a design involves geotechnical action, a number of approaches are given in EN 1990, and the
choice of the method is a Nationally Determined Parameter.
2) Accidental design situation

The load combination recommended is

Gk,j+ Ad+1,i Qk,1+2,iQk,i (1.11)
Where
Ad is the design value of accidental action,
Qk,1 is the main variable action accompanying the accidental action and

Page | 28
Qki, are other variable actions.
Accidents are unintended events such as explosions, fire or vehicular impact, which are of short duration
and which have a low probability of occurrence. Also, a degree of damage is generally acceptable in the
event of an accident.
The loading model should attempt to describe the magnitude of other variable loads which are likely to
occur in conjunction with the accidental load. Accidents generally occur in structures in use. Therefore,
the values of variable actions will be less than those used for the fundamental combination of loads in the
above.
To provide a realistic variable load combining with the accidental load, the variable actions are multiplied
by different (and generally lower)  factors. Multiplier 1 is applied to the dominant action, and 2 to the
others. Where the dominant action is not obvious, each variable action present is in turn treated as
dominant. Q for accidental situations is unity. Multiplication by 1 is said to produce a frequent value of
the load, and multiplication by 2 the quasi-permanent value. Numerical values for 1 and 2 are given in
EN 1990
Gk,j+ AEd+2,iQk,i (1.12)
Where,i,j 1
1. Serviceability limit state

Combination of actions
1) Characteristic combination
Gk,j+ Qk,1+2,iQk,i (1.13)
Where1

This represents a combination of service loads, which can be considered rather infrequent. It might be
appropriate for checking sates such as micro cracking or possible local non-catastrophic failure of
reinforcement leading to large cracks in sections.
2) Frequent combination
 G k j + 1,1Q k+ 2,iQk,i (1.14)
Where i>1

This represents a combination that is likely to occur relatively frequently in service conditions, and is used
for checking cracking.
3) Quasi-permanent combination
Page | 29
Gk j+2i Qk,i ,i 1 (1.15)
This will provide an estimate of sustained loads on the structure, and will be appropriate for the
verification of creep, settlement, etc. It should be realized that the above combinations describe the
magnitude of loads which are likely to be present simultaneously. The actual arrangement of loads in
position and direction within the structure to create the most critical effect is a matter of structural analysis
(e.g. loading alternate or adjacent spans in continuous beams)

1.12 . MATERIAL
Table 1.0-1. Partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states

Design Situations c for concrete s for reinforcing steel s for prestressing steel
Persistent and Transient 1.5 1.15 1.15
Accidental 1.2 1.0 1.0

The value for partial factors for materials for serviceability limit state verification should be taken as those
given in the particular clauses of this Eurocode. The recommended value is 1.0.

1.13 DESIGN STRENGTHS

Tests to determine the characteristic strengths of concrete and steel reinforcement are carried out on near
perfect specimens, which have been prepared under laboratory conditions.
Such conditions will seldom exist in practice. Therefore it is undesirable to use characteristic strengths to
size the members.
To take account of differences between actual and laboratory values, local weaknesses and inaccuracies in
assessment of resistance of section, the characteristic strengths (fck and fyk) are divided by appropriate
partial safety factor for strengths (γm).
The difference in values for the two materials is indicative of the comparative lack of control over the
production of concrete, the strength of which is affected by such factors as W/C ratio, degree of
compaction, rate of drying etc. which frequently cannot be accurately controlled on site to that of steel
which is produced under strict control conditions in factory.
Concrete
The compressive strength of concrete is denoted by concrete strength classes which relate to the
characteristic (5%) cylinder strength fck or the cube strength fck,cube

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 Table 1-2. Strength classes for concrete

Poisson‘s ratio may be taken equal to 0.2 for uncracked concrete and 0 for cracked concrete.

1.14 Design Compressive strength of concrete

fcd=ccfck/(c)
Where:
c is the partial safety factor for concrete
cc is the coefficient taking account of long term effects on the compressive strength and of unfavorable
effects resulting from the way the load is applied.

Page | 31
The value of cc for use in a Country should lie between 0.8 and 1.0 and may be found in its National
Annex. The recommended value is 1.
1.15. Design tensile strength of concrete
The value of the design tensile strength, fctd, is defined as
fctd = αct fctk,0,05 / γC
where:
γC is the partial safety factor for concrete and
αct is a coefficient taking account of long term effects on the tensile strength and of unfavourable effects,
resulting from the way the load is applied.
Note: The value of αct for use in a Country may be found in its National Annex. The recommended value
is 1.0.
Stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections
For the design of cross-sections, the following stress-strain relationship may be used

c=fcd1-(1- )n  for 0   (1.16)

c=fcd for εc2 εc εcu2 where: (1.17)

n is the exponent according to Table 3.1

εc2 is the strain at reaching the maximum strength according to Table 3.1
εcu2 is the ultimate strain according to Table 3.1

Figure 1.10. Parabola-rectangle diagram for concrete under compression.

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Other simplified stress-strain relationships may be used if equivalent to or more conservative than the one
defined above, for instance bi-linear according to the following figure (compressive stress and shortening
strain shown as absolute values) with values of c3 and cu3

.
Figure 1.11. Bi-Linear stress-strain relation

A rectangular stress distribution as given in the figure below may be assumed.

The factor ,defining the effective height of the compression zone and the factor  , defining the effective
strength, follow from:
 0.8 for fck  50MPa
 0.8(fck-50)/400 for 50< fck  90MPa
  1 for fck  50MPa
=1-( fck-50(/200) for 50< fck  90MPa
Note: If the width of the compression zone decreases in the direction of the extreme compression fibre,
the value ηfcd should be reduced by 10%.

Figure 1.12. Rectangular stress distribution

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 1.16. Reinforcing Steel
The behavior of reinforcing steel is specified by the following properties:
 yield stress (fyk or f0,2k)
 maximum actual yield strength (fy,max)
 tensile strength (ft)
 ductility (εuk and ft/fyk)
 bendability
 bond characteristics (fR: See Annex C)
 section sizes and tolerances
 fatigue strength - weldability
 shear and weld strength for welded fabric and lattice girders

The application rules for design and detailing in this Euro code are valid up for a specified yield strength,
fyk = 400 - 600 MPa.
For normal design, either of the following assumptions may be made
a. an inclined top branch with a strain limit of ud and a maximum stress of kfyk/ at uk ,
where  ft /fy k
b. A horizontal top branch without the need to check the strain limit.
The recommended value of ud is 0.9 uk

and the value of  f t/ f y k is given in Annex C of Euro code 2

Figure 1.13. Idealized and design stress-strain diagrams for reinforcing steel (for tension and compression)

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 Exercise problems
1. Enumerate the advantages of concrete and major weaknesses of concrete and give ways to
overcome the weaknesses.
2. What factors make concrete a dominant structural material?
3. Discuss the different hypotheses on strength development of concrete and give your position with
your rationale.
4. Enumerate the factors that affect the strength and performance of concrete and describe how these
affect strength and performance of concrete.
5. How are characteristic strengths and moduli of elasticity of concrete and steel obtained for design?
6. What are the two most important factors affecting strength of concrete?
7. Discuss the care that should be exercised in concrete placement and curing.
8. What is the importance and use of codes in reinforced concrete design?
9. What is the weakness of WSD method that led to the development of USD method? Describe the
weaknesses of USD that led to the development of the LSD method?
10. Compare and contrast structural concrete and structural steel. Give the advantages and
disadvantages of each.

Page | 35
 CHAPTER -TWO
2.1. Limit State Design for Flexure
The WSD method discussed in chapter one have some shortcomings that led to the development of USD
and LSD. The Limit State Design (LSD) method combines the best features of WSD and USD and has
gained acceptance in many countries throughout the world including Ethiopia.
The Limit State Design Method is based on the limit state design philosophy. This design philosophy
considers that any structure that has exceeded a limit state for which it was designed is unfit for the
intended function or use.
The limit state may be reached because the structure is in danger of collapse (ultimate limit state) or
because excessive deflection has resulted in the structure's being unable to carry out its design functions
(serviceability limit state). Other limit states may be reached due to vibration, cracking, durability, fire or
various other factors, which mean that the structure can no longer fulfill the purpose for which it was
designed. These limit states are classified into three as ultimate, serviceability and special limit states.
1. Ultimate Limit State (ULS) concerns:
 Failure by rupture, loss or stability, transformation into a
 Loss of equilibrium
 Failure caused by fatigue to satisfy the design requirements of the ULS,
 Appropriate safety factors are used
 The most critical combinations of loads are considered.
 Brittle failure is avoided (Ductility is ensured).
 Accuracy of concrete works checked.
2. Serviceability Limit State (SLS) concerns not failure of structures but:
 Deformation
 Vibrations which cause discomfort to people
 Damage (cracking) - appearance, durability or function to satisfy the design requirements
of the SLS,
 Minimum depth for defection requirements is provided
 Adequate cover is provided and
 Necessary detailing of reinforcement.

Page | 36
3. Special Limit States concerns:
 Extreme earthquakes, fires, explosion or vehicular collisions.
A special feature of this philosophy is that it uses statistics to assess the variation in the
contributions of the factors influencing the limit states of a structure. These are material
strength and loads, which affect resistance (capacity) of structural members and action
effects (internal actions) respectively.
The distributions of material strength and variation in structural loads follow normal or
Gaussian distribution. Section capacity and internal actions follow a similar distribution. The
number of specimens with extremely low strength or extremely high strength, though small
is never zero. It is, therefore, possible to have the situation in which two extremes are
reached simultaneously and if this is the extreme of high load together with low strength,
then a limit state of collapse may be reached.
The probability of the collapse limit state being reached will not be zero, but it will be kept
sufficiently low by selecting suitable design stresses and design loads that the probability
may practically be taken as zero.

2.2. Statics of beam actions

A beam is a structural member that supports applied loads and its own weight primarily by
internal moments and shears. Figure 2.1a) shows a beam that supports its own dead weight
w, plus some applied load P. If the axial applied load, N, is equal to zero as shown, the
member is referred to as a beam. If N is a compressive force, the member is called a beam-
column.
If it were tensile, the member would be a tension tie. These cause bending moments,
distributed as shown in figure 2.1b).The bending moments are obtained directly from the
loads using the laws of statics and for a given span and combination of loads w and P.
The moment diagram is independent of the composition or size of the beam. The bending
moment is referred to as a load effect. Other load effects include shear force, axial force,
torque, deflection and vibration.
At any section within the beam, the internal resisting moment, M, shown in figure 2.1c) is
necessary to equilibrate the bending moment. An internal resisting shear, V, is also required
as shown.

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The internal resisting moment, when the cross section fails, is referred to as the moment
capacity or moment resistance.
The word "resistance" can also be used to describe shear resistance or axial load resistance.
The beam shown in figure 2.1 will safely support the loads if at every section the resistance
of the member exceeds the effects of the loads.
Resistance load effect

Figure 2.1. Internal forces in a beam

From Equilibrium equation

C T  0 or C=T (2.1)
If moments are summed about an axis through the point of application of the compressive
force, C, the moment equilibrium of the free body gives
M =Tjd (2.2)
Similarly, if moments are summed about the point of application of the tensile force, T,
M=Cjd
The internal resisting moment, M, results from an internal compressive force, C, and an
internal tensile force, T, separated by a lever arm, jd, as shown in figure 2.1(d).
The conventional elastic beam theory results in the equation
ζ = My/I, (2.3)
which for an uncracked, homogeneous rectangular beam without reinforcement gives the
distribution of stresses shown in figure 2.2.
The stress diagram shown in figure 2.2 (c) and (d) may be visualized as having a "volume,"
and hence one frequently refers to the compressive stress block and the tensile stress block.
Page | 38
 This is equal to the volume of the compressive stress block shown in figure 2.2(d). In a
similar manner one could compute the force T from the tensile stress block. The forces, C
and T, act through the centroids of the volumes of the respective stress blocks. In the elastic
case these forces act at h/3 above or below the neutral axis, so that jd = 2h /3. From above
equations we can write,

Figure 2.2. Elastic beam stresses and stress blocks

The stress diagram shown in Figure 2.2c and Figure 2.2d may be visualized as having a ―volume‖; hence,
one frequently refers to the compressive stress block. The resultant compressive force C, which is equal to
the volume of the compressive stress block in Figure 2.2d, is given by.

(2.4)

In a similar manner, one could compute the force T from the tensile stress block. The forces C and T act
through the centroids of the volumes of the respective stress blocks. In the elastic case, these forces act at
h 3 above or below the neutral axis, so that jd  2h/3.
From the above relations,

M= ζc(max) ( ) (2.5)

M= ζc(max) , (2.6)

I= (2.7)

Ymax=h/2 (2.8)

M= ζc(max)I/Ymax (2.9)

Thus, for the elastic case, identical answers are obtained from the traditional beam stress equation (2-9),
and when the stress block concept is used in equation (2-5).

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The elastic beam theory in equation (2-9) is not used in the design of reinforced concrete beams, because
the compressive stress-strain relationship for concrete becomes nonlinear at higher strain values. What is
even more important is that concrete cracks at low tensile stresses, making it necessary to provide steel
reinforcement to carry the tensile force, T.

2.3. Stress-strain distribution for beams

In RC structures such as beams, the tension caused by bending moment is chiefly resisted by the steel
reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable of resisting the corresponding compression.
Such joint action of the two type of materials is assured if the relative slip is prevented which is achieved
by using deformed bars with high bond strength at the steel-concrete interface. Figure 2.3 shows a simple
test beam installed with gauges to measure strains at different levels. The measured strains are seen to be
linear as shown in figure 2.3(b). Corresponding stress are computed from strains at each level using
Hook‘s Law i.e. E = ζ/ε. The results are plotted in figure 2.3(c) and are found to be parabolic in nature.

Figure 2.3 Side view of test beam with gauges

To illustrate the stress-strain development for increased loading, consider the following,

Figure 2.4 Stress and strain distribution

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Major points to notice are
 The triangular stress distribution applies when the stresses are very nearly proportional to the
strains, which generally occurs at the loading levels encountered under working conditions and is,
therefore, used at the serviceability limit state.
 The rectangular-parabolic stress block represents the distribution at failure when the compressive
strains are within the plastic range, and it is associated with the design for the ultimate limit state.
 The equivalent rectangular stress block is a simplified alternative to the rectangular parabolic
distribution.

2.4. ULS of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

Design of reinforced concrete sections may be carried out using equations or charts and tables. You may
have to design irregular compressed areas like a triangle, trapezium, or composite areas. The bases for all
these are strain compatibility and equilibrium equations. Therefore, we have to begin with stress-strain
diagrams to derive expressions for flexural strength of reinforced concrete members.
The theory of flexure for reinforced concrete is based on three basic assumptions, which are sufficient to
allow one to calculate the moment resistance of a beam.
 Sections perpendicular to the axis of bending that are plane before bending remains plane after
bending.
 The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the same level.
 The stress in the concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the strains by using stress-
strain curves for concrete and steel.
 The tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

It is universal to define failure of concrete in compression by means of a limiting compressive strain. The
formulation of the limit varies from code to code, for example the American Concrete Institute code, ACI
318, uses a limit of 0.003, while the UK code BS 8110 uses 0.0035.
For concrete strengths not exceeding 50 N/mm2, the Euro code adopts values of 0.0035 for flexure and for
combined bending and axial load where the neutral axis remains within the section, and a limit of between
0.0035 and 0.002 for sections loaded so that the whole section is in compression.
The logic behind the reduction in the strain limit for axial compression is that, in axial compression,
failure will occur at the strain corresponding to the attainment of the maximum compressive stress. This is
0.002 for concrete strengths not exceeding 50 N/mm2. In flexure, considerably higher strains can be

Page | 41
reached before the maximum capacity of the section is reached, and the value of 0.0035 has been obtained
empirically.

2.5. Types of Flexural failures

Three types of sections are possible such as under reinforced section, over reinforced section and balanced
section.
Tension failure: Under-reinforced section
If the steel content of the section is small, the steel will reach the yield strength f yd before the concrete
reaches its maximum capacity, εcu = 0.0035.
Such a beam is said to be under reinforced.
With further loading, the steel force remains constant at Asfyd and the strains in the remaining
compression zone of the concrete increases to such a degree that crushing of concrete, the secondary
compression failure, follow at a load slightly larger than that which causes the steel to yield (i.e. Although
failure is initiated by yielding of tension steel, the steel does not fracture at the flexural strength of the
section unless the steel content is extremely small).
Such yield failure is gradual and is preceded by visible signs of distress, such as the widening and
lengthening of cracks and the marked increase in deflection.
In the final loading stages, the beam deflected extensively and developed wide cracks. This type of
behavior is said to be ductile since the moment curvature or load-deflection diagram has a long plastic
region.
If a beam in a building fails in a ductile manner, the occupants of the building have warning of the
impending failure and hence have an opportunity to leave the building before the final collapse, thus
reducing the consequence of collapse.

Figure 2.5. Tension Failure

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From equilibrium, C = T, (2.10)
0.8x b fcd = As fyd (2.11)
As f yd
x (2.12)
0.8bf cd
Ultimate moment of resistance
 A f  A  0.4 As f yd d 
M u  As f yd d  0.4 s yd   s f yd bd d  ; (2.13)
 0.8bfcd  bd  0.8bdfcd 

 0.5f yd 
M u  f yd bd 2 1   (2.14)
 f cd 

From the above equation for Mu, expression for steel ratio ρ is deduced:
 2M u  f cd
  1  1   (2.15)
 bd 2 f cd  f yd
Compression failure: Over reinforced section
If the steel content of the section is large, the concrete may reach its maximum capacity before the steel
yields. Such a beam is said to be over reinforced.
In such a case the neutral axis depth increases considerably, causing an increase in the compressive force.
The flexural strength of the section is reached when the strain in the extreme compression fiber of the
concrete is approximately 0.0035.
The section fails suddenly in a brittle fashion without warning of the failure as the widths of the flexural
cracks in the tension zone of the concrete are small, owing to the low steel stress.
Compression failure through crushing of the concrete is sudden, of an almost explosive nature, and occurs
without warning.

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 Figure 2.6. Compression Failure

Strength is based on concrete‘s failure fs < fyd. From similar triangles in strain distribution diagram,
0.0035
s
 ;
dx x
dx
s  0.0035 ;
x
fs = εsEs ;
(d  x)
f s  0.0035 Es ;
x
From equilibrium, C = T,
0.8x b fcd = As fs ;
dx
0.8x b fcd = As × 0.0035 Es
x
 0.8 xbfcd 
 x  x  d  0 ;
 0.0035As E s 

 0.8 xbfcd 
 x  x  d  0
 0.0035bdEs 
0.8 f cd
x 2  xd  d 2  0
0.0035E s 
‘x’ could be obtained from the above equation
The moment capacity can be written as, Mu = 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x) (2.16)
Balanced failure: Balanced section
At a particular steel content, the crushing of concrete, at strain of 0.0035, and yielding, fyd of
reinforcement occur simultaneously. Such a beam has balanced reinforcement. This failure also exhibits a
brittle type of failure which marks the boundary between ductile tension failure and brittle compression
failure.

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 Figure 2.7. Balanced Failure

d  xb f yd / E s
 
y
;
cu xb 0.0035
xb fyd = d – xb (Es ×0.0035)
= dEs(0.0035) – xb Es (0.0035)
= xb(0.0035Es + fyd) = 0.0035 Es d;
0.0035 E s d
xb 
(0.0035Es  f yd )

From equilibrium, C = T,
0.8xb b fcd = As fyd
= ρbbd fyd;
0.8 xb bf cd 0.8 xb f cd
b  
bdf yd df yd

0.8 f cd  0.0035E s 
Substituting for xb, b   
f yd  0.0035E s  f yd 
If ρ < ρb; x < xb -------The section is under-reinforced.
If ρ >ρb; x > xb -------The section is over-reinforced.

Thus it is good practice to dimension flexural members in such a manner that when overloaded, failure
would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than by crushing of the concrete.
Control over depth of neutral axis
To ensure that all beams have the desirable characteristics of visible warning, if failure is sudden as well
as reasonable ductility at failure, it is recommended that depth of neutral axis be limited.

Page | 45
x
 0.8(  0.44) ,
d
where δ = % moment redistribution
=Moment after redistribution divided by Original moment
When no moment is redistributed, δ = 1.
x
In such a case,  0.45 , or,
d
x = 0.45d
Mu = 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x)
= 0.8(0.45d) b fcd [d – 0.4(0.45d)]
Mu = 0.2952 fcd b d2.

2.6. Analysis of rectangular section for flexure

Simplified rectangular stress block shown in the figure may be used for the an

x C
d h d Z = d - 0.4x

Cross section Strain distribution Idealised stress block

for Equivalent rectangular stress distribution mode, c  0.8kx

c =0.4kx
kx = x/d
After rearranging.
T = As fs
Page | 46
C = 0.8x b fcd
Mu = Tz = Cz
Mu = As fs (d – 0.4x)
= 0.8x b fcd (d – 0.4x)
Two requirements are satisfied throughout the flexural analysis and design of reinforced concrete beams
and columns:
1. Stress and strain compatibility: The stress at any point in a member must correspond to the strain
at that point
2. Equilibrium: Internal forces must balance the external load effects.

General procedure
The general procedure of analysis of singly reinforced concrete beams for its flexural resistance according
to EN 1992-1-1-2004 is as follows.
 Assume the type of failure
 Draw the strain profile corresponding to the type of failure.
 Take any of the three possible stress strain relationships for concrete described in chapter 1 to
define the stress block

Page | 47
  Apply condition of equilibrium to the given stress block and conditions of compatibility to the
strain profile to estimate the neutral axis depth.
 Calculate the unknown strain and check if the assumed type of failure is correct.
 If the assumption is correct, apply the moment equilibrium to the stress block and estimate the
moment capacity.
 If it is not correct, assume another type of failure and repeat steps 2 to step 6 until the assumption
is proven to be true.

2.7. Simplified equations for moment and force equilibrium from

stress–strain relationship.
Assumptions
1. The section is rectangular with width ‟b‘‘ and effective depth d
2. Cylindrical compressive strength of the concrete is less than 50 MPa

Page | 48
3. Stresses are in ‰ (x 10-3 )
4. kx= x/d
5. cm is the compression strain at the ultimate fiber in the compressed region of the section
6. d is effective depth of the cross section defined as the distance from the center of the tensile
reinforcement bars to the top most compressed fiber.
Force equilibrium

Cc  cfcdbd and
Ts  Asfyd

Moment equilibrium

M   f bd 2 1   or

M  As fyd d 1  
c

 Values of c and c
1. Using Parabolic rectangular stress – strain relationship

a) For 0  c
 c2

b) For c2  c  c

2. Using Bi-linear stress-stress relationship

a) For For 0  c  c3

Page | 49
b) For 0  c  c3

3. Using simplified rectangular block

c  0.8kx, c =0.4kx

Page | 50
 2.8. Procedure for the Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular
Beam
The steps to be followed in the design of singly reinforced rectangular beams can be summarized
as follows.
 From the minimum requirements of span/depth ratio to control deflection, estimate a
suitable effective depth d.

Assuming the bar diameter for the main steel and links and the required cover as determined by
exposure conditions, estimate an overall depth h. h = d + bar diameter + Link diameter + Cover to
links
 Assume breadth at about half the overall depth.
 Calculate the self–weight.
 Calculate the design live load and dead load moment using appropriate load factors. The
load factors are normally 1.35 for dead loads and 1.5 for live loads.
 For the given value of fck, calculate λ and η from Table 3. Note that fck≤ 50 MPa, λ = 0.8
and η = 1.0
 As there is no redistribution possible in the case of statically determinate structures, δ =1
 Calculate value of k from Table 4
 In the case of singly reinforced sections, calculate the minimum effective depth using the
formula

dmin=√

 Adopt an effective depth greater than the minimum depth in order to reduce the total
tension reinforcement.
 Check that the new depth due to increased self–weight does not drastically affect the
calculated design moment. If it does, calculate the revised ultimate moment required.
 Calculate k = M/(b d2 fck)
 Calculate the lever arm z

=0.51.0+√ 

 Calculate the required steel As

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Reinforced concrete structures I
  Check that the steel provided satisfies the minimum and maximum steel percentages
specified in the code.
Table 2-1. Values of λ, η, εcu2 and εcu3

fck MPa λ η (εcu2 = εcu3)× 103

≤ 50 0.80 1.0 3.5
55 0.7875 0.975 3.1
60 0.775 0.95 2.9
70 0.750 0.90 2.7
80 0.725 0.85 2.6
90 0.70 0.80 2.6

Table 2-2. Maximum value of k for different fck and moment redistribution ratio

fck k = M/(bd2kck)
δ = 1.0 δ = 0.9 δ = 0.8 δ = 0.7* δ = Balanced
≤ 50 0.196 0.167 0.136 0 0.102 0.247
55 0.154 0.125 0.093 0.059 0.227
60 0.145 0.117 0.087 0.055 0.213
70 0.130 0.105 0.078 0 0.049 0.191
80 0.117 0. 0.070 0.044 0.173
90 0.107 0.086 0.064 0.040 0.159

2.9. Doubly Reinforced Sections

Occasionally, beam sections are designed to have both tension reinforcement and compression
reinforcement. These are referred to as doubly reinforced sections. Two cases where compression
reinforcement is used frequently are the negative bending region of continuous beams and mid-
span regions of long-span or heavily loaded beams where deflections need to be controlled.
Reasons for providing compression reinforcement
1. Reduced sustained-load deflections. First and most important, the addition of compression
reinforcement reduces the long-term deflections of a beam subjected to sustained loads.
2. Increased ductility. The addition of compression reinforcement causes a reduction in the
depth of the compression stress block and the strain in the tension reinforcement at failure
increases resulting in more ductile behavior.
3. Change of mode of failure from compression to tension. When enough compression steel is
added to a beam, the compression zone is strengthened sufficiently to allow the tension
steel to yield before the concrete crushes. The beam then displays a ductile mode of failure.

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Reinforced concrete structures I
 4. Fabrication ease. When assembling the reinforcing cage for a beam, it is customary to
provide small bars in the corner of the stirrups to hold the stirrups in place in the form and
also to help anchor the stirrups. If developed properly, these bars in effect are compression
reinforcement, although they generally are disregarded in design, because they have only a
small effect on the moment strength.

Design of flanged beams

When beams are monolithically cast with continuous slabs the upper part of the beam will act with
part of the slab to resist longitudinal compression in the beam. The resulting beam cross-section
will become ―T‖ or inverted ―L‖ as shown below.
b b
e e

bw bw

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Reinforced concrete structures I
 - The section provides a large concrete cross-section of the flange to resist compressive
stresses due to large positive bending moments.

- The stress distribution varies across the width of the section,.

- Effective flange width should be smaller of the following two values

According to EN 1992-1-1-2004, In T beams the effective flange width, over which uniform
conditions of stress can be assumed, depends on the web and flange dimensions, the type of
loading, the span, the support conditions and the transverse reinforcement. The effective width
of flange should be based on the distance lo between points of zero moment,

Figure 2.8 Definition of lo , for calculation of flange width

Note: The length of the cantilever, 3 l , should be less than half the adjacent span and the ratio of
adjacent spans should lie between 2/3 and 1.5

Figure 2.9 Effective flange width parameters

The effective flange width beff for a T beam or L beam may be derived as:
beff=∑ b
Where
=0.2bi+0.1lo0.2lo
and
 bi
The behavior of T-sections
 The beam may be treated as a rectangular beam of width bw , if the section is subjected to
negative bending moments.

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Reinforced concrete structures I
  There are also two cases when it is subjected to positive bending moment. The neutral axis
of the T beam may fall either in the flange or in the web as it depends on the proportion of
the cross-section, the amount of the tensile steel and strength of the material.
 When the neutral axis lies within the flange it is treated as rectangular beam of width be .
 When the neutral axis lies within the web, the section acts as T or inverted L beam,
accordingly, accounting the geometry.

Analysis 1: When the N.A. falls in the flange

When 0.8 x  h f , the beam is designed as a rectangular beam with b  be

Cc  Ts
0.8 xf cd be  Asf yd

0.8 xf cd be
 As 
f yd

N A

Analysis 2: When the N.A. falls in the web

When 0.8 x  h f , the beam is to be designed as a T- beam.

For this case, consider the compression area as shown below.

= + +

Or can be expressed as

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Reinforced concrete structures I
The design moment M is resisted by the overhangs of the flanges and web portion of the section.
There are respective steel areas at the bottom.
i.e. Mu = Muf + Muw
Where Muf is the moment resisted by the flange overhangs and corresponding steel As f

Muw is the moment resisted by the web section and the corresponding steel As w

M uf
M uf  (be  bw)h f f cd (d 
hf
) As f 
hf ;
2 f yd ( d  )
2
Asw f yd
Asw fyd = fcd bw (0.8 x) x
0.8bw f cd
M uw  Asw f yd (d  0.4 x)

The total area of steel at the bottom is given by As = Asf + Asw

1.11. Concrete Cover

It is necessary to have cover (concrete between the surface of the slab or beam and the reinforcing
bars) for four primary reasons:
1. To bond the reinforcement to the concrete so that the two elements act together. The efficiency
of the bond increases as the cover increases.

2. To protect the reinforcement against corrosion.

3. To protect the reinforcement from strength loss die to overheating in the case of fire.
4. Additional cover sometimes is provided on the top of slabs, particularly in garages and factories,
so that abrasion and wear due to traffic will not reduce the cover below that required for structural
and other purposes.

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Reinforced concrete structures I
The concrete cover is the distance between the surface of the reinforcement closest to the nearest
concrete surface (including links and stirrups and surface reinforcement where relevant) and the
nearest concrete surface.

Concrete cover according to EN 1992-1-1 and EN 1992-1-2

The nominal cover is defined as a minimum cover, cmin, plus an allowance in design for deviation,
cdev:
Cnom =C min c dev
where Cmin should be set to satisfy the requirements below:

 Safe transmission of bond forces

 Durability
 Fire resistance
and cdev is an allowance which should be made in the design for deviations from the minimum
cover. It should be taken as 10 mm, unless fabrication (i.e. construction) is subjected to a quality
assurance system, in which case it is permitted to reduce cdev to 5 mm.
Cmin=max(Cmin,b;Cmin,dur;10mm)

Minimum cover for bond, Cmin,b

The minimum cover to ensure adequate bond should not be less than the bar diameter, unless
the aggregate size is over 32 mm. if the aggregate size is over 32 mm, Cmin,b should be
increased by 5 mm.
Minimum cover for durability
EC-2 leaves the choice of Cmin,dur to countries, but gives the following recommendation:
The value of Cmin,dur depends on the ―structural class‖, which has to be determined first. If the
specified service life is 50 years, the structural class is defined as 4.
The ―structural class‖ can be modified in case of the following conditions:
 The service life is 100 years instead of 50 years
 The concrete strength is higher than necessary  Slabs (position of reinforcement not affected by
construction process)
 Special quality control measures apply

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Reinforced concrete structures I
The finally applying service class can be calculated with Table 4.3 N from the code but the
recommended minimum structural class is 1. For more understanding, please refer table 4.1:
(exposure classes related to environmental conditions in accordance with EN 206-1)

1. Minimum cover for fire resistance.

Rather than giving the minimum cover, the tabular method is based on nominal axis distance, see
fig. this is the distance from the center of the main reinforcing bar to the surface of the member.
The designer should ensure that

aCnom+ Ø link+ Ø bar/2 (2.17)

Example 2.3
Design the concrete cover of a reinforced concrete beam with exposure class XC1. The concrete in
use has resistance class C25/30. Bottom longitudinal bars are 5 φ 20; the stirrups are Ø8 at 100
mm. The max aggregate size is: dg = 20 mm (< 32 mm). The design working life of the structure is
50 years. Normal quality control is put in place.

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Reinforced concrete structures I
From table E.1N - EC2 we see that, in order to obtain an adequate concrete durability, the
reference (min.) concrete strength class for exposure class XC1 is C20/25; the resistance class
adopted (C25/30) is suitable as it is higher than the reference strength class.
The structural class is S4. First, the concrete cover for the stirrups is calculated.
With cmin,b = 8 mm
We obtain from table 4.4N - EC2:
cmin,dur = 15 mm
Moreover:
∆cdur,γ = 0 ;
∆cdur,st = 0 ;
∆cdur,add = 0 .
cmin = max (cmin,b; cmin,dur + ∆cdur,γ - ∆cdur,st - ∆cdur,add; 10 mm) = max (8; 15 + 0 – 0 – 0;
10 mm) = 15 mm
Moreover:
Δcdev = 10 mm
cnom =cmin + Δcdev = 15 + 10 = 25 mm .
If we now calculate now the concrete cover for longitudinal reinforcement bars,
we have: cmin,b = 20 mm.
We obtain from table 4.4N - EC2:
Cmin,dur = 15 mm .
Moreover: ∆dur,γ c = 0 ;

Δcdur,st = 0 ;
Δcdur,add = 0 .
cmin = max (20; 15 + 0 – 0 – 0; 10 mm) = 20 mm .
Moreover: Δcdev = 10 mm.
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Reinforced concrete structures I
cnom = 20 + 10 = 30 mm .
The concrete cover for the stirrups is ―dominant‖. In this case, the concrete cover for longitudinal
bars is increased to: 25 + 8 = 33 mm
Minimum and Maximum Area OF Reinforcement.
Minimum and Maximum area of reinforcement according to EN 1992-1-1-2004 The area of
longitudinal tension reinforcement should not be taken as less than As, min.

As,min=0.26 btd but not less than 0.0013btd

Where:
bt -denotes the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in compression, only
the width of the web is taken into account in calculating the value of bt.
fctm -should be determined with respect to the relevant strength class according to Table 3.1. of
Eurocode The cross-sectional area of tension or compression reinforcement should not exceed
As,max outside lap locations.
The value of As,max for beams for use in a country may be found in its National Annex. The
recommended value is 0.04Ac
SPACING OF BARS
Spacing of bars according to EN 1992-1-1-2004 The clear distance (horizontal and vertical)
between individual parallel bars or horizontal layers of parallel bars should be not less than

max{

Where dg is the maximum size of aggregate

The recommended values of k1 and k2 are 1 and 5 mm respectively.

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Reinforced concrete structures I