Biopsychology |PSYCH 130

CHAPTER 1: BIOPSYCHOLOGY AS A NEUROSCIENCE

 the human brain is a squishy, wrinkled, walnut-  Neuroendocrinology. The study of interactions
shaped hunk of tissue weighing about 1.3 kilograms between the nervous system and the endocrine
 neurons – cells that receive and transmit system
electrochemical signals  Neuropathology. The study of nervous system
 neuroscience – the scientific study of the nervous dysfunction
system  Neuropharmacology. The study of the effects of
drugs on neural activity
 Neurophysiology. The study of the functions and
FOUR MAJOR THEMES OF THIS TEXT activities of the nervous system

 THINKING CREATIVELY ABOUT

WHAT TYPES OF RESEARCH CHARACTERIZE
BIOPSYCHOLOGY – thinking creatively (thinking in
THE BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH?
productive, unconventional ways) is the cornerstone
of any science
 CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS – Clinical (pertaining to HUMAN AND NONHUMAN SUBJECTS
illness or treatment) considerations are woven
through the fabric of biopsychology  Both human and nonhuman animals are the subjects
 THE EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE – evolution of biopsychological research
of the human species can never be determined with  Nonhumans: mice, rats, cats, dogs, and nonhuman
certainty, thinking of the environmental pressures primates
that likely led to the evolution of our brains and  Advantages of humans as experimental subjects
behavior o can follow instructions
 NEUROPLASTICITY – adult brain is not a static o can report their subjective experiences
network of neurons: It is a plastic (changeable) o often cheaper
organ that continuously grows and changes in o have human brains
response  Advantages of nonhuman animals as experimental
subjects
EMERGING THEMES OF THIS TEXT o brains and behavior are simpler
o more likely to reveal fundamental brain-behavior
 THINKING ABOUT EPIGENETICS – product of
interactions
ongoing interactions between your genes and your
o insights frequently arise from the comparative
experiences
approach, the study of biological processes by
 CONSCIOUSNESS – the perception or awareness
comparing different species
of some aspect of one’s self or the world
o conduct research on laboratory animals that, for
ethical reasons, is not possible with human
WHAT IS BIOPSYCHOLOGY?
participants
3R’s of nonhuman animal ethics committees
DEFINE BIOPSYCHOLOGY  Reduction – reduce the numbers of animals used in
research
 Biopsychology is the scientific study of the biology
 Refinement – refining research studies or the way
of behavior
animals are cared for, so as to reduce suffering
 biopsychology because it denotes a biological (providing animals with better living conditions)
approach to the study of psychology rather than a
 Replacement – replacing of studies using animal
psychological approach to the study of biology
subjects with alternate techniques (experimenting on
cell cultures or using computer models)
WHAT ARE THE ORIGINS OF
BIOPSYCHOLOGY?
EXPERIMENTS AND NONEXPERIMENTS
 develop into a major neuroscientific discipline in the
Experiments
20th century
 method used by scientists to study causation, that is,
 The Organization of Behavior by Donald Hebb
to find out what causes what
played a key role in its emergence
 between-subjects design – a different group of
subjects is tested under each condition
HOW IS BIOPSYCHOLOGY RELATED TO THE
 within-subjects design – test the same group of
OTHER DISCIPLINES OF NEUROSCIENCE?
subjects under each condition
integrative discipline  independent variable – difference between the
 Neuroanatomy. The study of the structure of the conditions
nervous system  dependent variable – assess the effect of the
 Neurochemistry. The study of the chemical bases independent variable
of neural activity  confounded variable – unintended difference
 Coolidge effect is the fact that a copulating male  Korsakoff’s syndrome
who becomes incapable of continuing to copulate o neuropsychological disorder by Sergei Korsakoff
with one sex partner can often recommence (Russian) during the 19th century
copulating with a new sex partner o severe memory loss that commonly occurs on
 quasiexperimental studies – studies of groups of heavy drinkers; thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency
subjects who have been exposed to the conditions of
interest in the real world scientific inference
 case studies – studies that focus on a single  the empirical method that biopsychologists and other
subject, or very small number of subjects scientists use to study the unobservable
o generalizability—the degree to which their
results can be applied to other cases critical thinking
 the process by which these weaknesses are
PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH recognized

 pure research – motivated primarily by the curiosity

of the researcher—it is done solely for the purpose
of acquiring knowledge
o translational research: research that aims to
translate the findings of pure research into
useful applications for humankind
 applied research is intended to bring about some
direct benefit to humankind

WHAT ARE THE DIVISIONS OF

BIOPSYCHOLOGY?
 Physiological Psychology
o studies the neural mechanisms of behavior
through the direct manipulation and recording of
the brain in controlled experiments—surgical
and electrical methods are most common
 Psychopharmacology
o focuses on the manipulation of neural activity
and behavior with drugs
 Neuropsychology
o study of the psychological effects of brain
dysfunction in human patients
 Psychophysiology
o studies the relation between physiological
activity and psychological processes in humans
 Cognitive neuroscience
o study the neural bases of cognition, a term that
generally refers to higher intellectual processes
such as thought, memory, attention, and
complex perceptual processes
o major method of cognitive neuroscience is
functional brain imaging
 Comparative psychology
o focuses on the behavior of animals in their
natural environments
o study of the evolution, genetics, and
adaptiveness of behavior, largely through the
use of the comparative method
o ethological research—the study of behavior in
an animal’s natural environment

HOW DO BIOPSYCHOLOGISTS CONDUCT

THEIR WORK?
 converging operations – combined approach when
different approaches are focused on a single
problem in such a way that the strengths of one
approach compensate for the weaknesses of the
others
 Biopsychology |PSYCH 130
CHAPTER 2: EVOLUTION, GENETICS, AND EXPERIENCE

 nature-nurture issue
o whether humans and other animals inherit their
behavioral capacities or acquire them through
learning
 ethology – the study of animal behavior in the wild
 instinctive behaviors – behaviors that occur in all
like members of a species, even when there seems
to have been no opportunity for them to have been
learned
 physiological-or-psychological thinking – the
assumption that some aspects of human
psychological functioning are so complex that they
could not possibly be the product of a physical brain

A MODEL OF THE BIOLOGY OF BEHAVIOR

Evolution and Behavior

 Social Dominance
 all behavior is the product of interactions among
o males of many species establish a stable
three factors:
o the organism’s genetic endowment, which is a hierarchy of social dominance through
combative encounters with other males
product of its evolution
 Courtship Display
o its experience
o intricate series of courtship displays precedes
o its perception of the current situation
copulation in many species
o species is a group of organisms reproductively
HUMAN EVOLUTION
isolated from other organisms
 Modern biology began in 1859 with the publication of o conspecifics – members of the same species
Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species
 evolution occurs through natural selection Course of Human Evolution
 Fitness – is the ability of an organism to survive and
EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATES
contribute its genes to the next generation.
 complex multicellular water-dwelling organisms first
appeared on earth about 800 million years ago
 Chordates – are animals with dorsal nerve cords
 vertebrae – spinal bones
 vertebrates – chordates that possess them
 first vertebrates were primitive bony fishes
 seven classes of vertebrates: three classes of fishes,
plus amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

EVOLUTION OF AMPHIBIANS
 bony fishes started to venture out of the water
 through the process of natural selection, the fins and o An increase in the number of convolutions—
gills of bony fishes transformed into legs and lungs, folds on the cerebral surface—has greatly
respectively, and so it was that the first amphibians increased the surface area of the cerebral
 Amphibians (e.g., frogs, toads, and salamanders) in cortex, the outermost layer of cerebral tissue
their larval form must live in the water; only adult
amphibians can survive on land FUNDAMENTAL GENETICS

EVOLUTION OF REPTILES
 reptiles (e.g., lizards, snakes, and turtles) evolved
Mendelian Genetics
from a branch of amphibians  Dichotomous traits occur in one form or the other,
 first vertebrates to lay shell-covered eggs and to be never in combination
covered by dry scales  True-breeding lines are breeding lines in which
interbred members always produce offspring with the
EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS same trait (e.g., brown seeds), generation after
 females of this new class fed their young with generation
secretions from special glands called mammary  dominant trait – appeared in all of the first-
glands generation offspring
 order to which we belong is the order primates  recessive trait – appeared in about one-quarter of
the second-generation offspring
EMERGENCE OF HUMANKIND  phenotype – organism’s observable
 Primates of the same group that includes humans  genotype – the traits that it can pass on to its
are known as hominins offspring through its genetic material
 Hominins include six sub-groups including  gene – inherited factor
Australopithecus and Homo  alleles – two genes that control the same trait
o we humans (Homo Sapiens) are the only one
 homozygous – organisms that possess two identical
still kicking around alleles (e.g., two white-seed alleles)
 heterozygous – possess different alleles (e.g., one
white seed allele and one black-seed allele) for a
trait

Chromosomes
REPRODUCTION AND RECOMBINATION
 chromosomes – genes were found here; the
threadlike structures in the nucleus of each cell
 meiosis – process of cell division that produces
gametes
 gametes – egg cells and sperm cells
 zygote – a fertilized egg cell
 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans
 mitosis – all other cell division in the body occurs by

STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION

 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – double-stranded
molecule
 Each strand is a sequence of nucleotide bases
attached to a chain of phosphate and deoxyribose;
 exaptations – evolved to serve one function and there are four nucleotide bases: adenine, thymine,
were later co-opted to serve another guanine, and cytosine
 homologous – have a common evolutionary origin  Replication is a critical process of the DNA
molecule
 analogous – similar but do not have a common
 mutations – errors in replication; alterations of
evolutionary origin
individual genes
 convergent evolution – similarities between
analogous structures; the evolution in unrelated
SEX CHROMOSOMES AND SEX-LINKED TRAITS
species of similar solutions to the same
 autosomal chromosomes – come in matched pairs
environmental demands
 sex chromosomes – the pair of chromosomes that
 three important points about the evolution of the determines an individual’s sex
human brain: o X and Y chromosomes
o The brain has increased in size during evolution. o Females – XX
o Most of the increase in size has occurred in the o Males – XY
cerebrum.  sex-linked traits – traits influenced by genes on the
sex chromosomes
  Transgenerational epigenetics is a subfield of
epigenetics that examines the transmission of
Genetic Code and Gene Expression experiences via epigenetic mechanisms across
generations
 Proteins are long chains of amino acids; they
control the physiological activities of cells and are
Epigenetics of Behavioral Development:
important components of cellular structure
Interaction of Genetic Factors and Experience
 Promoters – stretches of DNA whose function is to
determine whether or not particular structural genes  Ontogeny is the development of individuals over
are converted into proteins through a two-phase their life span
process known as gene expression  Phylogeny is the evolutionary development of
 activators – proteins that bind to DNA and increase species through the ages
gene expression
 repressors – bind to DNA and decrease gene  monozygotic twins – developed from the same
expression zygote and thus are genetically similar
 Gene expression involves two phases:  dizygotic twins – developed from two zygotes and
o Transcription – the small section of the thus are no more similar than any pair of siblings
chromosome that contains the gene unravels, (brothers and sisters)
and the unraveled section of one of the DNA
strands serves as a template for the  heritability estimate is not about individual
transcription of a short strand of ribonucleic acid development; it is a numerical estimate of the
(RNA). proportion of variability that occurred in a particular
o Translation – the messenger RNA attaches trait in a particular study as a result of the genetic
itself to any one of the many ribosomes present variation in that study
in the cell’s cytoplasm (the clear fluid within the
cell).
 messenger RNA – strand of transcribed RNA is
called because it carries the genetic code out of the
nucleus of the cell
 codon – each group of three consecutive nucleotide
bases along the messenger RNA strand

In summary, the process of gene expression involves two

phases. The first phase involves the transcription of
the DNA base-sequence code to an RNA base-
sequence code. The second phase involves the
translation of the RNA base sequence code into a
protein

Human Genome Project

 One of the most ambitious scientific projects of all
time began in 1990
 compile a map of the sequence of all 3 billion
nucleotide bases that compose human
chromosomes

Modern Genetics: Growth of Epigenetics

 DNA methylation is the reaction that occurs when a
methyl group attaches to a DNA molecule, usually at
cytosine sites in mammals
 Histone remodeling is the reaction that occurs
when histones (proteins around which DNA is
coiled) change their shape and in so doing influence
the shape of the adjacent DNA— there are several
different mechanisms by which this can occur
 Epigenome represents a catalogue of all the
modifications to DNA within a particular cell type
other than changes to the nucleotide base sequence
 epitranscriptome of a cell refers to all those
modifications of RNA that occur after transcription—
that do not involve modifications to the RNA base
sequence
 Biopsychology |PSYCH 130
CHAPTER 3: ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

General Layout of the Nervous System relative levels of sympathetic and

parasympathetic activity
o (3) sympathetic changes are indicative of
Divisions of the Nervous System
The vertebrae nervous system is composed of two psychological arousal, whereas
divisions: parasympathetic
 Central Nervous System (CNS) changes are indicative of psychological
o located in the skull and spine relaxation.
o two divisions:  Most of the nerves of the peripheral nervous system
project from the spinal cord, but there are 12 pairs of
 brain
exceptions: the 12 pairs of cranial nerves, which
 located in the skull
project from the brain.
 spinal cord
o cranial nerves include purely sensory nerves
 located in the spine
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) such as:
 olfactory nerves (I)
o located outside the skull and spine
 the optic nerves (II)
o two divisions:
 but most contain both sensory and motor
 somatic nervous system (SNS)
fibers
 interacts with the external environment
 the longest cranial nerves are the vagus
 composed of afferent nerves (carry
nerves (X), which contain motor and
sensory signals from the skin, skeletal
sensory fibers traveling to and from the gut.
muscles, joints, eyes, ears, and so on
to the CNS) and efferent nerves (carry
motor signals from the CNS to the
skeletal muscles).
 autonomic nervous system (ANS)
 regulates the body’s internal
environment
 composed of afferent nerves that carry
sensory signals form internal organs to
the CNS and efferent nerves that carry
motor signals from the CNS to internal
organs.
 two kinds of efferent nerves
 Sympathetic nerves
- autonomic motor nerves that
project form the CNS in the Meninges
lumbar (small of the back) and The brain and spinal cord (the CNS) are the most
thoracic (chest area) regions protected organs in the body. They are encased in bone
of the spina cord. and covered by three protective membranes, the three
- Fight-or-flight response meninges.
 Parasympathetic nerves  The outer meninx (singular of meninges) is a tough
- Autonomic motor nerves that membrane called the dura mater (tough mother).
project from the brain and  inside the dura mater is the fine arachnoid
sacral (lower back) region of membrane (spider-web-like membrane).
the spinal cord.
 Beneath the arachnoid membrane is a space called
the subarachnoid space, which contains many
 All sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves are two-
large blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid
stage neural paths: The sympathetic and
 the innermost meninx, the delicate pia mater (pious
parasympathetic neurons project from the CNS and
mother), which adheres to the surface of the CNS.
go only part of the way to the target organs before
they synapse on other neurons (second-stage
neurons) that carry the signals the rest of the way.
 Three important principles:
o (1) sympathetic nerves stimulate, organize, and
mobilize energy resources in threatening
situations, whereas parasympathetic nerves act
to conserve energy
o (2) each autonomic target organ receives
opposing sympathetic and parasympathetic
input, and its activity is thus controlled by
 two fundamentally different types: neurons and glial
cells

Anatomy of Neurons
 neurons
o cells that are specialized for the reception,
conduction, and transmission of electrochemical
signals.
o come in an incredible variety of shapes and
sizes
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
 cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
o protects the CNS which fills the subarachnoid
space, the central canal of the spinal cord, and
the cerebral ventricles of the brain
 central canal - small central channel that
runs the length of the spinal cord
 cerebral ventricles are the four large
internal chambers of the brain: the two
lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the
fourth ventricle
o supports and cushions the brain
o produced by the choroid plexuses
o cerebral aqueduct - connects the third and
fourth ventricles
o hydrocephalus (water head)
 resulting buildup of fluid in the ventricles
causes the walls of the ventricles, and thus
the entire brain, to expand.
 treated by draining the excess fluid from the
ventricles and trying to remove the
obstruction.

Blood-Brain Barrier
 a mechanism impedes the passage of many toxic
substances from the blood into the brain Neuron Cell Membrane
 consequence of the special structure of cerebral
blood vessels  composed of a lipid bilayer, or two layers of fat
molecules
Cells of the Nervous System
 some membrane proteins are channel proteins,
through which certain molecules can pass; others
are signal proteins, which transfer a signal to the  in the CNS, bundles of axon are called tracts
inside of the neuron when particular molecules bind  in the PNS, they are called nerves
to them on the outside of the membrane.

Glia: The Forgotten Cells

 roughly two glia for every three neurons in the brain
 kinds of glia:
o oligodendrocytes
 glial cells with extensions that wrap around
the axons of some neurons of the CNS
 extensions are rich in myelin, a fatty
insulating substance, and the myelin
sheaths they form increase the speed of
axonal conduction
 provides several myelin segments, often on
more than one axon
 schwann cells
 similar function is performed in the
PNS; second class of glia
 constitutes one myelin segment
Classes of Neurons  guide axonal regeneration (regrowth)
 multipolar neuron after damage
o neuron with more than two processes extending
from its cell body
o most neurons are multipolar
 unipolar neuron
o neuron with one process extending from its cell
body
 bipolar neuron
o neuron with two processes extending from its
cell body
 interneurons
o short axon or no axon at all
o integrate neural activity within a single brain
structure, not to conduct signals from one
structure to another
o microglia
 make up a third class of glia
 smaller than other glial cells
 respond to injury or disease by multiplying,
engulfing cellular debris or even entire cells,
and triggering inflammatory responses
o astrocytes
 fourth class of glia
 largest glial cells
 extensions of some astrocytes cover the
outer surfaces of blood vessels that course
through the brain
 make contact with neurons
 allowing the passage of some chemicals
from the blood into CNS neurons and in
blocking other chemicals

Neurons and Neuroanatomical Structure Neuroanatomical Techniques and Directions

 two kinds of gross neural structures in the nervous
Golgi Stain
system: those composed primarily of cell bodies and
those composed primarily of axons  trying to stain the meninges, by exposing a block of
neural tissue to potassium dichromate and silver
 nuclei (singular: nucleus)
nitrate
o clusters of cell bodies
 commonly used to discover the overall shape of
o in the PNS, they are called ganglia (singular:
neurons
ganglion)
 using invaded a few neurons in each slice of tissue o away from the midline toward the body’s lateral
and stained each invaded neuron entirely black surfaces
two other common directional term
Nissl Stain  proximal (close) – closer to the CNS
 common dye used in the Nissl method is cresyl violet  distal (far) – farther from the CNS
 Cresyl violet and other Nissl dyes penetrate all cells
on a slide, but they bind to molecules (i.e., DNA and
RNA) that are most prevalent in neuron cell bodies
 often are used to estimate the number of cell bodies
in an area, by counting the number of Nissl-stained
dots.

Electron Microscopy
 neuroanatomical technique that provides information
about the details of neuronal structure
 the limit of magnification in light microscopy is about
1,500 times, a level of magnification insufficient to
reveal the fine anatomical details of neurons
 electron micrograph – result, which captures
neuronal structure in exquisite detail
 scanning electron microscope – provides
spectacular electron micrographs in three
dimensions, but is not capable of as much
magnification as conventional electron microscopy

Anatomy of the Central Nervous System

Neuroanatomical Tracing Techniques
 two types:
o anterograde (forward) tracing methods Spinal Cord
 used when an investigator wants to trace
Two different areas:
the paths of axons projecting away from cell
bodies located in a particular area  inner H-shaped core of gray matter
o retrograde (backward) tracing methods o Gray matter – composed largely of cell bodies
 work in the reverse manner; they are used and unmyelinated interneurons
when an investigator wants to trace the  surrounding area of white matter
paths of axons projecting into a particular o White matter – composed largely of myelinated
area axons

The two dorsal arms of the spinal gray matter are called
the dorsal horns, and the two ventral arms are called
the ventral horns.

Direction in the Vertebrae Nervous System

three axes:
 anterior
o toward the nose end (the anterior end)
o rostral
 posterior
o toward the tail end (the posterior end) Five Major Divisions of the Brain
o caudal
encephalon – within the head
 dorsal
Brain stem
o toward the surface of the back or the top of the
 Other four divisions of the brain often referred to as
head (the dorsal surface)
 the stem on which the cerebral hemisphere sits
 ventral
o toward the surface of the chest or the bottom of
the head (the ventral surface)
 medial
o toward the midline of the body
 lateral
  tegmentum
o division of the mesencephalon ventral to the
tectum
o contains three colorful structures of particular
interest to biopsychologists:
 periaqueductal gray
 gray matter situated around the
cerebral aqueduct, the duct
connecting the third and fourth
ventricles; it is of special interest
because of its role in mediating the
analgesic (pain-reducing) effects of
telencephalon
opioid drugs
 undergoes the greatest growth during development
 substantia nigra
 black substance
Myelencephalon
 important components of the
 often referred to as the medulla sensorimotor system
 most posterior division of the brain  red nucleus
 composed largely of tracts carrying signals between  important components of the
the rest of the brain and the body sensorimotor system
 reticular formation
o a complex network of about 100 tiny nuclei that Diencephalon
occupies the central core of the brain stem from  two structures:
the posterior boundary of the myelencephalon to o thalamus
the anterior boundary of the midbrain  large, two-lobed structure that constitutes
o netlike appearance the top of the brain stem
o referred to as the reticular activating system  one lobe sits on each side of the third
because parts of it seem to play a role in ventricle, and the two lobes are joined
arousal by the massa intermedia, which runs
o sleep, attention, movement, the maintenance of through the ventricle.
muscle tone, and various cardiac, circulatory,  visible on the surface of the thalamus are
and respiratory reflexes white lamina (layers) that are composed of
myelinated axons.
Metencephalon  comprises many different pairs of nuclei,
 houses many ascending and descending tracts and most of which project to the cortex
part of the reticular formation  most well-understood thalamic nuclei are
 create a bulge, called the pons, on the brain stem’s the
ventral surface  sensory relay nuclei—nuclei that receive
 pons - one major division of the metencephalon; the signals from sensory receptors, process
other is the cerebellum (little brain) them, and then transmit them to the
 cerebellum appropriate areas of sensory cortex
o large, convoluted structure on the brain stem’s o hypothalamus
dorsal surface.  located just below the anterior thalamus
o important sensorimotor structure; cerebellar (hypo means “below”)
damage eliminates the ability to precisely  regulation of several motivated behaviors
control one’s movements and to adapt them to (e.g., eating, sleep, and sexual behavior)
changing conditions  release of hormones from the pituitary
gland (“snot gland”), which dangles from it
Mesencephalon on the ventral surface of the brain
 optic chiasm
two divisions:
 optic nerves from each eye come
 tectum (roof)
together and then decussate (cross
o dorsal surface of the midbrain
over to the other side of the brain)
o in mammals, the tectum is composed of two
 decussating fibers are said to be
pairs of bumps, the colliculi (little hills) contralateral (projecting from one side
o posterior pair, called the inferior colliculi, have of the body to the other), and the
an auditory function nondecussating fibers are said to be
o anterior pair, called the superior colliculi, have a ipsilateral (staying on the same side of
visual-motor function; more specifically, to direct the body).
the body’s orientation toward or away from  mammillary bodies
particular visual stimuli  often considered to be part of the
o in lower vertebrates, the function of the tectum hypothalamus, are a pair of spherical
is entirely visual-motor, and it is sometimes nuclei located on the inferior surface of
referred to as the optic tectum.
 the hypothalamus, just behind the
pituitary

Telencephalon
 largest division of the human brain, mediates the
brain’s most complex functions
 initiates voluntary movement, interprets sensory
input, and mediates complex cognitive processes
such as learning, speaking, and problem solving.
 Cerebral cortex
o cerebral hemispheres are covered by a layer of
tissue
o mainly composed of small, unmyelinated
neurons, it is gray and is often referred to as the
gray matter
 The large furrows in a convoluted cortex are called
fissures, the small ones are called sulci (singular
sulcus).
 the ridges between fissures and sulci are called gyri
(singular gyrus).
 cerebral hemispheres are almost completely
separated by the largest of the fissures: the
longitudinal fissure.
 The cerebral hemispheres are directly connected by
a few tracts spanning the longitudinal fissure; these
hemisphere-connecting tracts are called cerebral
commissures. Limbic System and the Basal Ganglia
 The largest cerebral commissure, the corpus
callosum  The limbic system is a circuit of midline structures
 two major landmarks on the lateral surface of each that circle the thalamus (limbic means “ring”)
hemisphere are the central fissure and the lateral  involved in the regulation of motivated behaviors—
fissure. These fissures partially divide each including the four F’s of motivation: fleeing, feeding,
hemisphere into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the fighting, and sexual behavior
parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital  major structures of the limbic system include the
lobe. amygdala, the fornix, the cingulate cortex, and the
 Among the largest gyri are the precentral gyri, the septum
postcentral gyri, and the superior temporal gyri in 
the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes, respectively\
 About 90 percent of human cerebral cortex is
neocortex (new cortex), also known as isocortex
 many cortical neurons fall into one of two different
categories: pyramidal (pyramid-shaped) cells and
stellate (star-shaped) cells
o Pyramidal cells are large multipolar neurons
with pyramid-shaped cell bodies, a large
dendrite called an apical dendrite that extends
from the apex of the pyramid straight toward the
cortex surface, and a very long axon
o stellate cells are small star shaped interneurons
(neurons with a short axon or no axon)
 vertical flow of information is the basis of the
neocortex’s columnar organization: Neurons in a
given vertical column of neocortex often form a mini-
circuit that performs a single function
 hippocampus
o one important area of cortex that is not
neocortex—it has only three major layers amygdala—the almond-shaped nucleus in the anterior
o located at the medial edge of the cerebral cortex temporal lobe
as it folds back on itself in the medial temporal  cingulate cortex is the large strip of cortex in the
lobe cingulate gyrus on the medial surface of the
o plays a major role in some kinds of memory cerebral hemispheres, just superior to the corpus
callosum; it encircles the dorsal thalamus (cingulate
means “encircling”)
 fornix, the major tract of the limbic system, also
encircles the dorsal thalamus; it leaves the dorsal
end of the hippocampus and sweeps forward in an
arc coursing along the superior surface of the third
ventricle and terminating in the septum and the
mammillary bodies (fornix means “arc”).
 septum is a midline nucleus located at the anterior
tip of the cingulate cortex
 basal ganglia

o play a role in the performance of voluntary

motor responses and decision making
o long tail-like caudate (tail-like) and putamen
receive inputs from the neocortex
o Together, the caudate and putamen, which both
have a striped appearance, are known as the
striatum (striped structure)
o striatum’s major output is to a pale circular
structure known as the globus pallidus (pale
globe)
o globus pallidus is located medial to the
putamen between the putamen and the
thalamus.

1. PARIETAL LOBE
2. CINGULATE GYRUS
3. FORNIX
4. CORPUS CALLOSUM
5. THALAMUS
6. HYPOTHALAMUS
7. INTERIOR COLLICULUS
8. MAMILLARY BODY
9. TEGMENTUM
10.FOURTH VENTRICLE
11.CEREBELUM
12.PONS
13.MEDULLA OR MYELENCEPHALON
 Biopsychology |PSYCH 130
CHAPTER 4: NEURAL CONDUCTION AND SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

Resting Membrane Potential  ion transporters in the cell membrane that

continually exchange three Na+ ions inside
Membrane Potential
the neuron for two K+ ions outside
 the difference in electrical charge between the inside
and the outside of a cell.

Recording the Membrane Potential

 the tip of the electrode should be inside the neuron
and another electrode outside the neuron in the
extracellular fluid.
 the tip of the intracellular electrode must be fine
enough to pierce the neural membrane without
damaging it.
o intracellular electrodes are called
microelectrodes—tips are less than one-
thousandth of a millimeter in diameter—too
small to be seen by the naked eye.
 both electrode tips are in the extracellular fluid –
voltage difference between them is zero
 when the tip of the intracellular electrode is inserted
into a neuron that is at rest (not receiving signals
from other cells), a steady potential of about −70
millivolts (mV) is recorded.
 potential inside the resting neuron is about 70 mV
less than that outside the neuron
 -70 mV ► neuron’s resting potential
 when the inside of the plasma membrane has a
negative charge compared to the outside – the
neuron is said to be polarized.

Ionic Basis of the Resting Potential

 Ions – salts in neural tissue separate into positively
and negatively charged ions.
o Sodium Ions (Na+)
o Potassium Ions (K+) GENERATION, CONDUCTION, AND
 In resting neurons, there are more ions outside K+ INTEGRATION OF POSTSYNAPTIC
the cell than inside and more ions inside than POTENTIALS
outside.
postsynaptic potentials (PSPs)
 Ion channels – specialized pores in the neural
 disturbances of the resting membrane potential
membrane
 graded in responses
o electrostatic pressure - opposite charges attract,
the positively charged Na+ ions are attracted to
GENERATION AND CONDUCTION OF
the −70 mV charge inside resting neurons
POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIALS
o pressure from random motion for Na+ ions to
move down their concentration gradient Neurotransmitter
 The sodium ion channels in resting neurons are  chemical messenger released from the terminal
closed, thus greatly reducing the flow Na+ of ions buttons
into the neuron. In contrast, the potassium ion  When neurotransmitter molecules bind to
channels are open in resting neurons, but only a few postsynaptic receptors, they typically have one of
K+ ions exit because the electrostatic pressure that two effects, depending on the neurotransmitter,
results from the negative resting membrane potential receptor, and postsynaptic neuron in question
largely holds them inside. o depolarize
 transporters  decrease the resting membrane potential,
o mechanisms in the membrane of a cell that from −70 to −67 mV, for example
actively transport ions or molecules across the  excitatory postsynaptic potentials
membrane (EPSPs) – increase the likelihood that the
o sodium–potassium pumps neuron will fire
o hyperpolarize
  increase the resting membrane potential,  some neurons display APs that have a longer
from −70 to −72 mV, for example duration, have a lower amplitude, or involve multiple
 inhibitory postsynaptic potentials spikes
(IPSPs) – decrease the likelihood that the  integration
neuron will fire o a process where each neuron sums the number
 graded potentials of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic
o all PSPs, both EPSPs and IPSPs potentials to create a single signal
o amplitudes of PSPs are proportional to the o the summation of PSPs occurs in two ways:
intensity of the signals that elicit them  spatial summation (over space)
o weak signals elicit small PSPs, and strong  when postsynaptic potentials that are
signals elicit large ones produced simultaneously in different
 characteristic of the transmission of PSPs parts of the receptive membrane are
o rapid – instantaneous added
o decremental – decrease in amplitude as they  temporal summation (over time)
travel through the neuron (ripple on a pond)  when postsynaptic potentials that are
produced in rapid succession at the
INTEGRATION OF POSTSYNAPTIC same synapse are added
POTENTIALS AND GENERATION OF ACTION
POTENTIALS
axon initial segment
 action potentials are generated (not at the axon
hillock)

threshold of excitation
 sufficient to depolarize the membrane to a level
 -65 mV – an action potential is generated

action potential (AP)

 massive but momentary—lasting for 1 millisecond—
reversal of the membrane potential from about −70
to about +50 mV.
 not graded in responses – magnitude is not related
in any way to the intensity of the stimuli that elicit
them
 all-or-none responses – either occur to their full
extent or do not occur at all
  orthodromic conduction – second AP will travel
along the axon towards the terminal buttons

CONDUCTION OF ACTION POTENTIAL

voltage-gated ion channels—ion channels that open or CONDUCTION IN MYELINATED AXONS
close in response to changes in membrane potential
 myelin – extracellular fluid by segments of fatty
tissue
IONIC BASIS OF ACTION POTENTIAL
 nodes of Ranvier
o gaps between adjacent myelin segments
o axonal voltage-gated sodium channels are
concentrated
 saltatory conduction (“to skip or jump”)
o transmission of APs in myelinated axons

THE VELOCITY OF AXONAL CONDUCTION

 conduction is faster in large-diameter axons and in
those that are myelinated

REFRACTORY PERIODS HODGKIN-HUXLEY MODEL IN PERSPECTIVE

 absolute refractory period – brief period of about 1  Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley – 1963 Nobel
to 2 milliseconds after the initiation of an AP during Prize
which it is impossible to elicit a second AP  based on the study of squid motor neurons
 relative refractory period – the period during which  should be applied to cerebral neurons with great
it is possible to fire the neuron again but only by caution
applying higher-than-normal levels of stimulation
 two important characteristics SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION: FROM
o APs normally travel along axons in only one ELECTRICAL SIGNALS TO CHEMICAL
direction SIGNALS
o the rate of neural firing is related to the intensity
of the stimulation  (1) the structure of synapses
AXONAL CONDUCTION OF ACTION  (2) the synthesis, packaging, and transport of
POTENTIALS neurotransmitter molecules
 (3) the release of neurotransmitter molecules
Conduction of APs vs PSPs along an axon
 (4) the activation of receptors by neurotransmitter
 Action Potential
molecules
o nondecremental – APs do not grow weaker as
 (5) the reuptake, enzymatic degradation, and
they travel along the axonal membrane recycling of neurotransmitter molecules
o conducted more slowly than PSPs
 antidromic conduction – one AP will travel along STRUCTURES OF SYNAPSES
the axon back to the cell body
 axodendritic synapse—a synapse of an axon  once released, neurotransmitter molecules produce
terminal button onto a dendrite signals in postsynaptic neurons by binding to
 axosomatic synapses—-synapses of axon terminal receptors in the postsynaptic membrane
buttons on somas (cell bodies)  any molecule that binds to another is referred to as
 tripartite synapse: a synapse that involves two its ligand
neurons and an astroglial cell  receptor subtypes – different types of receptors to
 dendrodendritic synapses – often capable of which a particular neurotransmitter can bind
transmission in either direction  Ionotropic receptors
 axoaxonic synapses – mediate presynaptic o associated with ligand-activated ion channels
facilitation and inhibition o usually opens or closes immediately, thereby
 axomyelenic synapses – an axon synapses on the inducing an immediate postsynaptic potential
myelin sheath of an oligodendrocyte  Metabotropic receptors

 directed synapses— synapses at which the site of

neurotransmitter release and the site of
neurotransmitter reception are in close proximity
 nondirected synapses
o synapses at which the site of release is at some
distance from the site of reception
o neurotransmitter molecules are released from a
series of varicosities (bulges or swellings) along
the axon and its branches and thus are widely
dispersed to surrounding targets
o string-of-beads synapses

SYNTHESIS, PACKAGING, AND TRANSPORT

OF NEUROTRANSMITTER MOLECULES
 two basic categories of neurotransmitter molecules:
large and small
o associated with signal proteins and G proteins
 Neuropeptides
(guanosine-triphosphate-sensitive proteins)
o all large neurotransmitters
o are more prevalent than ionotropic receptors,
o short amino acid chains composed of between 3
and their effects are slower to develop, longer-
and 36 amino acids
lasting, more diffuse, and more varied
o short proteins
o each is attached to a serpentine signal protein
 Small-molecule neurotransmitters are typically
that winds its way back and forth through the
synthesized in the cytoplasm of the terminal button cell membrane seven times
and packaged in synaptic vesicles by the button’s
 Autoreceptors are metabotropic receptors that have
Golgi complex
two unconventional characteristics: They bind to
 coexistence – many neurons contain two
their neuron’s own neurotransmitter molecules, and
neurotransmitters they are located on the presynaptic, rather than the
postsynaptic, membrane
RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
MOLECULES REUPTAKE, ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION, AND
Exocytosis—the process of neurotransmitter release RECYCLING
 the release of small-molecule neurotransmitters  two message-terminating mechanisms are reuptake
differs from the release of neuropeptides. by transporters and enzymatic degradation
o Small-molecule neurotransmitters are typically o Reuptake
released in a pulse each time an AP triggers a
 more common
momentary influx of Ca2+ ions into the
 almost immediately drawn back into the
presynaptic membrane
presynaptic buttons by transporter
o neuropeptides are typically released gradually in
mechanisms
response to general increases in the level of o neurotransmitters are degraded (broken apart)
intracellular Ca2+ ions, such as might occur
in the synapse by the action of enzymes—
during a general increase in the rate of neuron
proteins that stimulate or inhibit biochemical
firing
reactions without being affected by them
 extracellular vesicles often carry larger molecules
(e.g., proteins, RNA molecules) between different
GLIA, GAP JUNCTIONS, AND SYNAPTIC
neurons and glia in the central nervous system TRANSMISSION

ACTIVATION OF RECEPTORS BY  Gap junctions are narrow spaces between adjacent

NEUROTRANSMITTER MOLECULES cells that are bridged by fine, tubular, cytoplasm-
filled protein channels, called connexins.
 responsible for the existence of electrical synapses,  pituitary peptides – contains neuropeptides that
which can transmit signals much more rapidly than were first identified as hormones released by the
chemical synapses pituitary
 hypothalamic peptides – contains neuropeptides
NEUROTRANSMITTERS that were first identified as hormones released by the
hypothalamus
 three classes of conventional small-molecule
 brain–gut peptides – contains neuropeptides that
neurotransmitters:
were first discovered in the gut
o amino acids
 opioid peptides – contains neuropeptides that are
o monoamines
similar in structure to the active ingredients of opium
o acetylcholine
 miscellaneous peptides – is a catch-all category
o unconventional neurotransmitters (mechanisms that contains all of the neuropeptide transmitters that
of action are unusual) do not fit into one of the other four categories
 one class of large-molecule neurotransmitters
o neuropeptides

THE ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 neurotransmitters in the vast majority of fast-acting,
directed synapses in the central nervous system
 molecular building blocks of proteins
 glutamate, aspartate, glycine, and gamma-
aminobutyric acid (GABA)
 GABA is the most prevalent inhibitory
neurotransmitter

MONOAMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 each is synthesized from a single amino acid
 slightly larger than amino acid neurotransmitters
 effects tend to be more diffuse PHARMACOLOGY OF SYNAPTIC
 diffusely released into the extracellular fluid TRANSMISSION AND BEHAVIOR
 catecholamines
o dopamine  Drugs that facilitate the effects of a particular
o epinephrine neurotransmitter are said to be agonists
o norepinephrine  Drugs that inhibit the effects of a particular
neurotransmitter are said to be its antagonists
 indolamines
o serotonin
HOW DRUGS INFLUENCE SYNAPTIC
 Neurons that release norepinephrine are called TRANSMISSION
noradrenergic; those that release epinephrine are
 seven general steps are common to most
called adrenergic.
neurotransmitters:
o (1) synthesis of the neurotransmitter
ACETYLCHOLINE
o (2) storage in vesicles
 Acetylcholine (abbreviated Ach) is a small-molecule
o (3) breakdown in the cytoplasm of any
neurotransmitter that is, in one major respect, like a
neurotransmitter that leaks from the vesicles
professor who is late for a lecture: It is in a class by
o (4) exocytosis
itself
o (5) inhibitory feedback via autoreceptors
 adding an acetyl group to a choline molecule
o (6) activation of postsynaptic receptors
 Neurons that release acetylcholine are said to be
o (7) deactivation
cholinergic.

UNCONVENTIONAL NEUROTRANSMITTERS
 soluble-gas neurotransmitters, includes nitric
oxide and carbon monoxide
 endocannabinoids – similar to delta-9-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive
(producing psychological effects) constituent of
marijuana
o anandamide – most widely studies

NEUROPEPTIDES
 receptor blockers – some antagonistic drugs are
calle
 Biopsychology |PSYCH 130
CHAPTER 5: THE RESEARCH METHODS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY

METHODS OF VISUALIZING AND STIMULATING  MRI provides clearer images of the brain than does
THE LIVING HUMAN BRAIN CT
 spatial resolution – the ability to detect and
 x-ray based techniques represent differences in spatial location
 radioactivity-based technique  produce images in three dimensions
 magnetic-field-based technique
 ultrasound-based technique Diffusion Tensor MRI
 method of identifying those pathways along which
X-RAY BASED TECHNIQUES water molecules rapidly diffuse
Contrast x-ray techniques  tracts – bundles of axon; major routes of rapid water
diffusion in the brain
 injecting into one compartment of the body a
substance that absorbs x-rays either less than or  imperative to understand the connections among
more than the surrounding tissue those structures—the so-called connectome
 cerebral angiography, uses the infusion of a radio-
Functional MRI
opaque dye into a cerebral artery to visualize the
cerebral circulatory system during x-ray photography  produces images representing the increase in
o most useful for localizing vascular damage oxygenated blood flow to active areas of the brain
 often used to determine if a brain is dysfunctional;
Computed Tomography (CT) infer the content of an individual’s dreams
 computer-assisted x-ray procedure that can be used  signal recorded by fMRI is called the BOLD signal
to visualize the brain and other internal structures of (the blood-oxygen-level dependent signal)
the living body o indicates the parts of the brain that are active or
 patient lies with his or her head positioned in the inactive during a cognitive or behavioral test
center of a large cylinder  advantages of fMRI
 Scans of eight or nine horizontal brain sections are o nothing has to be injected into the volunteer
typically obtained from a patient. When combined, o it provides both structural and functional
these images provide three-dimensional information in the same image
representations of the brain. o its spatial resolution is better
 fMRI technology has poor temporal resolution, that
RADIOACTIVITY-BASED TECHNIQUES is, it is poor at specifying the timing of neural events

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

ULTRASOUND-BASED TECHNIQUES
 first brain imaging technique to provide images of
brain activity (functional brain images) rather than Functional ultrasound imaging (fUS)
images of brain structure (structural brain images)  new imaging technique that uses ultrasound (sound
 radioactive fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) is injected waves of a higher frequency than we can hear) to
into the patient’s carotid artery (an artery of the neck measure changes in blood volume in particular brain
that feeds the ipsilateral cerebral hemisphere regions
 merely a colored map of the amount of radioactivity  advantages of fUS
in each of the tiny cubic voxels (volume pixels) that o it is cheap
compose the scan o highly portable
 use in identifying the distribution of particular o can be used for imaging some individuals, such
molecules (e.g., neurotransmitters, receptors, as human infants, who cannot undergo PET or
transporters) in the brain fMRI
 ligands – ions or molecules that bind to other
molecules TRANSCRANIAL STIMULATION
 a way of turning off particular areas of cortex
MAGNETIC-FIELD-BASED TECHNIQUES
 can be used to show a correlation between brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) activity and cognitive activity, but they can’t prove
 a structural brain-imaging procedure in which high- that the brain activity caused the cognitive activity
resolution images are constructed from the
measurement of radio-frequency waves that Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
hydrogen atoms emit as they align with a powerful  technique that can be used to turn off/on an area of
magnetic field human cortex by creating a magnetic field under a
 imaging is possible because: coil positioned next to the skull
o water contains two hydrogen atoms (H2O)
o different brain structures contain different
amounts of water
Transcranial electrical stimulation (tES)
 can be used to stimulate (“turn on”) an area of the
cortex by applying an electrical current through two
electrodes placed directly on the scalp
 temporarily increases activity in part of the brain
while the effects of the stimulation on cognition and
behavior are assessed

Transcranial ultrasound stimulation (tUS)

 can be used to activate particular brain structures
 also be used to activate subcortical structures
 multiple sources of low-amplitude ultrasonic sound
waves are placed around the head of the individual
 also be used to make small permanent lesions to a
brain structure

RECORDING HUMAN PSYCHOLOGICAL

ACTIVITY
 psychophysiological recording methods – methods
of recording physiological activity from the surface of
the human body
Magnetoencephalography
 six most widely studied psychophysiological
 measures changes in magnetic fields on the surface
measures
of the scalp that are produced by changes in
o brain activity (scalp EEG &
underlying patterns of neural activity
magnetoencephalography)
 two major advantages:
o somatic nervous system activity (muscle tension
o it has much better spatial resolution than EEG;
& eye movement)
that is, it can localize changes in electrical
o autonomic nervous system activity (skin
activity in the cortex with greater precision
conductance & cardiovascular activity)
o can be used to localize sub cortical activity with
greater reliability than EEG
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF
 disadvantages:
BRAIN ACTIVITY
o high price
Scalp Electroencephalography o large size of the MEG machines
 electroencephalogram (EEG) is a measure of the o requirement that participants remain very still
gross electrical activity of the brain during recordings
 electroencephalograph (EEG machine) – machine
recorded through large electrodes PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF
 electroencephalography – technique SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ACTIVITY
 scalp EEG signal reflects the sum of electrical
Muscle Tension
events throughout the head
 Electromyography is the usual procedure for
 usual to record EEG activity from many sites
measuring muscle tension
simultaneously
 Electromyogram – resulting record
 event-related potentials (ERPs) – accompanying
EEG waves  usually recorded between two electrodes taped to
the surface of the skin over the muscle of interest
 sensory evoked potential—the change in the
cortical EEG signal elicited by the momentary
Eye Movement
presentation of a sensory stimulus
 two components:  electrooculography – electrophysiological
o response to the stimulus (the signal) – any technique for recording eye movements
recording that is of interest  electrooculogram (EOG) – resulting record
o ongoing background EEG activity (the noise) –  steady potential difference exists between the front
any recording that is not of interest (positive) and back (negative) of the eyeball
 signal averaging – method used to reduce the
noise of the background EEG PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL MEASURES OF
 analysis of average evoked potentials (AEPs) AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ACTIVITY
focuses on the various waves in the averaged signal. Skin Conductance
Each wave is characterized by its direction, positive
 two most commonly employed indexes of
or negative, and by its latency
electrodermal activity:
 far-field potentials – small waves; although they o skin conductance level (SCL) – measure of
are recorded from the scalp, they originate far away
the background level of skin conductance that is
in the sensory nuclei of the brain stem.
associated with a particular situation
 o skin conductance response (SCR) – measure  bregma—the point on the top of the skull
of the transient changes in skin conductance where two of the major sutures (seams in
that are associated with discrete experiences the skull) intersect
o stereotaxic instrument
Cardiovascular Activity  two parts:
 has two parts:  head holder – which firmly holds each
o blood vessels subject’s brain in the prescribed
o heart position and orientation
 electrode holder – which holds the
 system for distributing oxygen and nutrients to the
device to be inserted; moved in three
tissues of the body, removing metabolic wastes, and
dimensions: anterior-posterior, dorsal-
transmitting chemical messages
ventral, and lateral-medial
 three different measures:
o heart rate
Lesion Methods
 heartbeat can be recorded through
electrodes placed on the chest 4 types of lesions methods
 electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) –  aspiration
recording o method of choice
 average resting heart rate of a healthy o cortical tissue is drawn off by suction through a
adult– 70 bpm fine-tipped handheld glass pipette
o blood pressure  radio-frequency lesions
 two independent measurements: o high-frequency current
 systoles – a measurement of the peak
 knife cuts
pressure during the periods of heart
o sectioning (cutting) – eliminate conduction in a
contraction
nerve or tract
 diastoles – measurements of the
 reversible lesions
minimum pressure during the periods
o useful alternatives to destructive lesions
of relaxation
 usually expressed as a ratio of systolic over o temporarily eliminating the activity in a particular
diastolic area of the brain while tests are being
 normal resting blood pressure for an adult conducted
is about 130/70 mmHg
 hypertension – chronic blood pressure of bilateral lesions
more than 140/90 mmHg is viewed as a  lesions involving both sides of the brain
serious health hazard
 sphygmomanometer – measures blood unilateral lesions
pressure; a crude device composed of a  lesions restricted to one half of the brain
hollow cuff, a rubber bulb for inflating it, and  milder in nonhuman species
a pressure gauge for measuring the
pressure in the cuff (sphygmos means Electrical Stimulation
“pulse”)
 usually delivered across the two tips of a bipolar
o blood volume
electrode––two insulated wires wound tightly
 Plethysmography – various techniques for
together and cut at the end
measuring changes in the volume of blood
 an important biopsychological research tool because
in a particular part of the body
it often has behavioral effects, usually opposite to
those produced by a lesion to the same site
INVASIVE PHSYIOLOGICAL RESEARCH
 can elicit a number of behavioral sequences,
METHODS
including eating, drinking, attacking, copulating, and
sleeping
Stereotaxic Surgery
Invasive Electrophysiological Recording
 first step in many biopsychological experiments Methods
 experimental devices are precisely positioned in the
depths of the brain Intracellular Unit Recording
 two things are required:  provide a moment-by-moment record of the graded
o stereotaxic atlas fluctuations in one neuron’s membrane potential
 used to locate brain structures  records the membrane potential from one neuron as
 represented by a series of individual maps, it fires
one per page, each representing the
structure of a single, two-dimensional Extracellular Uniextrt Recording
frontal brain slice  with extracellular unit recording, it is possible to
 distances are given in millimeters from a record the activity of a neuron through a
designated reference point microelectrode whose tip is positioned in the
extracellular fluid next to it––each time the neuron
 fires, there is an electrical disturbance and a blip is o method of measuring the extracellular
recorded at the electrode tip concentration of specific neurochemicals in
 provides a record of the firing of a neuron but no behaving animals (most other techniques for
information about the neuron’s membrane potential measuring neurochemicals require that the
 extracellular microelectrode – record the electrical subjects be killed so that tissue can be
disturbance that is created each time an adjacent extracted)
neuron fires o chromatograph – a device for measuring the
chemical constituents of liquids or gases
Multiple-Unit Recording
 the electrode tip is much larger than that of a Locating Neurotransmitter and Receptors in the
microelectrode; this, it picks up signals from many Brain
neurons, and slight shifts in its position due to
Two techniques:
movement of the subject have little effect on the
 IMMUNOCYTOCHEMISTRY
overall signal.
o procedure for locating particular neuroproteins
 A small electrode records the action potentials of
in the brain by labeling their antibodies with a
many nearby neurons
dye or radioactive element and then exposing
slices of brain tissue to the labeled antibodies
Invasive EEG Recording
o immune reaction – when a foreign protein (an
 A large implanted electrode picks up general antigen) is injected into an animal, the animal’s
changes in electrical brain activity. The EEG signal is body creates antibodies that bind to it and help
not related to neural firing in anu obvious way the body remove or destroy it; this is known as
the body’s
PHARMACOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS  IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION
 administer drugs that either increase or decrease the o takes advantage of the fact that all peptides and
effects of particular neurotransmitters and to observe proteins are transcribed from sequences of
the behavioral consequences nucleotide bases on strands of messenger RNA
(mRNA)
Routes of Drug Administration
GENETIC METHODS
 they are fed to the subject
 injected through a tube into the stomach  Genetics is a science that has made amazing
(intragastrically) progress, and biopsychologists are reaping the
 injected hypodermically into the peritoneal cavity of benefits
the abdomen (intraperitoneally, IP), into a large  3 categories:
muscle (intramuscularly, IM), into the fatty tissue o Gene Knockout Techniques
beneath the skin (subcutaneously, SC), or into a  procedures for creating organisms that lack
large surface vein (intravenously, IV) a particular gene under investigation
 knockout mice – the favored mammalian
Cannula – fine, hollow tube, that has been subjects of genetic research that are the
stereotaxically implanted in the brain products of gene knockout techniques
 Melanopsin is a protein found in some
Selective Chemical Lesion neurons in the mammalian retina (the
receptive layer of the eye), and it had been
 Make more selective lesion by injecting neurotoxins implicated in the control of circadian
(neural poisons) that have an affinity for certain rhythms by light
components of the nervous system o Gene Knockin Techniques
 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) – taken up by only  created interesting possibilities for research
those neurons that release the neurotransmitter and therapy
norepinephrine or dopamine, and it leaves other  transgenic mice – mice that contain the
neurons at the injection site undamaged genetic material of another species
o Gene Editing Techniques
Measuring Chemical Activity of the Brain  allow researchers to edit genes at a
particular time during development
Two techniques:
 CRISPR/Cas9 method is generating the
 2-DEOXYGLUCOSE TECHNIQUE
most excitement
o entails placing an animal that has been injected
with radioactive 2-DG in a test situation in which
Fantastic Fluorescence and the Brainbow
it engages in an activity of interest
o The slices are then subjected to  Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a protein that
autoradiography: They are coated with a exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to
photographic emulsion, stored in the dark for a blue light
few days, and then developed much like film  introduced the GFP gene into a small transparent
 CEREBRAL DIALYSIS roundworm, Caenorhabditis elegans, in an area of its
 chromosomes that controls the development of  (15) electrocardiogram, (16) electrocardiogram, (17)
touch receptor neurons intraperitoneal, (18) intramuscular, (19) intravenous,
 allowed researchers to: (20) subcutaneous,
o label specific neurotransmitters so their activity (21) 6-hydroxydopamine, (22) green fluorescent protein,
can be observed (23) functional ultrasound imaging, (24) transcranial
o label synaptic vesicle proteins in order to electrical stimulation
observe the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the
presynaptic membrane
o visualize postsynaptic potentials by using BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH METHODS OF
fluorescent proteins that light up during BIOPSYCHOLOGY
membrane hyperpolarizations or depolarizations
 behavioral paradigm – single set of procedures
o observe the binding of neurotransmitters to
developed for the investigation of a particular
receptors by creating receptors that light up
behavioral phenomenon
when they bind their transmitter

Neuropsychological Testing
Optogenetics: A Neural Light Switch
 neurologist – assesses simple sensory and motor
 Opsins are light-sensitive ion channels that are
functions
found in the cell membranes of certain bacteria and
 neuropsychologist – assesses more subtle changes
algae
in perceptual, emotional, motivational, or cognitive
 when opsins are illuminated with light, they open and
functions
allow ions to enter the cell
 results of neuropsychological testing can help brain-
 optogenetics – novel method; in effect, by inserting
damaged patients in three important ways:
an opsin gene into a particular type of neuron, a
o by assisting in the diagnosis of neural disorders,
neuroscientist could use light to hyperpolarize or
particularly in cases in which brain imaging,
depolarize neurons
EEG, and neurological testing have proved
equivocal
 1. CT: _____________________
o by serving as a basis for counseling and caring
 2. MRI: ____________________
for the patients
 3. PET: ____________________
o by providing a basis for objectively evaluating
 4. 2-DG: __________________
the effectiveness of a treatment or the
 5. fMRI: ___________________ seriousness of its side effects
 6. MEG: ___________________
 7. TMS: ___________________ Modern Approach to Neuropsychological
 8. EEG: ___________________ Testing
 9. ERP: ___________________
 10. AEP: ___________________ 3 approaches:
 THE SINGLE-TEST APPROACH
 11. EMG: ___________________
o discriminate between patients with
 12. EOG: ___________________
psychological problems resulting from structural
 13. SCL: ___________________
brain damage and those with psychological
 14. SCR: ___________________
problems resulting from functional, rather than
 15. ECG: ___________________
structural, changes to the brain.
 16. EKG: ___________________
 THE STANDARDIZED-TEST-BATTERY
 17. IP: _____________________ APPROACH
 18. IM: _____________________ o identify brain-damaged patients—but the testing
 19. IV: _____________________ involved standardized batteries (sets) of tests
 20. SC: _____________________ rather than a single test
 21. 6-OHDA: ________________ o Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test
 22. GFP: ___________________ Battery
 23. fUS: ___________________  most widely used standardized test battery
 24. tES: ___________________  a set of tests that tend to be performed
poorly by brain-damaged patients in relation
 Scan Your Brain answers: (1) computed to other patients or healthy controls; the
tomography, (2) magnetic resonance imaging, (3) scores on each test are added together to
positron emission tomography, (4) 2-deoxyglucose, form a single aggregate score
 (5) functional MRI, (6) magnetoencephalography, (7)  THE CUSTOMIZED-TEST-BATTERY APPROACH
transcranial magnetic stimulation, (8) o an approach largely developed by Luria and
electroencephalogram, (9) event-related potential, other Soviet Union neuropsychologists
 (10) average evoked potential, (11) electromyogram, o provide an indication of the general nature of the
(12) electrooculogram, (13) skin conductance level, neuropsychological symptoms. Then, depending
(14) skin conductance response, on the results of the common test battery, the
neuropsychologist selects a series of tests
 customized to each patient in an effort to  cognitive neuroscience
characterize in more detail the general o a division of biopsychology that focuses on
symptoms revealed by the common battery understanding cognition
o identify the parts of the brain that mediate
Tests of the Common Neuropsychological Test various constituent cognitive processes
Battery  two key assumptions
o each complex cognitive process results from the
 INTELLIGENCE
o nearly always included in the battery of combined activity of simple cognitive processes
called constituent cognitive processes
neuropsychological tests routinely given to all
o each constituent cognitive process is mediated
patients
o Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) by neural activity within a particular brain region
or across a set of brain regions
o IQ can help a neuropsychologist interpret the
results of subsequent tests
Paired-Image Subtraction Technique
 MEMORY
 LANGUAGE  involves obtaining functional brain images during
o deficits in the use of language can be inferred several different cognitive tasks
from a low aggregate score on the verbal  tasks are designed so that pairs of them differ from
subtests each other in terms of only a single constituent
o A patient who has not taken the WAIS can be cognitive process
quickly screened for language-related deficits
with the token test Default Mode Network
 LANGUAGE LATERALIZATION
o often included in the common test battery  brain structures typically active in the default mode
but less active during cognitive or behavioral tasks
because knowing which hemisphere is dominant
 comprises many structures including the following
for language is often useful in interpreting the
results of other tests four cortical areas: medial parietal cortex, lateral
o results are used to plan the surgery, trying to parietal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, and lateral
temporal cortex
avoid the language areas if possible
o two widely used tests:
Mean Difference Images
 sodium amytal test involves injecting the
anesthetic sodium amytal into either the left  emphasizes areas of activity that are common to
or right carotid artery in the neck many volunteers and de-emphasizes areas of
 temporarily anesthetizes the ipsilateral activity that are peculiar to a few of them
(same-side) hemisphere while leaving
the contralateral (opposite-side) Functional Connectivity
hemisphere largely unaffected
 dichotic listening test – sequences of  how network activity across multiple brain regions is
spoken digits are presented to volunteers related to a particular cognitive task
through stereo headphones  to measure functional connectivity, a cognitive
 three digits are presented to one ear at neuroscientist examines which brain regions have
the same time that three different digits parallel patterns of activity over time
are presented to the other ear  functional connectome – the task of characterizing
the FC associated with each behavior and cognitive
Tests of Specific Neuropsychological Function process

 MEMORY
BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PARADIGMS OF AN
o Repetition priming tests have proven
ANIMAL
instrumental in the assessment and study of this
pattern
 LANGUAGE Paradigms for the Assessment of Species-
o three fundamentally different problems: Common Behaviors
 problems of phonology (the rules governing
 Species-common behaviors are those displayed
the sounds of the language)
by virtually all members of a species, or at least by
 problems of syntax (the grammar of the
all those of the same age and sex
language)
 problems of semantics (the meaning of the
OPEN-FIELD TEST
language)
 the subject is placed in a large, barren chamber, and
its activity is recorded
BEHAVIORAL METHODS OF COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE
TESTS OF AGGRESSIVE AND DEFENSIVE
 cognitive neuroscientists – study relationships BEHAVIOR
between brain and cognition  colony-intruder paradigm
 o typical patterns of aggressive and defensive o temporal contiguity is not essential for
behavior can be observed and measured during conditioning; rats acquire taste aversions even
combative encounters between the dominant when they do not become ill until several hours
male rat of an established colony and a smaller after eating
male intruder o challenged the principle of equipotentiality—the
 elevated plus maze view that conditioning proceeds in basically the
o a four-armed, plus-sign shaped maze typically same manner regardless of the particular stimuli
mounted 50 centimeters above the floor, is a and responses under investigation
test of defensiveness commonly used to study
the anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects of drugs RADIAL ARM MAZE
TESTS OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR  taps into the well-developed spatial abilities of
 most attempts to study the physiological bases of rat rodents
sexual behavior have focused on the copulatory act  an array of arms—usually eight or more—radiating
itself from a central starting area
 if the female is receptive, she responds by assuming  the survival of rats in the wild depends on their ability
the posture called lordosis; that is, she sticks her to navigate quickly and accurately through their
hindquarters in the air, she bends her back in a U, environment and to learn which locations in it are
and she deflects her tail to the side. During some likely to contain food and water
mounts, the male inserts his penis into the female’s
vagina; this act is called intromission MORRIS WATER MAZE
 3 common measures of male rat sexual behavior:  rats are placed in a circular, featureless pool of cool
o the number of mounts required to achieve milky water in which they must swim until they
intromission discover the escape platform—which is invisible just
o the number of intromissions required to achieve beneath the surface of the water
ejaculation  useful for assessing the navigational skills of brain-
o the interval between ejaculation and the lesioned or drugged animals
reinitiation of mounting.
 lordosis quotient – most common measure of CONDITIONED DEFENSIVE BURYING
female rat sexual behavior; the proportion of mounts  rats receive a single aversive stimulus (e.g., a shock,
that elicit lordosis air blast, or noxious odor) from an object mounted on
the wall of the chamber just above the floor, which is
Traditional Conditioning Paradigms littered with bedding material

 pavlovian conditioning paradigm

o the experimenter pairs an initially neutral
stimulus called a conditional stimulus (e.g., a
tone or a light) with an unconditional stimulus
(e.g., meat powder)—a stimulus that elicits an
unconditional (reflexive) response (e.g.,
salivation)
 operant conditioning paradigm
o the rate at which a particular voluntary response
(such as a lever press) is emitted is increased
by reinforcement or decreased by punishment
o self-stimulation paradigm – animals press a
lever to deliver electrical stimulation to particular
sites in their own brains; those structures in the
brain that support self-stimulation have often
been called pleasure centers

Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms

four common seminatural learning paradigms:

CONDITIONED TASTE AVERSION

 avoidance response that develops to tastes of food
whose consumption has been followed by illness
 emetic – a nausea-inducing drug
 neophobic – afraid of new things
 three widely accepted principles of learning:
o challenged the view that animal conditioning is
always a gradual step-by-step process; robust
taste aversions can be established in only a
single trial