Proof methods

1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
3. Vacuous proofs
4. Trivial proofs
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Proof by cases
7. Proofs of equivalence
8. Existence proofs
9. Uniqueness proofs
10. Counterexamples

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 Direct proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
◼ If p is false, then the implication is always true
◼ Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true

To perform a direct proof, assume that p is

true, and show that q must therefore be
true

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 Direct proof example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 20
◼ Show that the square of an even number is an
even number
◼ Rephrased: if n is even, then n2 is even

Assume n is even
◼ Thus, n = 2k, for some k (definition of even
numbers)
◼ n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
◼ As n2 is 2 times an integer, n2 is thus even
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 Indirect proofs
Consider an implication: p→q
◼ It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
◼ If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the
contrapositive is always true
◼ Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true

To perform an indirect proof, do a direct

proof on the contrapositive

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 Indirect proof example
If n2 is an odd integer then n is an odd integer

Prove the contrapositive: If n is an even integer,

then n2 is an even integer

Proof: n=2k for some integer k (definition of even

numbers)
n2 = (2k)2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2)
Since n2 is 2 times an integer, it is even

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 Which to use
When do you use a direct proof versus an
indirect proof?

If it’s not clear from the problem, try direct

first, then indirect second
◼ If indirect fails, try the other proofs

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 Example of which to use
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
◼ Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

Via direct proof

◼ n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
◼ n3 = 2k-4
◼ n = 3 2k − 4
◼ Umm…

So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect

proof
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 Example of which to use
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (a)
◼ Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even

Via indirect proof

◼ Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n3+ 5 is even
◼ Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
◼ n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
◼ n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
◼ As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even
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 Proof by contradiction
Given a statement p, assume it is false
◼ Assume ¬p

Prove that ¬p cannot occur

◼ A contradiction exists

Given a statement of the form p→q

◼ To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the
case where p is true and q is false

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Proof by contradiction example 1
Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many
prime numbers.

Proof. Assume there are a finite number of primes

List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
◼ This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
◼ We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among
the primes listed above
This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list
p1, p2 …, pn.
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Proof by contradiction example 2
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21 (b)
◼ Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
◼ Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

Assume p is true and q is false

◼ Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it must be
even
Contradiction!
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 A note on that problem…
Rosen, section 1.5, question 21
◼ Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is even
◼ Here, our implication is: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even

The indirect proof proved the contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p

◼ I.e., If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
The proof by contradiction assumed that the implication
was false, and showed a contradiction
◼ If we assume p and ¬q, we can show that implies q
◼ The contradiction is q and ¬q

Note that both used similar steps, but are different

means of proving the implication
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 How the book explains
proof by contradiction
A very poor explanation, IMHO

Suppose q is a contradiction (i.e. is always false)

Show that ¬p→q is true
◼ Since the consequence is false, the antecedent must be
false
◼ Thus, p must be true
Find a contradiction, such as (r¬r), to represent q
Thus, you are showing that ¬p→(r¬r)
◼ Or that assuming p is false leads to a contradiction
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A note on proofs by contradiction
You can DISPROVE something by using a proof
by contradiction
◼ You are finding an example to show that something is
not true

You cannot PROVE something by example

Example: prove or disprove that all numbers are

even
◼ Proof by contradiction: 1 is not even
◼ (Invalid) proof by example: 2 is even

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 Vacuous proofs
Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that p is false, then the

implication is always true
◼ By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the

antecedent is false
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 Vacuous proof example
Consider the statement:
◼ All criminology majors in CS 202 are female
◼ Rephrased: If you are a criminology major
and you are in CS 202, then you are female
Could also use quantifiers!

Since there are no criminology majors in

this class, the antecedent is false, and the
implication is true

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 Trivial proofs
Consider an implication: p→q

If it can be shown that q is true, then the

implication is always true
◼ By definition of an implication

Note that you are showing that the

conclusion is true

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 Trivial proof example
Consider the statement:
◼ If you are tall and are in CS 202 then you are
a student

Since all people in CS 202 are students,

the implication is true regardless

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 Proof by cases
Show a statement is true by showing all
possible cases are true

Thus, you are showing a statement of the

form: ( p  p  ...  p ) → q
1 2 n

is true by showing that:

( p1  p2  ...  pn ) → q  ( p1 → q )  ( p2 → q )  ...  ( pn → q )
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 Proof by cases example
a a
Prove that =
b b
◼ Note that b ≠ 0
Cases:
◼ Case 1: a ≥ 0 and b > 0 a a a
= =
Then |a| = a, |b| = b, and b b b
◼ Case 2: a ≥ 0 and b < 0 a a a a
Then |a| = a, |b| = -b, and =− = =
b b −b b
◼ Case 3: a < 0 and b > 0
a a −a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = b, and =− = =
b b b b
◼ Case 4: a < 0 and b < 0 a a −a a
Then |a| = -a, |b| = -b, and = = =
b b −b b 20
The think about proof by cases
Make sure you get ALL the cases
◼ The biggest mistake is to leave out some of
the cases

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 Proofs of equivalences
This is showing the definition of a bi-
conditional

Given a statement of the form “p if and

only if q”
◼ Show it is true by showing (p→q)(q→p) is
true

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Proofs of equivalence example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 40
◼ Show that m2=n2 if and only if m=n or m=-n
◼ Rephrased: (m2=n2) ↔ [(m=n)(m=-n)]
Need to prove two parts:
◼ [(m=n)(m=-n)] → (m2=n2)
Proof by cases!
Case 1: (m=n) → (m2=n2)
◼ (m)2 = m2, and (n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
Case 2: (m=-n) → (m2=n2)
◼ (m)2 = m2, and (-n)2 = n2, so this case is proven
◼ (m2=n2) → [(m=n)(m=-n)]
Subtract n2 from both sides to get m2-n2=0
Factor to get (m+n)(m-n) = 0
Since that equals zero, one of the factors must be zero
Thus, either m+n=0 (which means m=n)
Or m-n=0 (which means m=-n) 23
 Existence proofs
Given a statement: x P(x)
We only have to show that a P(c) exists for
some value of c

Two types:
◼ Constructive: Find a specific value of c for
which P(c) exists
◼ Nonconstructive: Show that such a c exists,
but don’t actually find it
Assume it does not exist, and show a contradiction
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 Constructive existence proof
example
Show that a square exists that is the sum
of two other squares
◼ Proof: 32 + 42 = 52

Show that a cube exists that is the sum of

three other cubes
◼ Proof: 33 + 43 + 53 = 63

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Non-constructive existence proof
example
Rosen, section 1.5, question 50
Prove that either 2*10500+15 or 2*10500+16 is not a
perfect square
◼ A perfect square is a square of an integer
◼ Rephrased: Show that a non-perfect square exists in the set
{2*10500+15, 2*10500+16}

Proof: The only two perfect squares that differ by 1 are 0

and 1
◼ Thus, any other numbers that differ by 1 cannot both be perfect
squares
◼ Thus, a non-perfect square must exist in any set that contains
two numbers that differ by 1
◼ Note that we didn’t specify which one it was!
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 Uniqueness proofs
A theorem may state that only one such
value exists

To prove this, you need to show:

◼ Existence: that such a value does indeed
exist
Either via a constructive or non-constructive
existence proof
◼ Uniqueness: that there is only one such value
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 Uniqueness proof example
If the real number equation 5x+3=a has a
solution then it is unique

Existence
◼ We can manipulate 5x+3=a to yield x=(a-3)/5
◼ Is this constructive or non-constructive?

Uniqueness
◼ If there are two such numbers, then they would fulfill
the following: a = 5x+3 = 5y+3
◼ We can manipulate this to yield that x = y
Thus, the one solution is unique! 28
 Counterexamples
Given a universally quantified statement, find a single
example which it is not true

Note that this is DISPROVING a UNIVERSAL statement

by a counterexample

x ¬R(x), where R(x) means “x has red hair”

◼ Find one person (in the domain) who has red hair

Every positive integer is the square of another integer

◼ The square root of 5 is 2.236, which is not an integer

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 Mistakes in proofs
Modus Badus
◼ Fallacy of denying the hypothesis
◼ Fallacy of affirming the conclusion
Proving a universal by example
◼ You can only prove an existential by example!

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