CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Mechanical Energy
1.1 Understanding Physics

PHYSICS
Mechanical Energy
Study of the natural phenomena and the
properties of matter. Heat Energy

Light Energy
Solid Matter Energy

Wave Energy
Liquid states forms
Electrical Energy
Gas

Nuclear Energy

Chemical Energy

Properties of Relationship Relationship Properties of

Matter with with Energy
energy matter

in the fields

Mechanics Heat Wave Electronics

Properties Light Electricity & Atomic Physics

of matter Electromagnetism & Nuclear

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1.2 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Base quantity
1 any quantity that can be measured by a scientific instrument.
A physical quantity is ……………………………………………………………………..
2 stopwatch, metre rule balance,thermometer,ammeter
Examples of scientific instruments :………………………………………………………
etc.
3 A base quantity is a physical quantity which cannot be defined in terms of other physical
quantities.
4 Study the following picture and list the physical quantities that can be measured.

The list of physical quantities :

Height,
1. ……………………………………….
mass,
2. ……………………………………….
size,
3. ……………………………………….
age,
4. ……………………………………….
temperature,
5. ……………………………………….
current
6. ……………………………………….
Power,
7. ……………………………………….
Thermal energy
8. ……………………………………….

5 List of 5 basic physical quantities and their units.

Base quantity Symbol S.I. Unit Symbol for S.I. Unit
Length l meter m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Current I Amppere A
Temperature T Kelvin K

6 Two quantities that have also identified as basic quantity. There are :
Light intensity
i) …………………………..unit candela ii) ……………………….
………….. Amount of substance unit mol
……………..

2
Standard Form
simplify the expression of very large and small numbers
1 Standard form = A x 10n , 1 < A < 10 and n = integer
2 Standard form is used to …………………………………………………………………...
3 Some physical quantities have extremely small 6 magnitudes. Write the following
6.37 x 10 m
quantities in standard form :
1.673 x 10-27 kg
a. Radius of the earth = 6 370 000 m =………………………………………………….
3.0 x 10-4 m
b. Mass of an electron = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 911 kg =………...
7.2 x 10-8 m
c. Size of a particle = 0.000 03 m = ………………………………………………………
5.5 x 10-7
b. Diameter of an atom = 0.000 000 072 m = …………………………………………...
c. Wavelength of light = 0.000 000 55 m = ……………………………………………..
represent a large physical quantity or extremely small quantity in
Prefixes S.I units.
before the unit as a multiplying factor.
1. Prefixes are usually used to ………………………………………………………………...
2. It will be written ……………………………………………………………………………
3. The list of prefixes : Eg : 1 x 1012 m
1012 Tera (T) 3.6 x 10-3A
109 1 Tm = …………………………………….
Giga (G)
106 3.6 mA = …………………………………….
Mega (M) How to change the unit ;
103 1.33 MA = 1.33 x 106 A
102 kilo (k) Hekto (ha)
Eg :
10 0 10
1
Deka (da) 1. Mega to nano = 1.33 x 10 6-(-9) nA
10-1
10-2 desi (d)
10 -3
centi (s) = 1.33 x 10 -15 nA
mili (m)
10-6
micro () 1.23 Tm to unit mm unit
10-9 2. Tera to micro
nano (n) 1.23 Tm = 1.23 x 10 12m
-12
10
= 1.23 x 10 12 – (-6)m
pico (p)
= 1.23 x 10 18m

5456 pA to MA unit
3. piko to Mega
5456 pA = 5.456 x 10 3 + (-12) pA
= 5.456 x 10 -9pA
4. Some physical quantities have extremely large magnitudes. These extremely
= 5.456 x 10 -9large
–(6) and
MA
small values can be written in standard form or using standard prefixes. Write the
quantities in standard prefixes: = 5.456 x 10 -15 MA
9.1 x 10 1MHz
a. Frequency of radio wave = 91 000 000 Hz = ………………………………………….
12.8 Mm = 1.28 x 10 1 Mm
383 Mm = 3.83 x 10 2 Mm
3 6.0 x 10 12 Tm
 b. Diameter of the earth = 12 800 000 m = ………………………………………………
c. Distance between the moon and the earth = 383 000 000 m = ………………………
d. Mass of the earth = 6 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg = ………………………

Derived quantities

1 a physical quantity which combines several basic quantities

A derived quantity is …….…………………………………………………………………
through multiplication, division or both
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2 Determine the derived unit for the following derived quantities.

Derived Name of
Formula Derived unit
quantity derived unit
area area = length x width m x m = m2 –
volume volume = length x width x height m x m x m = m3 –

density –

velocity –

momentum momentum = mass x velocity kg m s-1 –

Acceleration –

Force force = mass x acceleration kg m s-2 Newton (N)

pressure kg m s-2 / m2 kg m-1 s-2

(Nm-2)
weight weight = mass x gravitational acceleration kg ms -2 Newton (N)
work work = force x displacement Nm Joule (J)

power
J s -1 Watt (W)

kinetic energy
Kg ms-2 Joule (J)
potential
energy
P.E = mass x gravitational acceleration x height Kg ms-2 Joule (J)

charge charge = current x time Ampere second Coulomb (C)

(As)

voltage J C-1 Volt (v)

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 Derived Name of
Formula Derived unit
quantity derived unit

resistance v A-1 Ohm (Ω)

Note that the physical quantities such as width, thickness, height, distance, displacement,
perimeter, radius and diameter are equivalent to length.
Quantity which has only magnitude or size
1.3 Mass,VECTOR
SCALAR AND Length, Speed, volume
QUANTITIES
Quantity which has magnitude or size and direction.
1 Scalar quantities are ………………………………………………………………………
Velocity, Force, Displacement, Acceleration
Examples : …………………………………………………………………………………
2 Vector quantities are………………………………………………………………………...
Examples : …………………………………………………………………………………
3 Study the following description of events carefully and then decide which events require
magnitude, direction or both to specify them.
Ý
Description of events Magnitude Direction
Ý Ý
1. The temperature in the room is 25 0C
2. The location of Ayer Hitam is 60 km to the north- Ý
west of Johor Bahru
3. The power of the electric bulb is 80 W Ý Ý

4. A car is travelling at 80 km h-1 from Johor Bahru

to Kuala Lumpur

1.4 MEASUREMENTS
measuring instrument with different measuring capabilities.
Using Appropriate Instruments to Measure
measure a particular quantity.
1 There are various types of………………………………………………………………….

2 We must know how to choose the appropriate instrument to ……………………………..

3 Examples of instrument and its measuring ability.

Measuring instrument Range of measurement Smallest scale division

Measuring tape
Up to a few meters 0.1 cm
Meter rule 1m 0.1 cm (0.01 m)
Vernier caliper 10 cm 0.01 cm
less than 2 cm (20 mm) 0.001 cm (0.01 mm)
5

is use to measure electric current

 Micrometer screw gauge
is use to determine the volume of liquid.
4 Sample of measuring instruments :
4.1 Ammeter : ……………………………………………………………………………..
incorret reading 1 2 3 correct
1 2 3
0 4 reading
0 4

pointer mirror
pointer mirror
Pointer’s image can be seen Pointer’s image is behind the pointer
is use to determine the length
4.2 Measuring cylinder : ……………………………………………………....................

wrong position of eye

Right position of eye (eye are in a line perpendicular to the plane
of the scale)
wrong position of eye

water

4.3 Ruler : ………………………………………………………………………………………

small object wrong right wrong depth of a hole

external diameter of a cylinder or pipe internal diameter of a pipe or tube
10 11 12 13 14 15 Reading = ……………… cm
0.01cm

4.4 Vernier calliper

A venier calliper is used to measure :

a. ………………………………………………b. ………………………………………….
0.9
c. ………………………………………………d. ………………………………………….

A vernier calliper gives readings to an accuracy of …………………………………...…. cm.

0.09
0.01 cm
inside jaws
cmVernier
0 scale1 2 3 4 Main scale
SKALA
UTAMA
0
0.2outside
cm jaws
5 10
0.06 cm Main scale in cm

0.26 cm 0 1

6
0 5 10 Vernier scale
 Length of vernier scale = ……… cm
Vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions

Length of the divisions = ………. cm The differenct between the main scale and vernier
scale is = ……………………………. cm

0 1
cm

Main scale = …………………. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Find the division of
Vernier scale = ………………….. vernier scale which is
coincides with any part
Final reading = ………………….. of the main scale
The diagram below shows a vernier calliper with reading.

0 1

0.15
0 5 10 Vernier calliper reading = ……………. cm
4.5 Micrometer screw gauge.
A micrometer screw gauge is used to measure :
objects that are small in size
a. ………………………………………………
diameter of a wire
b. ………………………………………….
diameter of small spheres such as ball bearings
c. ………………………………………………

One complete turn of the thimble

(50 division) moves the spindle by
0.50 mm.
Division of thimble
0.5 ÷ 50
= …………………..
0.01 mm
= ………………….. 4.5 mm
Sleeve scale : ……………
A accuracy of micrometer
0.01 mm
screw gauge = …………….. 0.22 mm
Thimble scale : ………….
4.62 mm
Total reading : …………..

Example :
2.0 mm
Sleeve scale : ……………
0.22 mm
Thimble scale : ………….
2.22 mm
Total reading : …………...

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 4.6 Some others measuring instruments :

Analogue stopwatch digital stopwatch thermometer miliammeter

……………………… …………………… ……………………… ………..

Measuring tape
………………………. measuring cylinder
…………………….. beaker
………………
Hands-on activity 1.1 on page 1 of the practical book to learn more about choosing
appropriate instruments.
Exercise: Vernier Callipers And Micrometer Screw Gauge

1. Write down the readings shown by the following

(a)
7 8

Answer: …7.79 cm…………..

0 5 10

(b) 4
A B
5

Answer: …4.27 cm…………..

P Q
0 5 10

(c)
6 7
Answer: ……6.28 cm………..

0 5 1
0
(d)
0 1 Answer: …0.02 cm…………..

8
0 5 10
2. (a) The following diagram shows the scale of a vernier calliper when the jaws are closed.

0 1

0 5 10

Zero error = …0.02……… cm

(b). The following diagram shows the scale of the same vernier calliper when there are
40 pieces of cardboard between the jaws.

5 6

0 5 10

Reading shown = …5.64…….cm

Corrected reading = …5.62……..cm

3. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges.
(a) (b)

40 0 35
0 5 5 10

35 30

Answer: …………………………. Answer:…………………..

(c) (d)
0
25 0 5 20

20 15

Answer:………………………… Answer:…………………….

4. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

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 0 0 5
0

45
0

Zero error = …0.02…….. mm Zero error = …0.03…….. mm

(b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

5 0 5 20
0

0
15

Zero error = 0.03………mm Reading shown = 6.67………..mm

Corrected reading = 6.64………..mm

5. Write down the readings shown by the following micrometer screw gauges.
(a) (b)

40 0 35
0 5 5 10

35 30

Answer: …6.88 mm………… Answer: …..12.32 mm……

(c) (d)
0
25 0 5 20

20 15

Answer:………4.71 mm………… Answer: 9.17 mm…………

6. (a) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

0 0 5
0

45
0

Zero error = …-0.02 mm Zero error = …0.03.. mm

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 (b) Determine the readings of the following micrometer screw gauges.

5 0 5 20
0

0
15

Reading shown = ….6.67..mm

Zero error = …0.03.mm
Corrected reading = …6.64..mm
Accuracy and consistency in
measurements. The ability of an instrument to measure nearest to the actual value
1. Accuracy : …………………………………………………………………………………
The ability of an instrument to measure consistently with little or no relative
deviation among readings.
2. Consistency : ………………………………………………………………………………
The ability of an instrument to detect a small change in the quantity measured.
3. Sensitivity : …………………………………………………………………………………

consistent
target but inaccurate consistent and accurate inaccurate and not consistent
………………………… ……………………… ……………………………..

Accurate
target but not consistent inaccurate but consistent inaccurate but not consistent
of approximation only.
…………………….. …………………………….. ………………………………
Hands-on activity 1.2 on pagehow
2 ofclose
the practical book to determine
the measurement the sensitivity
is to the actual value. of
some measuring instruments.
error exist in all measurements.

Errors in measurements
Systematic errors
1. All measurements are values ………………………………………………………………
2. In other word, it is a matter of ……………………………………………………………
a weakness of the instrument
3. This is because ……………………………………………………………………………
the difference between reaction time of the brain and the action.
4. Two main types of errors:
zero error is when the pointer is not at zero when not in use.
4.1 ……………………………………………

Range of the measuring instrument – absolute error .

Reaction time of the brain. 11

Initial reading is not at the zero scale – zero error

 Occurs due to :
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
b) ………………………………………………………………………………………
c) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Examples :
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Refer to the smallest reading that can be measured by an instrument.
b) ………………………………………………………………………………………
c) ………………………………………………………………………………………
Absolute error :
If, the smallest reading = 0.1 cm
……………………………………………………………………………………….
Then, Absolute error = 0.1 / 2 = 0.05 cm
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
It occurs because the position of the eye is not perpendicular to the scale of
…………. the instrument.
Example : wrong

right position of the eye (no error)

wrong
Parallax error : ………………………………………………………………………………

where the pointer is not at zero when not in use

0 1 cm
0 1 cm
Zero error : …………………………………………………………………………………...
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +0.03 cm
Correct reading = observed reading – zero error 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 - 0.04 cm
Zero error =
Positive zero error negative zero
Zero error
error =

Horizontal Horizontal
reference 3 divisions above
reference
2 divisions below
horizontal reference
horizontal reference

Zero error of screw meter gauge

Positive zero error
Zero error = Zero error =

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 Random error
4.2 ……………………………………………..
Occurs due to
carelessness in making the measurement.
a) ………………………………………………………………………………………
parallex error , incorrect positioning of the eye when taking the
b) ……………………………………………………………………………………… readings.
sudden change of ambient factors
c) ………………………………………………………………………………………such as temperature or air circulation.
Example :
Readings are close to the actual value but they are not consistent.
a) …………………………………………………………………………………..…
Can be minimized by consistently repeating the measurement at different places in
b) ……………………………………………………………………………………..
an identical manner.
.....................................................................................................................

1.5 SCIENCETIFIC INVESTIGATION

Steps Explanation

Gather all available information about the object or phenomenon

Making
1 to be studied.
observation
Using the five senses, sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell.

Drawing A conclusion from an observation or phenomena using information

2
inferences that already exist.

Variables are factors or physical quantities which change in the

course of a scientific investigation.
There are three variables :
i. Manipulated variables – physical quantity which change
according to the aim of the experiment.
Identifying
ii. Responding variables – physicals quantity which is the result
3 and controlling
of the changed by manipulated variable.
variables
iii. Fixed variables – physicals quantities which are kept
constantduring the experiment.

Formulating a Statement of relationship between the manipulated variable and

4 hypothesis the responding variable those we would expect.
Hypothesis can either be true or false.

Conducting i. Conduct an experiment includes the compilation and

5 interpretation of data.
experiments
ii. Making a conclusion regarding the validity of the hypothesis.

Plan and report an experiment

13
 Situation : A few children are playing on a different length of swing in a
playground. It is found that the time of oscillation for each swing is different.
Steps Example : refer to the situation above
1 Inference The period of the oscillation depends on the length of the
pendulum.
2 Hypothesis
When the length of the pendulum increases, the period of the
oscillation increases.
3 Aim
Investigate the relationship between length and period of a
simple pendulum.
4 Variables
Manipulated variable : the length of the pendulum.
Responding variable : Period
Fixed variable : the mass of the pendulum and the
displacement.
5 List of
apparatus and
materials
6 Arrangement of
the apparatus

Retort stand
protractor

ll

bob

7 Procedures 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure above.

2. Measure the length of the pendulum,l = 60.0 cm by using a meter
rule.
3. Give the pendulum bob a small displacement 300.Time of
10 oscillations is measured by using a stop watch.
4. Repeat the timing for another 10 oscillations. Calculate the
average time.
Period = t10 oscillations
10
5. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 using l = 50.0 cm, 40.0 cm, 30.0 cm
and 20.0 cm
Length,l
Length,l /
cm

14
 8 Tabulate the Time for 10 oscillations / s Period/ s
data 1 2 Average (T = t10/10)

60.0 15.8 15.7 15.8 1.58

50.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 1.50
40.0 13.1 13.1 13.1 1.31
30.0 11.9 11.9 11.9 1.19
20.0 9.9 9.9 9.9 0.99

9 Analyse the
T/s Graf of period, T vs
data pendulum’s
1.4 length, l

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 l / cm

10 Discussion Precautions :
1. Oscillation time is measured when the pendulum attained a
steady state.
2. Time for 10 oscillations is repeated twice to increase accuracy.
3. Discussion (refer to given questions)
11 Conclusion
The period increases when the length of the pendulum increases.
Hypothesis accepted.

Reinforcement Chapter 1

Part A :Objective Question

2. Which of the following is a derived
1. Which of the following is a base SI quantity?
quantity? A Length B Mass
A Weight B Energy C Temperature D Voltage
C Velocity D Mass
3. Which of the following is not a basic

15
 unit? A mili, senti, mikro, desi
A Newton B kilogram B mikro, mili, senti, desi
C ampere D second C mili, mikro, desi, senti
D desi, mikro, mili, senti
4. Which of the following quantities
cannot be derived? 12. Velocity, density, force and energy are
A Electric current B Power A basic quantities
C Momentum D Force B scalar quantities
C derived quantities
5. Which of the following quantities is D vector quantities
not derived from the basic physical
quantity of length? 13. Which of the following shows the
A Electric charge B Density correct conversion of units?
C Velocity D Volume A 24 mm3 =2.4 x 10-6 m3
B 300 mm3=3.0 x 10-7 m3
6. Initial velocity u, final velocity v, C 800 mm3=8.0 x 10-2 m3
time t and another physical quantity k D 1 000 mm3=1.0 x 10-4 m3
is related by the equation v - u = kt.
The unit for k is 14. Which of the following measurements
A m s-1 B m-1 s is the shortest ?
-2
C ms D m2 s-2 A 3.45 x 103 m
B 3.45 x 104 cm
7. Which of the following has the C 3.45 x 107 mm
smallest magnitude? D 3.45 x 1012 m
A megametre B centimetre
C kilometre D mikrometre 15. The Hitz FM channel broadcasts radio
waves at a frequency of 92.8 MHz in
8. 4 328 000 000 mm in standard form is the north region. What is the frequency
A 4.328 x 10-9 m B 4.328 x 10-6 m of the radio wave in Hz?
C 4.328 x 106 m D 4.328 x 109 m A 9.28 x 104 B 9.28 x 105
C 9.28 x 107 D 9.28 x 1010
9. Which of the following measurements
is the longest? 16. An object moves along a straight line
A 1.2 x 10-5 cm B 120 x 10-4 dm for time, t. The length of the line, s is
C 0.12 mm D 1.2 x 10-11 km given by the equation . The SI
10. The diameter of a particle is 250 m. unit of g is
What is its diameter in cm? A m2 s2 B m s-2
-1
A 2.5 x 10-2 B 2.5 x 10-4 C s D s-2 m
C 2.5 x 10-6 D 2.5 x 10-8 Part B : Structure Question

11. Which of the following prefixes is

arranged in ascending order?
1. A car moves with an average speed of 75 km h-1 from town P to town Q in 2 hours as
shown in Figure 1. By using this information, you may calculate the distance between the
two towns.
P Q

16
 Figure 1
(a) (i) Based on the statements given, state two basic quantities and their respective
SI units.
Distance : m and time : s
………………………………………………………………………………………
(ii) State a derived quantity and its SI unit.
Speed – m s-1
………………………………………………………………………………………
(b) Convert the value 1 . m to standard form.
5 x 10-3
= 0.2 x 103 m
= 2.0 x 102 m

(c) Complete Table 1 by writing the value of each given prefix.

10-9

10-6
106
109
Table 1
(d) Power is defined as the rate of change of work done. Derive the unit for power in
terms of its basic units.
Power = = Unit = = kg m2 s-3

(e) Calculate the volume of a wooden block with dimension of 7 cm, 5 cm breadth and 12
cm height in m3 and convert its value in standard form.

Volume = (7 x 10-2) (5 x 10-2) (12 x 10-2)

= 420 x 10-6
= 4.20 x 10-4 m3

2. Figure 2 shows an ammeter of 0—3 A range.

17
 Figure 2
Mirror
(a) (i) Name component X. ………………………………………………………………...
To avoid parallax error
(ii) What is the function of X? ………………………………………………………….
(b) Table 2 shows three current readings obtained by three students.

Table 2
No
(i) Did all the students use the ammeter in Figure2? ..………………………………….
(ii) Explain your answer in (b)(i).
3rd readings obtained by student 2 and 3 are out of the meter range.
………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Figure 3 shows the meniscus of water in a measuring cylinder K, L, and M are three eye
positions while measuring the volume of the water.

(a) (i) Which of the eye positions is

correct while
L taking the reading of the volume of
water?

…….
……………………………………

Figure 3

(b) The water in the measuring cylinder is

replaced with 30 cm3 of mercury.
(i) In The cohesive forceFigure 4, draw
is larger than the
the meniscus of the
adhesive force
mercury in the measuring cylinder. Figure 4
(ii) Explain why the shape of the meniscus of mercury is as drawn in (b)(i).

………………………………………………………………………………………

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