Unit-I

Waves and Oscillations

Prepared by

Dr. A. Jagadesan
Assistant Professor
Department of Physics (S&H)
R.M.K Engineering college
Kavaraipettai-601206
Waves and Oscillations
 Oscillation

Definition
Oscillation is defined as the to and
fro motion of a particle about its
equilibrium position.
 Types of oscillations

• There are three types of oscillations.

• The first type is the un-damped oscillations in
which the internal energy of the oscillation
remains a constant.
• The second type of oscillations is the damped
oscillations. In damped oscillations, the internal
energy of the oscillation decreases over time.
• The third type is the forced oscillations. In forced
oscillations, a force is applied on the pendulum in
a periodic variation to the pendulum.
 Basic terms related to Oscillatory
Motion
• Now let's understand some basic terms
related to Oscillatory Motion :
• Time Period - The smallest interval of time
after which the motion starts to repeat itself
is known as the time period. It is denoted by
T.
• Frequency - It represents the number of
repetition of motion per unit time. In other
words, it is reciprocal of the time period. It is
denoted by f.
 Basic terms related to Oscillatory
Motion
• Periodic Function - A function which could
be expressed by the superposition of sine
and cosine functions of different time
periods and suitable coefficients.
• Amplitude - It is a positive constant which
represents the maximum displacement of
the particle in either direction. It is
denoted by A.
• Phase constant - A phase constant is the
initial position. It is denoted by 𝜑.
 Types of motion

Periodic motion

Simple Harmonic motion(SHM)

 Periodic Motion

Any motion that repeats continuously on a

definite path in a definite interval of
time is known as Periodic Motion and
interval of time is called time period (T ).
 The path of periodic motion may be
linear, circular, elliptical or any other
curve.
 Periodic Motion

Examples of periodic motion

include
 a. motion of planets around
the sun,
 b. motion of a piston inside
a cylinder, used in
automobile engines
 c. motion of a ball in a
bowl.
 Types of periodic motion

Based on the motion of the

physical bodies with respect to
time, there are two types of
periodic motion:
(i) Translational motion, in which
the motion of the body moves
linearly with time.
Examples: Train moving in a track,
Rocket launching, etc.
 Types of periodic motion

(ii) Rotational or Oscillatory motion,

in which the motion of the body
repeats itself after regular interval of
time.
Examples:
• The Bob moving in a pendulum clock,
• Beating of Heart,
• Movement of earth around the sun, etc
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum - Determination of
Rigidity Modulus of the Wire
• When a body fixed at one end and twisted
about its axis by means of torque at the other
end, then the body is said to be under torsion.
• The torsion involves shearing strain and hence
the modulus involved is the rigidity modulus.
Principle:
• When a disc is rotated in a horizontal plane,
the disc executes simple harmonic oscillation
due to the restoring couple produced in the
wire.
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
• A torsional pendulum consist
of a wire of length L with one
end fixed to a split chuck and
the other end is fixed to the
centre of the circular disc of
radius R.
• Θ – wire twisted at an angle.
• Shearing strain cause
restoring couple.
• Disc executes torsional osc.
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
• Couple cause for angular
acceleration and displacement
which is directed to its mean
position.
• Law of conservation of energy
• Total energy = P.E + K.E
• Potential energy is due to
workdone to twist the disc.
• Kinetic energy is due to
restoring couple.
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
 Properties of matter
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Theory):
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)
Determine the Moment of Inertia (I) of the circular
disc and Rigidity Modulus (η) of the wire

• To determine I and η, we need to calculate

the period of oscillation of torsional
pendulum from three different cases.

1. Without mass
2. With mass at closest distance
3. With mass at farthest distance
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)

 Time period of Osc. without mass

 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)

 With mass at closest distance d1

– Two equal masses are placed on
disc with distance d1 from the
center. The period of osc. is,

m m

I1 - Moment of inertia of the disc with masses (m)

at the distance d1
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)

 With mass at farthest distance d2

– Two equal masses are placed on
disc with distance d2 from the
center. The period of osc. is,

m m

I2 - Moment of inertia of the disc with masses (m)

at the distance d2
 Waves and oscillations

Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)

 Moment of inertia of the disc
– By comparing three different time periods of
osc. we can get
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)
 Moment of inertia of the disc

Parellel axis theorem states that, the moment of inertia of a body about
any axis is equal to the sum of its moment of inertia about a parallel
axis through its center of mass and the product of the mass of the body
and the square of perpendicular distance between two axes.
 Waves and oscillations
Torsional Pendulum (Experimental)
 Moment of inertia of the disc

 Rigidity modulus of the wire

 Waves and oscillations
Twisting couple (Torque):
 The tendency of the couple is to rotate
a body about some fixed axis and is
measured by the quantity is called torque or
twisting couple.
Simple harmonic motion - Definition

A particle is said to execute SHM if it

moves to and fro about a mean position
under the action of a restoring force
which is directly proportional to its
displacement from mean position and is
always directed towards mean position.
 Simple harmonic motion
 If a particle repeated its motion about a fixed point after a
regular interval of time.

 The acceleration of the particle is directly proportional to its

displacement from the fixed point at that moment and is always
directed towards the fixed point then the motion of the particle
is called simple harmonic motion.

 The fixed point is called mean point or equilibriums point.

Characteristics of Simple Harmonic
Motion
 When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean
position
1. No force acts on the particle.
2. Acceleration of the particle is zero.
3. Velocity is maximum.
4. Kinetic energy is maximum.
5. Potential energy is zero.

 When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, then :

1. Acceleration of the particle is maximum.
2. Restoring force acting on particle is maximum.
3. Velocity of particle is zero.
4 Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
5. Potential energy is maximum.
 Simple Harmonic Motion – Vibration of
Simple Spring
 If an object vibrates or oscillates back and forth over the same path,
each cycle taking the same amount of time, the motion is called
periodic.

 The mass and spring system is a useful model for a periodic system.
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 /
• Force due to spring(Restoring force)
• 𝐹𝑠 ∝ −𝑥
• 𝑭𝒔 = −𝒌𝒙 (1)
• where 𝑘 is the force constant (spring constant or spring stiffness).
• Applying Newton’s second law
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
• 𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 (2)
−𝑘
• 𝑎= 𝑥 (3)
𝑚
• Acceleration is the second order derivatives of position with respect
to time
𝑑2𝑥
• 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 2
• This is the equation of motion of SHM. The solution of this second order differential equation is
• 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 (5)
• Here 𝐴 is the amplitude of oscillation and 𝛿 is the phase constant. 𝜔is the angular frequency or angular
velocity.
• Differentiating equation (5) with respect to 𝑡.
𝑑𝑥
• velocity, v = = − 𝐴𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 (6)
𝑑𝑡
• Differentiating the equation (6) with respect to 𝑡.
𝑑v
• acceleration, 𝑎 = = − 𝐴𝜔2 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 (7)
𝑑𝑡
• Hence in oscillatory motion, velocity and acceleration are also periodic. Here Acos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿 = 𝑥,
• 𝑎 = − 𝜔2 𝑥 (8)
• Comparing equations (8) and (3)
−𝑘
• − 𝜔2𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑚
• Angular velocity or angular frequency,
𝑘
• 𝜔= (9)
𝑚
• We know that period of the oscillation
1 2𝜋 2𝜋
• 𝑇= = ∵ 𝜔=
𝑓 𝜔 𝑇
• Substituting equation (9) in the above equation
𝒎
• 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 (10)
𝒌
 Example for SHM : Simple
Pendulum
 If the bob of a simple pendulum
is slightly displaced from its
mean positon and then released,
it starts oscillating in simple
harmonic motion.
 Time period d oscillation of a
simple pendulum is given as :
 T = 2π √l/g
 where, l is the effective length
of the pendulum and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
 1.6 Resonance
A phenomenon in which an external force or a vibrating
system forces an another system around it to vibrate
with greater amplitude at a specified frequency of
operation.
1.6.1 Examples of Resonance
 1.Musical Instruments
 2. Swing
 3. Bridge
Music Instruments
 1.7 DIFFERENTIAL WAVE EQUATION AND ITS
SOLUTION FOR DAMPED OSCILLATIONS

 When the amplitude of oscillations of a

body decreases gradually with the
passage of time due to friction, then
they are said to be Damped
oscillations. Damping is the reduction
of amplitude due to external forces like
friction, air resistance and other
resistive forces. Along with the decrease
in amplitude, the energy of the system
also keeps decreasing.

 A mass m is suspended from one

end of a spring while the other end
of it is rigidly fixed to a support
as shown in the Fig. .
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
The mass is acted upon by two forces. They are
(i) Restoring Force:
The tendency of this force is that it always tries to bring
the body (executing oscillation) back to its mean position and
is proportional to the displacement.
𝐹𝑅 𝛼 − 𝑦
𝐹𝑅 = − 𝑘𝑦
where k is the force constant or the spring stiffness and y is
the displacement. The negative sign indicates that the
restoring force is acting in opposite direction.
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)

(ii) Damping (or) Frictional force:

It is proportional to the velocity acting in the opposite
direction of motion.
𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝐷 𝛼 −
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝐷 = −𝑟
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
where r is the frictional force constant and is the velocity.
𝑑𝑡
The negative sign indicates that the damping force is acting
along the opposite direction.
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)

(iii) Force of Inertia:

The system possesses this force by virtue of its motion. It is
a force that resists a change in the velocity of an object.

𝑑2 𝑦
𝐹𝛼
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑦
𝐹=𝑚 2
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦
where is the acceleration.
𝑑𝑡 2
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)

At equilibrium, the equation of motion of a body executing damped

harmonic vibrations is given by

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑦
= − 𝑦 −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
𝑑2𝑦 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑦 + =0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

Rearranging the above equation, we get

𝑑 2 𝑦 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝑘
+ + 𝑦=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 2𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0 −−−−−− −(1)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑟 𝑘
Let = 2𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜔2
𝑚 𝑚
The solution of Eqn. (1) is
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 −−−−− − 2
where A and α are arbitrary constants.
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)

Differentiating Eqn. (2) twice, we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
= 𝐴𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 = 𝐴𝛼 2 𝛼𝑡
𝑒 −−−− − 3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Substituting Eqn. (3) in Eqn. (1), we have
𝐴𝛼 2 𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 2𝑏𝐴𝛼𝑒 𝛼𝑡 + 𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 = 0
𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 𝛼 2 + 2𝑏𝛼 + 𝜔2 =0
Since 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑡 ≠ 0
∴ 𝛼 2 + 2𝑏𝛼 + 𝜔2 = 0
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)

• On solving the above equation,

• it gives −𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 𝜔 2
• The general solution of equation (1) is
𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 + 𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 − 𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 𝑡 −− −(2.4)

• where A1 and A2 are arbitrary constants. The above

equation (4) depends on ‘b’ and ‘ω’ values.
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
On solving the above equation, it gives

Case 1: Over-damped oscillation or Dead beat

When b2 > ω2

The displacement ‘y’ consists of two terms both lying off

exponentially to zero without performing any oscillations.

The rate of decrease of displacement is governed by the term −𝑏 +

𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 as the other term 𝑏 − 𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 𝑡 reduced to zero quickly. This
type of motion is called over-damped oscillation or dead beat.
 Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
Case 2: Critically Damped oscillation
When b2 = ω2
Let us consider 𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 = k tends approximately to zero
Now Eqn. (2.4) reduces to
𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 + 𝑘 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 − 𝑘 𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝐴1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑘𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑘𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝐴1 1 + 𝑘𝑡 + ⋯ . + 𝐴2 1 − 𝑘𝑡 + ⋯ .
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 (𝐴1 +𝐴2 ) + 𝑘𝑡(𝐴1 −𝐴2 ) + ⋯
Thus, 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑝 + 𝑞𝑡 −−−− −(5)
where 𝑝 = (𝐴1 +𝐴2 ) , 𝑞 = 𝑘(𝐴1 −𝐴2 )
 The displacement ‘y’ first increases due to the factor (p+qt) but at the
same time reversal occurs due to the exponential term e-bt and the
displacement ‘y’ approaches to zero as ‘t’ increases. This type of motion
is called critically damped oscillation.
Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
Case 3: Under Damped oscillation
When b2 < ω2
Let us consider 𝑏2 − 𝜔 2 = 𝑖 𝜔 2 −𝑏2 = 𝑖𝛽

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛽 = 𝜔 2 −𝑏2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = −1

Equation (4) becomes
𝑦 = 𝐴1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 + 𝑖𝛽 𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑏 − 𝑖𝛽 𝑡 −−− − 6 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝐴1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 𝑖𝛽𝑡 + 𝐴2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑖𝛽𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝐴1 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑡) + 𝐴2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑡 − 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑡)
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 (𝐴1 +𝐴2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑡 + 𝑖(𝐴1 −𝐴2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑡
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽𝑡 + 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑 = (𝐴1 +𝐴2 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑖(𝐴1 −𝐴2 )
𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 asin 𝛽𝑡 + 𝜑
Or

𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 2 −𝑏2 𝑡 + 𝜑 ----------------------- (7)

From the above Eqn. (7), it is clear that the amplitude of the motion is continuously decreasing to the
factor e-bt and is called the damping factor. This type of motion is called under damped oscillation.
Damped oscillations (Cont.…)
 FORCED OSCILLATIONS
Definition:
When a body oscillates under the influence of an external periodic force, its
oscillations are not with its own natural frequency but with the frequency of
the external periodic force. This type of oscillations are said to be forced
oscillations. Examples: Swinging, Guitar string, etc
 FORCED OSCILLATIONS
• External periodic force can make
another body into vibration with its
frequency. This kind of oscillation is
called forced oscillation, eg., tuning fork
and suspension spring.
 FORCED OSCILLATIONS
• The amplitude of oscillation will be
gradually decreased with time due to
dissipative force. Some external
periodic driving force should be given to
compensate the damping, eg., a child on
swing can be kept in motion by
appropriately timed pushes.
 DIFFERENTIAL WAVE EQUATION AND ITS
SOLUTION FOR FORCED OSCILLATIONS

• Consider a mass attached to a spring is set to vibrate

due to an external force as shown in the Fig.
• It vibrates with a frequency other than its natural
frequency under the action of an external periodic force.

• Fig. Forced oscillations

The mass is acted upon by three forces. They are:
1.Restoring Force:
It tries to bring the system back to its equilibrium position. It is proportional to the displacement with
negative sign.
𝐹𝑅 𝛼 − 𝑦
𝐹𝑅 = −𝑘𝑦
where k is a constant and y is the displacement.
2. Resisting or Frictional Force:
It is acting in opposite direction and is proportional to the velocity.

𝑑𝑦
𝐹𝐷 = −𝑟
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
where r is the frictional force constant and is the velocity. The negative sign indicates that this
𝑑𝑡

force is acting along the opposite direction.

3. External Periodic Force:
It is represented by 𝐹𝐸𝐹 = 𝐹0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
where p is the driving force frequency and F0 is the amplitude of the applied
periodic force.
Total force acting on the system
dy
−ky − 𝑟 + F0 sinpt −−−−−− −(1)
dt
Resultance force
The system possesses this force by the virtue of its motion.
By Newton's second law,
𝑑2 𝑦
𝐹 = 𝑚 2 −−−−−−−− −(2)
𝑑𝑡
Equating (1) and (2)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑦 − 𝑟 + 𝐹0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2𝑦 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝐹0
= − 𝑦 − + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑘 𝑟 𝑑𝑦 𝐹0
2
+ 𝑦 + = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡 −−− −(3)
+ 2𝑏 + 𝜔 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑟 𝑘 𝐹0
where = 2𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝜔 ;
2 = 𝑓0
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
The solution of Eqn. (3) is
𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 −−−−−−−− −(4)
where ‘A’ is the amplitude of vibrations and ‘θ’ is the angle by
which the displacement ‘ y ’ lags behind the applied force
𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡. ‘A’ and ‘θ’ are constants.
Differentiating Eqn. (4) with respect to ‘t ', we get

𝑑𝑦
= 𝐴𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 −−−−−− − 5
𝑑𝑡
Differentiating Eqn. (5) with respect to 't', we get

𝑑2𝑦
2 = −𝐴𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 −−−−− −(6)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting Eqn. (4)(5) and Eqn. (6) in Eqn. (3)
• −𝐴𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 2𝑏 𝐴𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 𝜔2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 = 𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑡
• −𝐴𝑝2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 2𝑏 𝐴𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 𝜔2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 = 𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 𝜃

• 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 + 2𝑏 𝐴𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 = 𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑓0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Comparing the coefficients of 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑡 − 𝜃 on both the sides of the
above equation, we get
𝐴 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 = 𝑓0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −−−−−− − 6
2𝑏 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑓0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 −−−−−− −(7)
Squaring Eqn. (6) and Eqn. (7) and adding, we get
𝐴2 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 2
+ 𝐴2 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 = 𝑓0 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑓0 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝐴2 𝜔2 − 𝑝2 2
+ 4𝑏 2 𝑝2 = 𝑓0 2

𝑓0
𝐴= −−−− − 8
𝜔2 − 𝑝2 2 + 4𝑏 2 𝑝2
Dividing Eqn. (7) by Eqn. (6), we get

2𝑏𝑝
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝜔 2 − 𝑝2
2𝑏𝑝
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −−−−−− − 9
𝜔 2 − 𝑝2
• Special Cases:
• Case (i) p << ω ;
• When driving frequency is lower than the
natural frequency.
𝑓0 𝑓0 𝐹0 𝐹0
• 𝐴= = = =
𝜔2 −𝑝2 2 +4𝑏2 𝑝2 𝜔2 𝑚𝜔2 𝑘
2𝑏𝑝
• 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0 = 0
𝜔2 −𝑝2
• Amplitude of the vibration is independent of
frequency of force. This amplitude depends on
the magnitude of the applied force and force
constant k. The force and displacement are
always in phase.
• Case (ii): p = ω,
• When driving frequency is equal to the natural
frequency, the condition is said to be Resonant
frequency state.
𝑓0 𝑓0 𝐹0
• 𝐴= = =
𝜔2 −𝑝2 2 +4𝑏2 𝑝2 4𝑏2 𝑝2 𝑟𝜔
𝐹0 𝑟
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, = 𝑓0 , = 2𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 = 𝜔
𝑚 𝑚
−1 𝑏𝑝 𝜋
• 𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ∞ =
0 2
• Amplitude of vibration is governed by damping and
for small damping forces, the amplitude of
vibrations will be quite large. The displacement lags
𝜋
behind the force by a phase angle of .
2
• Case (iii): p >> ω,
• When driving frequency is greater than
the natural frequency. Equ (1.16) becomes
𝑓0 𝑓0 𝐹0
• 𝐴= = =
𝑝4 +4𝑏2 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑚𝑝2

−1 2𝑏𝑝 −1 −2𝑏
• 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝜔2 −𝑝2 𝑝
• Since P is very large 1/P =0
∴ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −0 = 𝜋
• Amplitude A goes on decreasing and phase
difference tends towards π.
 Forced Oscillations

Undamped
𝐴 𝑏=0 𝜙
Low damping
Small b 𝜋

𝜋
High damping
2
Large b

0 𝜔0 𝜔 0 𝜔 p
 Waves
Wave motion is the onward transmission of disturbance due
to the repeated periodic motion of the particles of medium,
eg., sound and disturbed water surface.
Disturbed water
level at instant
of time
Steady water level

At a fixed position,
motion of water
molecule Water molecule
 Progressive Waves
A wave travelling in a medium in the same direction without any
interruption is called a travelling wave or a progressive wave. If it travels
in straight line it is called plane progressive wave. The progressive
wave may be transverse or longitudinal in nature.

𝑦 𝑡−
𝑥
v
After some time period
𝑡, a point P in the wave
moves from origin to 𝑥
𝑂 𝑡 distance
P

𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 (1)
where 𝐴 and 𝜔 are the amplitude and angular frequency of wave.
 Progressive Waves
𝑦 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 (1) 𝑡−
v

𝑥
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔 𝑡 − (2) P
v
Angular frequency can be related with 𝑂 𝑡
frequency (𝑓) and time (𝑇), 2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇

𝟐𝝅 𝒙
Equation (2) becomes 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏
𝑻
𝒕−
𝐯
(3)

2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 v𝑡 − 𝑥
v𝑇

We know that, 𝜆 = v 𝑓 = v𝑇 and hence v = 𝜆/𝑇

𝟐𝝅
𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝐯𝒕 − 𝒙 (4)
𝝀

Equations (2), (3) and (4) are the equations of progressive wave in different
forms.
 Wave Equation
The wave equation is a second-order linear partial differential equation for the
description of waves. It connects time and position dependant wave motions.

We know that, plane progressive wave equation is given by

2𝜋
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 v𝑡 − 𝑥 (1)
𝜆
Differentiating (1) with respect to 𝑥,
𝜕𝑦 −2𝜋 2𝜋
= 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 v𝑡 − 𝑥
𝜕𝑥 𝜆 𝜆
Differentiation again,
2
𝜕 𝑦 4𝜋 2 2𝜋
𝑦
= − 𝐴 sin v𝑡 − 𝑥 (2)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆2 𝜆
Equation (2) becomes
𝜕2𝑦 4𝜋 2
=− 2 𝑦 (3)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜆

𝜆2 𝜕2𝑦
𝑦=− 2× 2 (4)
4𝜋 𝜕𝑥
 Wave Equation

2𝜋 𝜆2 𝜕2𝑦
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 v𝑡 − 𝑥 (1) 𝑦=− 2× 2 (4)
𝜆 4𝜋 𝜕𝑥

Similarly, second order differentiation of equation (1) with respect to time 𝑡,

𝜕2𝑦 4𝜋 2 2
=− 2 v 𝑦
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜆

𝜆2 𝜕2𝑦
𝑦=− 2 2× 2 (5)
4𝜋 v 𝜕𝑡
Comparing equations (4) and (5)

𝜆2 𝜕2𝑦 𝜆2 𝜕2𝑦
− 2× 2 =− 2 2× 2
4𝜋 𝜕𝑥 4𝜋 v 𝜕𝑡

𝝏𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚
= 𝟐× 𝟐 (6)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝐯 𝝏𝒕
 Wave Equation

𝝏𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝒚
= 𝟐× 𝟐 (6)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝐯 𝝏𝒕

The above equation is the differential equation of progressive wave. It is

applicable to all types of waves, eg., wave in a string, water wave, etc.
Velocity of wave in a string is given by,
𝐹
v=
𝜇
where 𝐹 is the tension in the string and 𝜇 is linear mass density (mass per unit
length) of the string.
Equation (6) becomes, for a string

𝝁 𝝏𝟐 𝒚 𝝏𝟐 𝒚
=
𝑭 𝝏𝒕𝟐 𝝏𝒙𝟐