1. How to display the 10th line of a file?

head -10 filename | tail -1

2. How to remove the header from a file?

sed -i '1 d' filename

3. How to remove the footer from a file?

sed -i '$ d' filename

4. Write a command to find the length of a line in a file?

The below command can be used to get a line from a file.
sed –n '<n> p' filename
We will see how to find the length of 10th line in a file
sed -n '10 p' filename|wc -c

5. How to get the nth word of a line in Unix?

cut –f<n> -d' '

6. How to reverse a string in unix?

echo "java" | rev

7. How to get the last word from a line in Unix file?

echo "unix is good" | rev | cut -f1 -d' ' | rev

8. How to replace the n-th line in a file with a new line in Unix?
sed -i'' '10 d' filename # d stands for delete
sed -i'' '10 i new inserted line' filename # i stands for insert

9. How to check if the last command was successful in Unix?

echo $?

10. Write command to list all the links from a directory?

ls -lrt | grep "^l"

11. How will you find which operating system your system is running on in UNIX?
uname -a

12. Create a read-only file in your home directory?

touch file; chmod 400 file

13. How do you see command line history in UNIX?

The 'history' command can be used to get the list of commands that we are executed.
 14. How to display the first 20 lines of a file?
By default, the head command displays the first 10 lines from a file. If we change the option of
head, then we can display as many lines as we want.
head -20 filename
An alternative solution is using the sed command
sed '21,$ d' filename
The d option here deletes the lines from 21 to the end of the file

15. Write a command to print the last line of a file?

The tail command can be used to display the last lines from a file.
tail -1 filename
Alternative solutions are:
sed -n '$ p' filename
awk 'END{print $0}' filename

1. How do you rename the files in a directory with _new as suffix?

ls -lrt|grep '^-'| awk '{print "mv "$9" "$9".new"}' | sh

2. Write a command to convert a string from lower case to upper case?

echo "apple" | tr [a-z] [A-Z]

3. Write a command to convert a string to Initcap.

echo apple | awk '{print toupper(substr($1,1,1)) tolower(substr($1,2))}'

4. Write a command to redirect the output of date command to multiple files?

The tee command writes the output to multiple files and also displays the output on the terminal.
date | tee -a file1 file2 file3

5. How do you list the hidden files in current directory?

ls -a | grep '^\.'

6. List out some of the Hot Keys available in bash shell?

 Ctrl+l - Clears the Screen.
 Ctrl+r - Does a search in previously given commands in shell.

 Ctrl+u - Clears the typing before the hotkey.

 Ctrl+a - Places cursor at the beginning of the command at shell.
 Ctrl+e - Places cursor at the end of the command at shell.
 Ctrl+d - Kills the shell.
 Ctrl+z - Places the currently running process into background.
7. How do you make an existing file empty?
cat /dev/null > filename

8. How do you remove the first number on 10th line in file?

sed '10 s/[0-9][0-9]*//' < filename

9. What is the difference between join -v and join -a?

join -v : outputs only matched lines between two files.
join -a : In addition to the matched lines, this will output unmatched lines also.

10. How do you display from the 5th character to the end of the line from a file?
cut -c 5- filename

1. Display all the files in current directory sorted by size?

ls -l | grep '^-' | awk '{print $5,$9}' |sort -n|awk '{print $2}'

2. Write a command to search for the file 'map' in the current directory?
find -name map -type f

3. How to display the first 10 characters from each line of a file?

cut -c -10 filename

4. Write a command to remove the first number on all lines that start with "@"?
sed '\,^@, s/[0-9][0-9]*//' < filename

5. How to print the file names in a directory that has the word "term"?
grep -l term *
The '-l' option make the grep command to print only the filename without printing the content of
the file. As soon as the grep command finds the pattern in a file, it prints the pattern and stops
searching other lines in the file.

6. How to run awk command specified in a file?

awk -f filename

7. How do you display the calendar for the month march in the year 1985?
The cal command can be used to display the current month calendar. You can pass the month
and year as arguments to display the required year, month combination calendar.
cal 03 1985
This will display the calendar for the March month and year 1985.

8. Write a command to find the total number of lines in a file?

wc -l filename
Other ways to pring the total number of lines are
awk 'BEGIN {sum=0} {sum=sum+1} END {print sum}' filename
awk 'END{print NR}' filename
9. How to duplicate empty lines in a file?
sed '/^$/ p' < filename

10. Explain iostat, vmstat and netstat?

 Iostat: reports on terminal, disk and tape I/O activity.
 Vmstat: reports on virtual memory statistics for processes, disk, tape and CPU activity.

 Netstat: reports on the contents of network data structures.

1. How do you write the contents of 3 files into a single file?
cat file1 file2 file3 > file

2. How to display the fields in a text file in reverse order?

awk 'BEGIN {ORS=""} { for(i=NF;i>0;i--) print $i," "; print "\n"}' filename

3. Write a command to find the sum of bytes (size of file) of all files in a directory.
ls -l | grep '^-'| awk 'BEGIN {sum=0} {sum = sum + $5} END {print sum}'

4. Write a command to print the lines which end with the word "end"?
grep 'end$' filename
The '$' symbol specifies the grep command to search for the pattern at the end of the
line.

5. Write a command to select only those lines containing "july" as a whole word?
grep -w july filename
The '-w' option makes the grep command to search for exact whole words. If the
specified pattern is found in a string, then it is not considered as a whole word. For
example: In the string "mikejulymak", the pattern "july" is found. However "july" is not a
whole word in that string.

6. How to remove the first 10 lines from a file?

sed '1,10 d' < filename

7. Write a command to duplicate each line in a file?

sed 'p' < filename

8. How to extract the username from 'who am i' comamnd?

who am i | cut -f1 -d' '

9. Write a command to list the files in '/usr' directory that start with 'ch' and then
display the number of lines in each file?
wc -l /usr/ch*
Another way is
find /usr -name 'ch*' -type f -exec wc -l {} \;

10. How to remove blank lines in a file ?

grep -v ‘^$’ filename > new_filename

1. How to display the processes that were run by your user name ?
ps -aef | grep <user_name>

2. Write a command to display all the files recursively with path under current
directory?
find . -depth -print

3. Display zero byte size files in the current directory?

find -size 0 -type f

4. Write a command to display the third and fifth character from each line of a
file?
cut -c 3,5 filename

5. Write a command to print the fields from 10th to the end of the line. The
fields in the line are delimited by a comma?
cut -d',' -f10- filename

6. How to replace the word "Gun" with "Pen" in the first 100 lines of a file?
sed '1,00 s/Gun/Pen/' < filename

7. Write a Unix command to display the lines in a file that do not contain the
word "RAM"?
grep -v RAM filename
The '-v' option tells the grep to print the lines that do not contain the specified
pattern.

8. How to print the squares of numbers from 1 to 10 using awk command

awk 'BEGIN { for(i=1;i<=10;i++) {print "square of",i,"is",i*i;}}'

9. Write a command to display the files in the directory by file size?

ls -l | grep '^-' |sort -nr -k 5

10. How to find out the usage of the CPU by the processes?
The top utility can be used to display the CPU usage by the processes.
1. Write a command to remove the prefix of the string ending with '/'.
The basename utility deletes any prefix ending in /. The usage is
mentioned below:
basename /usr/local/bin/file
This will display only file

2. How to display zero byte size files?

ls -l | grep '^-' | awk '/^-/ {if ($5 !=0 ) print $9 }'

3. How to replace the second occurrence of the word "bat" with "ball"
in a file?
sed 's/bat/ball/2' < filename

4. How to remove all the occurrences of the word "jhon" except the first
one in a line with in the entire file?
sed 's/jhon//2g' < filename

5. How to replace the word "lite" with "light" from 100th line to last line
in a file?
sed '100,$ s/lite/light/' < filename

6. How to list the files that are accessed 5 days ago in the current
directory?
find -atime 5 -type f

7. How to list the files that were modified 5 days ago in the current
directory?
find -mtime 5 -type f

8. How to list the files whose status is changed 5 days ago in the current
directory?
find -ctime 5 -type f

9. How to replace the character '/' with ',' in a file?

sed 's/\//,/' < filename
sed 's|/|,|' < filename

10. Write a command to find the number of files in a directory.

ls -l|grep '^-'|wc –l

1. Write a command to display your name 100 times.

The Yes utility can be used to repeatedly output a line with the
specified string or 'y'.
yes <your_name> | head -100

2. Write a command to display the first 10 characters from each

line of a file?
cut -c -10 filename

3. The fields in each line are delimited by comma. Write a

command to display third field from each line of a file?
cut -d',' -f2 filename

4. Write a command to print the fields from 10 to 20 from each

line of a file?
cut -d',' -f10-20 filename

5. Write a command to print the first 5 fields from each line?

cut -d',' -f-5 filename

6. By default the cut command displays the entire line if there is

no delimiter in it. Which cut option is used to supress these kind
of lines?
The -s option is used to supress the lines that do not contain the
delimiter.

7. Write a command to replace the word "bad" with "good" in

file?
sed s/bad/good/ < filename

8. Write a command to replace the word "bad" with "good"

globally in a file?
sed s/bad/good/g < filename

9. Write a command to replace the word "apple" with "(apple)"

in a file?
sed s/apple/(&)/ < filename

10. Write a command to switch the two consecutive words

"apple" and "mango" in a file?
sed 's/\(apple\) \(mango\)/\2 \1/' < filename

11. Write a command to display the characters from 10 to 20

from each line of a file?
cut -c 10-20 filename

1. Write a command to display your name 100 times.

The Yes utility can be used to repeatedly output a line
with the specified string or 'y'.
yes <your_name> | head -100

2. Write a command to display the first 10 characters

from each line of a file?
cut -c -10 filename

3. The fields in each line are delimited by comma. Write

a command to display third field from each line of a file?
cut -d',' -f2 filename

4. Write a command to print the fields from 10 to 20

from each line of a file?
cut -d',' -f10-20 filename

5. Write a command to print the first 5 fields from each

line?
cut -d',' -f-5 filename

6. By default the cut command displays the entire line if

there is no delimiter in it. Which cut option is used to
supress these kind of lines?
The -s option is used to supress the lines that do not
contain the delimiter.

7. Write a command to replace the word "bad" with

"good" in file?
sed s/bad/good/ < filename

8. Write a command to replace the word "bad" with

"good" globally in a file?
sed s/bad/good/g < filename

9. Write a command to replace the word "apple" with

"(apple)" in a file?
sed s/apple/(&)/ < filename
10. Write a command to switch the two consecutive
words "apple" and "mango" in a file?
sed 's/\(apple\) \(mango\)/\2 \1/' < filename

11. Write a command to display the characters from 10

to 20 from each line of a file?
cut -c 10-20 filename

1. Write a command to print the lines that has the

the pattern "july" in all the files in a particular
directory?
grep july *
This will print all the lines in all files that contain
the word “july” along with the file name. If any
of the files contain words like "JULY" or "July",
the above command would not print those
lines.

2. Write a command to print the lines that has

the word "july" in all the files in a directory and
also suppress the filename in the output.
grep -h july *

3. Write a command to print the lines that has

the word "july" while ignoring the case.
grep -i july *
The option i make the grep command to treat
the pattern as case insensitive.

4. When you use a single file as input to the

grep command to search for a pattern, it won't
print the filename in the output. Now write a
grep command to print the filename in the
output without using the '-H' option.
grep pattern filename /dev/null
The /dev/null or null device is special file that
discards the data written to it. So, the /dev/null
is always an empty file.
Another way to print the filename is using the '-
H' option. The grep command for this is
grep -H pattern filename
5. Write a command to print the file names in a
directory that does not contain the word "july"?
grep -L july *
The '-L' option makes the grep command to
print the filenames that do not contain the
specified pattern.

6. Write a command to print the line numbers

along with the line that has the word "july"?
grep -n july filename
The '-n' option is used to print the line numbers
in a file. The line numbers start from 1

7. Write a command to print the lines that

starts with the word "start"?
grep '^start' filename
The '^' symbol specifies the grep command to
search for the pattern at the start of the line.

8. In the text file, some lines are delimited by

colon and some are delimited by space. Write a
command to print the third field of each line.
awk '{ if( $0 ~ /:/ ) { FS=":"; } else { FS =" "; } print
$3 }' filename

9. Write a command to print the line number

before each line?
awk '{print NR, $0}' filename

10. Write a command to print the second and

third line of a file without using NR.
awk 'BEGIN {RS="";FS="\n"} {print $2,$3}'
filename

11. How to create an alias for the complex

command and remove the alias?
The alias utility is used to create the alias for a
command. The below command creates alias
for ps -aef command.
alias pg='ps -aef'
If you use pg, it will work the same way as ps -
aef.
 To remove the alias simply use the unalias
command as
unalias pg

12. Write a command to display todays date in

the format of 'yyyy-mm-dd'?
The date command can be used to display
todays date with time
date '+%Y-%m-%d'

 1. Construct pipes to execute the following jobs.

 1. Output of who should be displayed on the screen with value of total number of users who have
logged in
 displayed at the bottom of the list.
 2. Output of ls should be displayed on the screen and from this output the lines containing the
word ‘poem’
 should be counted and the count should be stored in a file.
 3. Contents of file1 and file2 should be displayed on the screen and this output should be
appended in a file
 .
 From output of ls the lines containing ‘poem’ should be displayed on the screen along with the
count.
 4. Name of cities should be accepted from the keyboard . This list should be combined with the
list present
 in a file. This combined list should be sorted and the sorted list
 should be stored in a file ‘newcity’.
 5. All files present in a directory dir1 should be deleted any error while deleting should be stored
in a file
 ‘errorlog’.
 2. Explain the following commands.
 $ ls > file1
 $ banner hi-fi > message
 $ cat par.3 par.4 par.5 >> report
 $ cat file1>file1
 $ date ; who
 $ date ; who > logfile
 $ (date ; who) > logfile
 3. What is the significance of the “tee” command?
 It reads the standard input and sends it to the standard output while redirecting a copy of what it
has read to
 the file specified by the user.
 4. What does the command “ $who | sort –logfile > newfile” do?
 The input from a pipe can be combined with the input from a file . The trick is to use the special
symbol “-“
 (a hyphen) for those commands that recognize the hyphen as std input.
 In the above command the output from who becomes the std input to sort , meanwhile sort opens
the file
 logfile, the contents of this file is sorted together with the output of who (rep by the hyphen) and
the sorted
 output is redirected to the file newfile.
 5. What does the command “$ls | wc –l > file1” do?
 ls becomes the input to wc which count s the number of lines it receives as input and instead of
displaying
 this count , the value is stored in file1.
 6. Which of the following commands is not a filter man , (b) cat , (c) pg , (d) head
 Ans: man
 A filter is a program which can receive a flow of data from std input, process (or filter) it and send
the result
 to the std output.

 7. How is the command “$cat file2 “ different from “$cat >file2 and >> redirection operators
?
 is the output redirection operator when used it overwrites while >> operator appends into the file.
 9. Explain the steps that a shell follows while processing a command.
 After the command line is terminated by the key, the shel goes ahead with processing the
command line in
 one or more passes. The sequence is well defined and assumes the following order.
 Parsing: The shell first breaks up the command line into words, using spaces and the delimiters,
unless
 quoted. All consecutive occurrences of a space or tab are replaced here with a single space.
 Variable evaluation: All words preceded by a $ are avaluated as variables, unless quoted or
escaped.
 Command substitution: Any command surrounded by backquotes is executed by the shell
which then
 replaces the standard output of the command into the command line.
 Wild-card interpretation: The shell finally scans the command line for wild-cards (the characters
*, ?, [, ]).
 Any word containing a wild-card is replaced by a sorted list of
 filenames that match the pattern. The list of these filenames then forms the arguments to the
command.
 PATH evaluation: It finally looks for the PATH variable to determine the sequence of directories it
has to
 search in order to hunt for the command.
 10. What difference between cmp and diff commands?
 cmp - Compares two files byte by byte and displays the first mismatch
 diff - tells the changes to be made to make the files identical
 11. What is the use of ‘grep’ command?
 ‘grep’ is a pattern search command. It searches for the pattern, specified in the command line
with
 appropriate option, in a file(s).
 Syntax : grep
 Example : grep 99mx mcafile
 12. What is the difference between cat and more command?
 Cat displays file contents. If the file is large the contents scroll off the screen before we view it. So
 command 'more' is like a pager which displays the contents page by page.
 13. Write a command to kill the last background job?
 Kill $!
 14. Which command is used to delete all files in the current directory and all its sub-
directories?
 rm -r *
 Unix Commands Interview Questions – Subscribe to FREE & Exclusive career resources at
www.jobsassist.com/CareerMag/
 © JobsAssist.com (http://www.jobsassist.com/) and VyomWorld.com (http://www.vyomworld.com/) – Free
Student Resources
 15. Write a command to display a file’s contents in various formats?
 $od -cbd file_name
 c - character, b - binary (octal), d-decimal, od=Octal Dump.
 16. What will the following command do?
 $ echo *
 It is similar to 'ls' command and displays all the files in the current directory.
 17. Is it possible to create new a file system in UNIX?
 Yes, ‘mkfs’ is used to create a new file system.
 18. Is it possible to restrict incoming message?
 Yes, using the ‘mesg’ command.
 19. What is the use of the command "ls -x chapter[1-5]"
 ls stands for list; so it displays the list of the files that starts with 'chapter' with suffix '1' to '5',
chapter1,
 chapter2, and so on.
 20. Is ‘du’ a command? If so, what is its use?
 Yes, it stands for ‘disk usage’. With the help of this command you can find the disk capacity and
free space
 of the disk.
 21. Is it possible to count number char, line in a file; if so, How?
 Yes, wc-stands for word count.
 wc -c for counting number of characters in a file.
 wc -l for counting lines in a file.
 22. Name the data structure used to maintain file identification?
 ‘inode’, each file has a separate inode and a unique inode number.
 23. How many prompts are available in a UNIX system?
 Two prompts, PS1 (Primary Prompt), PS2 (Secondary Prompt).
 24. How does the kernel differentiate device files and ordinary files?
 Unix Commands Interview Questions – Subscribe to FREE & Exclusive career resources at
www.jobsassist.com/CareerMag/
 © JobsAssist.com (http://www.jobsassist.com/) and VyomWorld.com (http://www.vyomworld.com/) – Free
Student Resources
 Kernel checks 'type' field in the file's inode structure.
 25. How to switch to a super user status to gain privileges?
 Use ‘su’ command. The system asks for password and when valid entry is made the user gains
super user
 (admin) privileges.
 26. What are shell variables?
 Shell variables are special variables, a name-value pair created and maintained by the shell.
 Example: PATH, HOME, MAIL and TERM
 27. What is redirection?
 Directing the flow of data to the file or from the file for input or output.
 Example : ls > wc
 28. How to terminate a process which is running and the specialty on command kill 0?
 With the help of kill command we can terminate the process.
 Syntax: kill pid
 Kill 0 - kills all processes in your system except the login shell.
 29. What is a pipe and give an example?
 A pipe is two or more commands separated by pipe char '|'. That tells the shell to arrange for the
output of
 the preceding command to be passed as input to the following command.
 Example : ls -l | pr
 The output for a command ls is the standard input of pr.
 When a sequence of commands are combined using pipe, then it is called pipeline.
 30. Explain kill() and its possible return values.
 There are four possible results from this call:
 ‘kill()’ returns 0. This implies that a process exists with the given PID, and the system would allow
you to
 send signals to it. It is system-dependent whether the process could be a zombie.
 ‘kill()’ returns -1, ‘errno == ESRCH’ either no process exists with the given PID, or security
enhancements
 are causing the system to deny its existence. (On some systems, the process could be a
zombie.)
 ‘kill()’ returns -1, ‘errno == EPERM’ the system would not allow you to kill the specified process.
This means
 that either the process exists (again, it could be a zombie) or draconian security enhancements
are present
 (e.g. your process is not allowed to send signals to *anybody*).
 ‘kill()’ returns -1, with some other value of ‘errno’ you are in trouble! The most-used technique is
to assume
 that success or failure with ‘EPERM’ implies that the process exists, and any other error implies
that it
 doesn't.
 An alternative exists, if you are writing specifically for a system (or all those systems) that provide
a ‘/proc’
 filesystem: checking for the existence of ‘/proc/PID’ may work.
 Unix Commands Interview Questions – Subscribe to FREE & Exclusive career resources at
www.jobsassist.com/CareerMag/
 © JobsAssist.com (http://www.jobsassist.com/) and VyomWorld.com (http://www.vyomworld.com/) – Free
Student Resources
 31. What is relative path and absolute path.
 Absolute path : Exact path from root directory.
 Relative path : Relative to the current path.

 1. How do you execute one program from within another?

The system calls used for low-level process creation are execlp() and execvp(). The
execlp call overlays the existing program with the new one , runs that and exits. The
original program gets back control only when an error occurs.
execlp(path,file_name,arguments..); //last argument must be NULL
A variant of execlp called execvp is used when the number of arguments is not known in
advance.
execvp(path,argument_array); //argument array should be terminated by NULL

 2. What is IPC? What are the various schemes available?

The term IPC (Inter-Process Communication) describes various ways by which different
process running on some operating system communicate between each other. Various
schemes available are as follows:
Pipes:
One-way communication scheme through which different process can communicate. The
problem is that the two processes should have a common ancestor (parent-child
relationship). However this problem was fixed with the introduction of named-pipes
(FIFO).
 Message Queues :
Message queues can be used between related and unrelated processes running on a
machine.

 Shared Memory:
This is the fastest of all IPC schemes. The memory to be shared is mapped into the
address space of the processes (that are sharing). The speed achieved is attributed to the
fact that there is no kernel involvement. But this scheme needs synchronization.

 Various forms of synchronisation are mutexes, condition-variables, read-write locks,

record-locks, and semaphores.

 3. What is the difference between Swapping and Paging?

Swapping:
Whole process is moved from the swap device to the main memory for execution.
Process size must be less than or equal to the available main memory. It is easier to
implementation and overhead to the system. Swapping systems does not handle the
memory more flexibly as compared to the paging systems.
Paging:
Only the required memory pages are moved to main memory from the swap device for
execution. Process size does not matter. Gives the concept of the virtual memory.
It provides greater flexibility in mapping the virtual address space into the physical
memory of the machine. Allows more number of processes to fit in the main memory
simultaneously. Allows the greater process size than the available physical memory.
Demand paging systems handle the memory more flexibly.

 4. What is major difference between the Historic Unix and the new BSD release of
Unix System V in terms of Memory Management?
Historic Unix uses Swapping – entire process is transferred to the main memory from the
swap device, whereas the Unix System V uses Demand Paging – only the part of the
process is moved to the main memory. Historic Unix uses one Swap Device and Unix
System V allow multiple Swap Devices.

 5. In what way the Fault Handlers and the Interrupt handlers are different?
Fault handlers are also an interrupt handler with an exception that the interrupt handlers
cannot sleep. Fault handlers sleep in the context of the process that caused the memory
fault. The fault refers to the running process and no arbitrary processes are put to sleep.

 6. What is validity fault?

If a process referring a page in the main memory whose valid bit is not set, it results in
validity fault.
The valid bit is not set for those pages:
- that are outside the virtual address space of a process,
- that are the part of the virtual address space of the process but no physical address is
assigned to it.
 7. What does the swapping system do if it identifies the illegal page for swapping?
If the disk block descriptor does not contain any record of the faulted page, then this
causes the attempted memory reference is invalid and the kernel sends a “Segmentation
violation” signal to the offending process. This happens when the swapping system
identifies any invalid memory reference.

 8. What are states that the page can be in, after causing a page fault?
- On a swap device and not in memory,
- On the free page list in the main memory,
- In an executable file,
- Marked “demand zero”,
- Marked “demand fill”.

 9. In what way the validity fault handler concludes?

- It sets the valid bit of the page by clearing the modify bit.
- It recalculates the process priority.

 10. At what mode the fault handler executes?

At the Kernel Mode.

 11. What do you mean by the protection fault?

Protection fault refers to the process accessing the pages, which do not have the access
permission. A process also incur the protection fault when it attempts to write a page
whose copy on write bit was set during the fork() system call.

 12. How the Kernel handles the copy on write bit of a page, when the bit is set?
In situations like, where the copy on write bit of a page is set and that page is shared by
more than one process, the Kernel allocates new page and copies the content to the new
page and the other processes retain their references to the old page. After copying the
Kernel updates the page table entry with the new page number. Then Kernel decrements
the reference count of the old pfdata table entry.
In cases like, where the copy on write bit is set and no processes are sharing the page, the
Kernel allows the physical page to be reused by the processes. By doing so, it clears the
copy on write bit and disassociates the page from its disk copy (if one exists), because
other process may share the disk copy. Then it removes the pfdata table entry from the
page-queue as the new copy of the virtual page is not on the swap device. It decrements
the swap-use count for the page and if count drops to 0, frees the swap space.

 13. For which kind of fault the page is checked first?

The page is first checked for the validity fault, as soon as it is found that the page is
invalid (valid bit is clear), the validity fault handler returns immediately, and the process
incur the validity page fault. Kernel handles the validity fault and the process will incur
the protection fault if any one is present.

 14. In what way the protection fault handler concludes?

After finishing the execution of the fault handler, it sets the modify and protection bits
 and clears the copy on write bit. It recalculates the process-priority and checks for
signals.

 15. How the Kernel handles both the page stealer and the fault handler?
The page stealer and the fault handler thrash because of the shortage of the memory. If
the sum of the working sets of all processes is greater that the physical memory then the
fault handler will usually sleep because it cannot allocate pages for a process. This results
in the reduction of the system throughput because Kernel spends too much time in
overhead, rearranging the memory in the frantic pace.

 16. What are conditions on which deadlock can occur while swapping the processes?
- All processes in the main memory are asleep.
- All ‘ready-to-run’ processes are swapped out.
- There is no space in the swap device for the new incoming process that are swapped out
of the main memory.
- There is no space in the main memory for the new incoming process.

 17. What are conditions for a machine to support Demand Paging?

- Memory architecture must based on Pages,
- The machine must support the ‘restartable’ instructions.

 18. What is ‘the principle of locality’?

It’s the nature of the processes that they refer only to the small subset of the total data
space of the process. i.e. the process frequently calls the same subroutines or executes the
loop instructions.

 19. What is the working set of a process?

The set of pages that are referred by the process in the last ‘n’, references, where ‘n’ is
called the window of the working set of the process.

 20. What is the window of the working set of a process?

The window of the working set of a process is the total number in which the process had
referred the set of pages in the working set of the process.

 21. What is called a page fault?

Page fault is referred to the situation when the process addresses a page in the working
set of the process but the process fails to locate the page in the working set. And on a
page fault the kernel updates the working set by reading the page from the secondary
device.

 22. What are data structures that are used for Demand Paging?
Kernel contains 4 data structures for Demand paging. They are,
- Page table entries,
- Disk block descriptors,
- Page frame data table (pfdata),
- Swap-use table.
 23. What is the main goal of the Memory Management?
- It decides which process should reside in the main memory,
- Manages the parts of the virtual address space of a process which is non-core resident,
- Monitors the available main memory and periodically write the processes into the swap
device to provide more processes fit in the main memory simultaneously.

 24. What scheme does the Kernel in Unix System V follow while choosing a swap
device among the multiple swap devices?
Kernel follows Round Robin scheme choosing a swap device among the multiple swap
devices in Unix System V.

 25. How are devices represented in UNIX?

All devices are represented by files called special files that are located in/dev
directory. Thus, device files and other files are named and accessed in the same way. A
‘regular file’ is just an ordinary data file in the disk. A ‘block special file’ represents a
device with characteristics similar to a disk (data transfer in terms of blocks). A
‘character special file’ represents a device with characteristics similar to a keyboard (data
transfer is by stream of bits in sequential order).

 26. What is ‘inode’?

All UNIX files have its description stored in a structure called ‘inode’. The inode
contains info about the file-size, its location, time of last access, time of last modification,
permission and so on. Directories are also represented as files and have an associated
inode. In addition to descriptions about the file, the inode contains pointers to the data
blocks of the file. If the file is large, inode has indirect pointer to a block of pointers to
additional data blocks (this further aggregates for larger files). A block is typically 8k.
Inode consists of the following fields:
- File owner identifier
- File type
- File access permissions
- File access times
- Number of links
- File size
- Location of the file data

 27. Brief about the directory representation in UNIX

A Unix directory is a file containing a correspondence between filenames and inodes. A
directory is a special file that the kernel maintains. Only kernel modifies directories, but
processes can read directories. The contents of a directory are a list of filename and inode
number pairs. When new directories are created, kernel makes two entries named ‘.’
(refers to the directory itself) and ‘..’ (refers to parent directory).
System call for creating directory is mkdir (pathname, mode).

 28. What are the Unix system calls for I/O?

- open(pathname,flag,mode) – open file
- creat(pathname,mode) – create file
 - close(filedes) – close an open file
- read(filedes,buffer,bytes) – read data from an open file
- write(filedes,buffer,bytes) – write data to an open file
- lseek(filedes,offset,from) – position an open file
- dup(filedes) – duplicate an existing file descriptor
- dup2(oldfd,newfd) – duplicate to a desired file descriptor
- fcntl(filedes,cmd,arg) – change properties of an open file
- ioctl(filedes,request,arg) – change the behaviour of an open file
The difference between fcntl anf ioctl is that the former is intended for any open file,
while the latter is for device-specific operations.

 29. How do you change File Access Permissions?

Every file has following attributes:
- owner’s user ID ( 16 bit integer )
- owner’s group ID ( 16 bit integer )
- File access mode word
‘r w x -r w x- r w x’
(user permission-group permission-others permission)
r-read, w-write, x-execute
To change the access mode, we use chmod(filename,mode).
Example 1:
To change mode of myfile to ‘rw-rw-r–’ (ie. read, write permission for user – read,write
permission for group – only read permission for others) we give the args as:
chmod(myfile,0664) .
Each operation is represented by discrete values
‘r’ is 4
‘w’ is 2
‘x’ is 1
Therefore, for ‘rw’ the value is 6(4+2).
Example 2:
To change mode of myfile to ‘rwxr–r–’ we give the args as:
chmod(myfile,0744).

 30. What are links and symbolic links in UNIX file system?
A link is a second name (not a file) for a file. Links can be used to assign more than one
name to a file, but cannot be used to assign a directory more than one name or link
filenames on different computers.
Symbolic link ‘is’ a file that only contains the name of another file.Operation on the
symbolic link is directed to the file pointed by the it.Both the limitations of links are
eliminated in symbolic links.
Commands for linking files are:
Link ln filename1 filename2
Symbolic link ln -s filename1 filename2

 31. Predict the output of the following program code

main()
 {
fork(); fork(); fork();
printf(“Hello World!”);
}
Answer:
“Hello World” will be printed 8 times.
Explanation:
2^n times where n is the number of calls to fork()

 32. List the system calls used for process management:

System calls Description
fork() To create a new process
exec() To execute a new program in a process
wait() To wait until a created process completes its execution
exit() To exit from a process execution
getpid() To get a process identifier of the current process
getppid() To get parent process identifier
nice() To bias the existing priority of a process
brk() To increase/decrease the data segment size of a process

 33. How can you get/set an environment variable from a program?

Getting the value of an environment variable is done by using `getenv()’.
Setting the value of an environment variable is done by using `putenv()’.

 34. How can a parent and child process communicate?

A parent and child can communicate through any of the normal inter-process
communication schemes (pipes, sockets, message queues, shared memory), but also have
some special ways to communicate that take advantage of their relationship as a parent
and child. One of the most obvious is that the parent can get the exit status of the child.

 35. What is a zombie?

When a program forks and the child finishes before the parent, the kernel still keeps some
of its information about the child in case the parent might need it – for example, the
parent may need to check the child’s exit status. To be able to get this information, the
parent calls `wait()’; In the interval between the child terminating and the parent calling
`wait()’, the child is said to be a `zombie’ (If you do `ps’, the child will have a `Z’ in its
status field to indicate this.)

 36. What are the process states in Unix?

As a process executes it changes state according to its circumstances. Unix processes
have the following states:
Running : The process is either running or it is ready to run .
Waiting : The process is waiting for an event or for a resource.
Stopped : The process has been stopped, usually by receiving a signal.
Zombie : The process is dead but have not been removed from the process table.
 37. What Happens when you execute a program?
When you execute a program on your UNIX system, the system creates a special
environment for that program. This environment contains everything needed for the
system to run the program as if no other program were running on the system. Each
process has process context, which is everything that is unique about the state of the
program you are currently running. Every time you execute a program the UNIX system
does a fork, which performs a series of operations to create a process context and then
execute your program in that context. The steps include the following:
- Allocate a slot in the process table, a list of currently running programs kept by UNIX.
- Assign a unique process identifier (PID) to the process.
- iCopy the context of the parent, the process that requested the spawning of the new
process.
- Return the new PID to the parent process. This enables the parent process to examine or
control the process directly.
After the fork is complete, UNIX runs your program.

 38. What Happens when you execute a command?

When you enter ‘ls’ command to look at the contents of your current working directory,
UNIX does a series of things to create an environment for ls and the run it: The shell has
UNIX perform a fork. This creates a new process that the shell will use to run the ls
program. The shell has UNIX perform an exec of the ls program. This replaces the shell
program and data with the program and data for ls and then starts running that new
program. The ls program is loaded into the new process context, replacing the text and
data of the shell. The ls program performs its task, listing the contents of the current
directory.

 39. What is a Daemon?

A daemon is a process that detaches itself from the terminal and runs, disconnected, in
the background, waiting for requests and responding to them. It can also be defined as the
background process that does not belong to a terminal session. Many system functions
are commonly performed by daemons, including the sendmail daemon, which handles
mail, and the NNTP daemon, which handles USENET news. Many other daemons may
exist. Some of the most common daemons are:
- init: Takes over the basic running of the system when the kernel has finished the boot
process.
- inetd: Responsible for starting network services that do not have their own stand-alone
daemons. For example, inetd usually takes care of incoming rlogin, telnet, and ftp
connections.
- cron: Responsible for running repetitive tasks on a regular schedule.

 40. What is ‘ps’ command for?

The ps command prints the process status for some or all of the running processes. The
information given are the process identification number (PID),the amount of time that the
process has taken to execute so far etc.
 41. How would you kill a process?
The kill command takes the PID as one argument; this identifies which process to
terminate. The PID of a process can be got using ‘ps’ command.

 42. What is an advantage of executing a process in background?

The most common reason to put a process in the background is to allow you to do
something else interactively without waiting for the process to complete. At the end of
the command you add the special background symbol, &. This symbol tells your shell to
execute the given command in the background.
Example: cp *.* ../backup& (cp is for copy)

 43. What is a Region?

A Region is a continuous area of a process’s address space (such as text, data and stack).
The kernel in a ‘Region Table’ that is local to the process maintains region. Regions are
sharable among the process.

 44. What are the events done by the Kernel after a process is being swapped out from
the main memory?
When Kernel swaps the process out of the primary memory, it performs the following:
- Kernel decrements the Reference Count of each region of the process. If the reference
count becomes zero, swaps the region out of the main memory,
- Kernel allocates the space for the swapping process in the swap device,
- Kernel locks the other swapping process while the current swapping operation is going
on,
- The Kernel saves the swap address of the region in the region table.

 45. Is the Process before and after the swap are the same? Give reason.
Process before swapping is residing in the primary memory in its original form. The
regions (text, data and stack) may not be occupied fully by the process, there may be few
empty slots in any of the regions and while swapping Kernel do not bother about the
empty slots while swapping the process out.
After swapping the process resides in the swap (secondary memory) device. The regions
swapped out will be present but only the occupied region slots but not the empty slots
that were present before assigning.
While swapping the process once again into the main memory, the Kernel referring to the
Process Memory Map, it assigns the main memory accordingly taking care of the empty
slots in the regions.

 46. What do you mean by u-area (user area) or u-block?

This contains the private data that is manipulated only by the Kernel. This is local to the
Process, i.e. each process is allocated a u-area.

 47. What are the entities that are swapped out of the main memory while swapping the
process out of the main memory?
All memory space occupied by the process, process’s u-area, and Kernel stack are
swapped out, theoretically.
 Practically, if the process’s u-area contains the Address Translation Tables for the
process then Kernel implementations do not swap the u-area.

 48. What is Fork swap?

fork() is a system call to create a child process. When the parent process calls fork()
system call, the child process is created and if there is short of memory then the child
process is sent to the read-to-run state in the swap device, and return to the user state
without swapping the parent process. When the memory will be available the child
process will be swapped into the main memory.

 49. What is Expansion swap?

At the time when any process requires more memory than it is currently allocated, the
Kernel performs Expansion swap. To do this Kernel reserves enough space in the swap
device. Then the address translation mapping is adjusted for the new virtual address space
but the physical memory is not allocated. At last Kernel swaps the process into the
assigned space in the swap device. Later when the Kernel swaps the process into the
main memory this assigns memory according to the new address translation mapping.

 50. How the Swapper works?

The swapper is the only process that swaps the processes. The Swapper operates only in
the Kernel mode and it does not uses System calls instead it uses internal Kernel
functions for swapping. It is the archetype of all kernel process.

 51. What are the processes that are not bothered by the swapper? Give Reason.
- Zombie process: They do not take any up physical memory.
- Processes locked in memories that are updating the region of the process.
- Kernel swaps only the sleeping processes rather than the ‘ready-to-run’ processes, as
they have the higher probability of being scheduled than the Sleeping processes.

 52. What are the requirements for a swapper to work?

The swapper works on the highest scheduling priority. Firstly it will look for any sleeping
process, if not found then it will look for the ready-to-run process for swapping. But the
major requirement for the swapper to work the ready-to-run process must be core-
resident for at least 2 seconds before swapping out. And for swapping in the process must
have been resided in the swap device for at least 2 seconds. If the requirement is not
satisfied then the swapper will go into the wait state on that event and it is awaken once
in a second by the Kernel.

 53. What are the criteria for choosing a process for swapping into memory from the
swap device?
The resident time of the processes in the swap device, the priority of the processes and
the amount of time the processes had been swapped out.

 54. What are the criteria for choosing a process for swapping out of the memory to the
swap device?
- The process’s memory resident time,
 - Priority of the process and
- The nice value.

 55. What do you mean by nice value?

Nice value is the value that controls {increments or decrements} the priority of the
process. This value that is returned by the nice () system call. The equation for using nice
value is:
Priority = (“recent CPU usage”/constant) + (base- priority) + (nice value)
Only the administrator can supply the nice value. The nice () system call works for the
running process only. Nice value of one process cannot affect the nice value of the other
process.

 56. How the Kernel handles the fork() system call in traditional Unix and in the System
V Unix, while swapping?
Kernel in traditional Unix, makes the duplicate copy of the parent’s address space and
attaches it to the child’s process, while swapping. Kernel in System V Unix, manipulates
the region tables, page table, and pfdata table entries, by incrementing the reference count
of the region table of shared regions.

 57. Difference between the fork() and vfork() system call?

During the fork() system call the Kernel makes a copy of the parent process’s address
space and attaches it to the child process.
But the vfork() system call do not makes any copy of the parent’s address space, so it is
faster than the fork() system call. The child process as a result of the vfork() system call
executes exec() system call. The child process from vfork() system call executes in the
parent’s address space (this can overwrite the parent’s data and stack ) which suspends
the parent process until the child process exits.

 58. What is BSS(Block Started by Symbol)?

A data representation at the machine level, that has initial values when a program starts
and tells about how much space the kernel allocates for the un-initialized data. Kernel
initializes it to zero at run-time.

 59. What is Page-Stealer process?

This is the Kernel process that makes rooms for the incoming pages, by swapping the
memory pages that are not the part of the working set of a process. Page-Stealer is
created by the Kernel at the system initialization and invokes it throughout the lifetime of
the system. Kernel locks a region when a process faults on a page in the region, so that
page stealer cannot steal the page, which is being faulted in.

 60. Name two paging states for a page in memory?

The two paging states are:
- The page is aging and is not yet eligible for swapping,
- The page is eligible for swapping but not yet eligible for reassignment to other virtual
address space.
 61. What are the phases of swapping a page from the memory?
- Page stealer finds the page eligible for swapping and places the page number in the list
of pages to be swapped.
- Kernel copies the page to a swap device when necessary and clears the valid bit in the
page table entry, decrements the pfdata reference count, and places the pfdata table entry
at the end of the free list if its reference count is 0.

 62. What is page fault? Its types?

Page fault refers to the situation of not having a page in the main memory when any
process references it.
There are two types of page fault :
- Validity fault,
- Protection fault.

 63. What is a FIFO?

FIFO are otherwise called as ‘named pipes’. FIFO (first-in-first-out) is a special file
which is said to be data transient. Once data is read from named pipe, it cannot be read
again. Also, data can be read only in the order written. It is used in interprocess
communication where a process writes to one end of the pipe (producer) and the other
reads from the other end (consumer).

 64. How do you create special files like named pipes and device files?
The system call mknod creates special files in the following sequence.
1. kernel assigns new inode,
2. sets the file type to indicate that the file is a pipe, directory or special file,
3. If it is a device file, it makes the other entries like major, minor device numbers.
For example:
If the device is a disk, major device number refers to the disk controller and minor device
number is the disk.

 65. Discuss the mount and unmount system calls

The privileged mount system call is used to attach a file system to a directory of another
file system; the unmount system call detaches a file system. When you mount another file
system on to your directory, you are essentially splicing one directory tree onto a branch
in another directory tree. The first argument to mount call is the mount point, that is , a
directory in the current file naming system. The second argument is the file system to
mount to that point. When you insert a cdrom to your unix system’s drive, the file system
in the cdrom automatically mounts to /dev/cdrom in your system.

 66. How does the inode map to data block of a file?

Inode has 13 block addresses. The first 10 are direct block addresses of the first 10 data
blocks in the file. The 11th address points to a one-level index block. The 12th address
points to a two-level (double in-direction) index block. The 13th address points to a
three-level(triple in-direction)index block. This provides a very large maximum file size
with efficient access to large files, but also small files are accessed directly in one disk
read.
 67. What is a shell?
A shell is an interactive user interface to an operating system services that allows an user
to enter commands as character strings or through a graphical user interface. The shell
converts them to system calls to the OS or forks off a process to execute the command.
System call results and other information from the OS are presented to the user through
an interactive interface. Commonly used shells are sh,csh,ks etc.

 68. Brief about the initial process sequence while the system boots up.
While booting, special process called the ‘swapper’ or ‘scheduler’ is created with
Process-ID 0. The swapper manages memory allocation for processes and influences
CPU allocation. The swapper inturn creates 3 children:
- the process dispatcher,
- vhand and
- dbflush
with IDs 1,2 and 3 respectively.
This is done by executing the file /etc/init. Process dispatcher gives birth to the shell.
Unix keeps track of all the processes in an internal data structure called the Process Table
(listing command is ps -el).

 69. What are various IDs associated with a process?

Unix identifies each process with a unique integer called ProcessID. The process that
executes the request for creation of a process is called the ‘parent process’ whose PID is
‘Parent Process ID’. Every process is associated with a particular user called the ‘owner’
who has privileges over the process. The identification for the user is ‘UserID’. Owner is
the user who executes the process. Process also has ‘Effective User ID’ which determines
the access privileges for accessing resources like files.
getpid() -process id
getppid() -parent process id
getuid() -user id
geteuid() -effective user id

 70. Explain fork() system call.

The `fork()’ used to create a new process from an existing process. The new process is
called the child process, and the existing process is called the parent. We can tell which
is which by checking the return value from `fork()’. The parent gets the child’s pid
returned to him, but the child gets 0 returned to him.