Writing diplomatically: Managing potential conflict

by Barry Tomalin

Barry Tomalin Glasgow Caledonian University London [email protected]

Published in Training, Language and Culture Vol 3 Issue 2 (2019) pp. 40-54 doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.3
Recommended citation format: Tomalin, B. (2019). Writing diplomatically: Managing potential conflict.
Training, Language and Culture, 3(2), 40-54. doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.3

The aim of this paper is to assess the role of emotional language and neutral language in the preparation and
production of formal official documents. The paper explores the model offered by the United Nations in two
references of diplomatic writing, The United Nations Editorial Manual and the United Nations Correspondence
Manual. The example selected, from many that could be chosen, is that of Arabic-speaking diplomatic students
responding in writing to a simulated political incident that could lead to conflict. The discussion examines the
importance of emotional intelligence in managing one’s own feelings and hence the language one uses. It also offers a
methodology teachers can use in helping students become aware of emotive usage in reading passages and in their
own writing and how to manage it. The conclusion stresses the importance of avoiding emotive language in official
correspondence and finding ways of substituting it with more neutral words and expressions to achieve balance.

KEYWORDS: Arabic, linguistics, UN, diplomacy, conflict management, tweetplomacy, emotional intelligence, critical
awareness

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited (CC BY 4.0)

1. INTRODUCTION language. An important part of diplomatic training

Diplomats are the guardians of a nation’s heritage courses is raising critical awareness of what is the
and interests. When states are in conflict or are right and wrong way to use language and how to
steering towards a potential conflict situation, it is observe the protocol of what type of
the diplomats who keep the doors open to communication to use and what language is
discussion, often behind the scenes, in order to appropriate. Contrary to some opinions,
seek ways towards a peaceful settlement. An diplomatic language is not mindless bureaucracy,
important means of achieving this is to employ the but an important tool in the successful
appropriate language, neutral and objective and management of international relations. What
frequently indirect – in short, the diplomatic works for diplomats can also work for
language. This is important in public discourse, international business and negotiation, and the
whatever diplomats might say in private, and case study offered here is intended as an aide to
strong messages may be delivered using polite teachers in understanding the principles and

© Barry Tomalin 2019

40 Training, Language and Culture This content is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
 Writing diplomatically: Managing potential conflict
by Barry Tomalin

practice of diplomatic language. correspondence takes place whenever official

communication is needed between states and
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS between states and international organisations. The
The paper outlines the key features of the UN most important function of diplomatic
guide to diplomatic correspondence in English correspondence is to keep a record of agreements,
through the key modes of written communication decisions and positions taken (Marshall, 1997).
and compares it with the use of rhetoric in one of
the working languages of the UN – Arabic. It then 3.2 How does diplomatic correspondence take
takes an exercise in preparing diplomatic place?
correspondence with a group of Arabic-speaking According to Barston (2014), the most common
students as a basis for how strong feelings and the forms of diplomatic correspondence are notes or
style of expressing them needs to be adapted to fit notes verbales, letters, memoranda, and aides-
the norms of diplomatic communication. memoires. A more formal approach is used in the
categories of communication such as resolutions,
3. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND memoranda of understanding (MOUs), and
3.1 Diplomatic communication treaties. Types of communication such as reports
Diplomatic correspondence is one of the keys to and briefings, speeches, statements,
formal contact between states and between states communiques, press interviews, and declarations
and international organisations (e.g. the UN). The are also used in diplomatic and official
aim is to ensure diplomatic communication correspondence. Each type of communication has
continues to take place. Diplomatic a particular style of address and particular qualities
communication fulfils a number of functions, of approach. Common to all diplomatic writing is
some of the most important being to communicate the focus on respect for the recipient, objectivity of
decisions, express approval or disapproval, observation and analysis, and often the use of the
congratulate, confirm arrangements, initiate 3rd person to allow focus on the problem, not the
contact, make proposals, and threaten. personality.

In this paper, we explore the expression of Notes verbales form part of a correspondence.
disapproval and the use of threat and the language Their function is to bring an agreement into effect.
used to convey it. However, our first question has Although in Japan and in UN correspondence they
to be why, when and how does diplomatic are called Notes verbale, there is no significant
communication take place. Diplomatic difference with note, as used in the UK, the US or

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most of Europe. Notes or notes verbale are often ‘Common to all diplomatic
used for routine administration, such as
writing is the focus on respect
registration of treaties, granting or refusing
overflight clearance, peace proposals, but also
for the recipient, objectivity of
official protests, for example a record of a state’s
observation and analysis, and
position regarding a dispute. The linguistic devices often the use of the 3rd person to
used are very important. First of all, the form of allow focus on the problem, not
address is usually third person singular. The style the personality’
tends to be very formal, using phrases such as the
Embassy of … presents its compliments …, the supporting claims, a warning, a statement making
Embassy avails itself of the opportunity to…, etc. policy recommendations and it may be used to
The note is usually initialled, but not signed and explain detail on specific treaty or agreement
the paragraphs are not numbered (Barston, 2014). clauses where greater detail is needed. The
characteristics of a memorandum are that it may
Letters are exchanged direct between Head of be supported by a covering letter and is similar to,
State and Head of State or with an international but less formal than a note, with no opening or
body. Their function is to raise questions about or closing formalities and no signature is necessary.
explain policy, set out positions and intended lines
of action, establish intent to initiate agreement, Aides-memoires are official statements used as
MOU (memorandum of understanding or a treaty) follow-up to visits, trade fairs, conferences, etc. to
or (through the UN) to establish a complaint or propose initiatives as a result of discussions and as
defend policy or advance a case. A letter is a more a record of administration and policy
personal correspondence, addressed personally to commitments. They are usually written in the 3rd
the recipient, often directly between Heads of person, but less formal than memoranda and are
State and dated. Therefore, there is a more based on discussions. Speaking notes may be used
common use of I and you and the communication to record the conclusions of a telephone call.
is likely to be signed with a full signature followed
by typed name and position at the foot of the Resolutions are formal statements often used by
letter, rather than initialled. international organisations as a result of
conferences and summits.
A memorandum is a detailed statement of acts and
arguments and may be a statement of policy Communiques are an official record of discussions

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 Writing diplomatically: Managing potential conflict
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between Heads of Government, usually compiled and Heads of Government on policy and
soon after meetings and covering the agenda of procedure. A briefing should explain the
the meeting as a whole. Their key style qualities background and areas to which the briefing
are accuracy, selectivity, speed, short paragraphs, applies and that need to be dealt with, list policy
and space between paragraphs. They may use sub and procedure options with positives and
headings, if appropriate. It is important in negatives, and finally advise on best options.
communiqués to keep it simple. Marshall (1997)
advises avoiding complicated sentences (15-25 3.3 Guiding principles of diplomatic writing
words is ample) and writes: ‘If you cannot easily The guiding principle of diplomatic language are
read your reports aloud they are probably not as provided by the United Nations in two key
clear as they should be’ (Marshall, 1997, p. 161). documents. One is the United Nations
Correspondence Manual (United Nations, 2000)
An Memorandum of Understanding is used for and the other is The United Nations Editorial
regulating external relations with outside Ministry Manual (United Nations, 2014). Both documents
of Foreign Affairs agencies. They are used to follow are available online. The United Nations Editorial
up treaties and for detailing implementation Manual Online is intended to serve as an
procedures and may be kept internal to preserve authoritative statement of the style to be followed
confidentiality of information. Their style tends to in drafting, editing and reproducing United
be more informal than agreements or treaties and Nations documents, publications and other written
this may on occasion pose problems. A principle material. The United Nations Correspondence
issue is terminology, which may differ from state to Manual identifies the correct way to address
state and department to department. There is often officials at different levels of state and international
a possible difficulty of retrieval. Where are organisation governance.
documents stored? The documents may create low
norm setting and lack of consistency, and worst of In exploring the diplomatic writing process, we
all there may be issue of confidentiality and will look at protocol, preparation, making an
secrecy leading to poor foreign policy co- argument, persuasion and confidentiality.
ordination.
3.4 Protocol
The final area of diplomatic communication to Protocol is fundamental to diplomacy. Four key
discuss is that of briefings. These are papers issues need to be addressed in any diplomatic
designed to advise and inform foreign ministries document of the types described above.

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1. Symbols. Should the document have official convey? (Marshall, 1997). In answering the first
symbols such as coats of arms, official logos, etc.? question, the key principle is to include what is
These can add to the formality of a document. essential, not what is desirable. ‘Our job is to deal
with the essential and to convey it in its most
2. Terms of address. This has already been coherent, concise and persuasive form’ (Marshall,
discussed in the description of the main types of 1997, p. 156). Have a beginning, middle and end.
diplomatic document. Is the document personal or Precision is important. What can be left out? An
general? Should it be addressed using the 1st orderly, accurate and complete message achieves
person singular or the third person singular or balance with the key delivery points. Never
plural? The Minister of Foreign Affairs or the sacrifice clarity and bravity. Start the reader on the
Government? right path and encourage them to keep on it. The
first sentence is crucial. Have a sense of priorities.
3. Structure and layout. What is the expected Have a clear temporal sequence. Group related
structure of the document? It will have an ideas and thoughts. The core of the message must
introduction, content and a conclusion, but should always be in focus. It is a good idea to write down
it have single-spaced or double-space lines and your essential message in one or two sentences
how should paragraphs be differentiated? All this and make sure you lead up to it (Marshall, 1997).
becomes part of diplomatic practice.
3.6 Making an argument
4. Sign off. Different types of documents follow According to Marshall (1997), an argument can be
different conventions. Should they be signed or left 4 things:
unsigned? If they are signed, should the signature 1) a statement of fact advanced to influence
include full names or just initials? the mind and support a proposition;
2) a connected series of statements intended
3.5 Preparation to establish (or subvert) a position and
Apart from the protocol element, the preparation hence a process of reasoning;
of a diplomatic document needs careful thought, 3) an argument establishing the pros and cons
as it will remain on record for years, maybe even of a proposition, discussion or debate;
centuries, to come. For any diplomat, there are 4) the summary of a conference, discussion or
three key questions to consider. What is the debate.
message you wish to convey? Who do you wish to
convey it to? What sort of message do you wish to Different tools can be used to strengthen an

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‘Apart from the protocol Other ways of preserving confidentiality are to ask
recipients of a confidential or sensitive document
element, the preparation of a
to sign non-disclosure agreements or for the
diplomatic document needs distributor of the document to blot out potentially
careful thought, as it will remain controversial or politically sensitive words and
on record for years, maybe even phrases so that the reader cannot access them. This
centuries, to come’ is called redacting a document (Barston, 2014). If,
however, a leak occurs, it is important to have the
argument. They include illustration with examples, original (safe) version of the document available in
describing situations briefly or in detail, adding case information has been manipulated or quoted
new but relevant information to clarify a point, out of context.
varying approach and style, and laying devil’s
advocate and then demolishing the argument 3.8 The Arabic language
(Marshall,1997). Arabic is one of the most beautiful and expressive
languages in the world, and the native language of
3.7 Confidentiality more than two hundred million people. It is also
This is one of the key issues in any diplomatic the official language of twenty countries and the
correspondence. Who should be allowed to read language of the holy Qur’an. In 1973, it became
it? A number of linguistic devices exist to establish the sixth official language of the United Nations
confidentiality. Some common examples include: and is the fourth most widely spoken language in
• Eyes only (for your eyes only) the world (Nydell, 2002).
• Private and confidential
• Classified information Arabic is a Semitic language, along with Hebrew
• Circulation restricted and Amharic (Ethiopia) and Aramaic, Syrian and
• Information embargoed until (DATE) Chaldean, which are still spoken in Lebanon, Syria
• Information released under Chatham and Iraq (Nydell, 2002). Many words in English
House Rule (Chatham House is the Royal come from Arabic, including coffee, saffron,
Institute of International Affairs in London, ginger, apricot and sherbet, and also many words
based in Chatham House; under the beginning with al, of which the most famous is
Chatham House rule nothing said in a probably, algebra but also algorithm and almanac.
meeting can be attributed outside it.
Everything should remain internal). ‘The true heritage of Arabia can be found in its

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language. In the harsh desert environment which ‘Arabic is sometimes described

was not conducive to the development of fine arts,
as a ‘flowery’ language. In other
the cultivation of language became an art form in
itself. Even today poetry and eloquence hold a
words, it rejoices in the creative,
revered place’ (Cuddihy, 2002, p. 55-56). The
rhetorical use of language
important point is the use of language to convey expressing the speaker or
emotion. As Cuddihy (2002, p. 56) says, ‘Arabic is writer’s eloquence’
not merely a tool for conceptualisation, it is a
vehicle to convey atmosphere and emotion’. ‘Westerners are not in everyday speech given as
Arabs are, to quoting poetry, ancient proverbs and
There are different varieties of Arabic, ranging from extracts from holy books. Perhaps the greatest
different regional varieties to classical spoken and difference between the Levantine approach to
written Arabic, the language of the Qur’an, language and that of Westerners is that Levantines,
originating in the Hijaz region of Arabia. Classical like most Arabs, take pleasure in using language
or modern standard Arabic, as it is now known, is for its own sake’ (McLoughlin, 2008, p. 62).
the most important variety.
‘Poetry continues to play a central role in Arab
What is important for this study is that classical daily life and it is often said that poetry is the book
Arabic places great value on rhetoric. Arabic is of the Arabs. To this extent, linguistic eloquence is
sometimes described as a ‘flowery’ language. In always appreciated by Arabs, whereby style and
other words, it rejoices in the creative, rhetorical delivery can be as important as content’ (Al-
use of language expressing the speaker or writer’s Omari, 2008, p. 82).
eloquence. This is opposite to the normal use of
English, which frequently disparages rhetoric. ‘Another important feature of the Arabic language
is that it is a poetical language in a very big way. In
On the contrary, in Arab politics how you say everyday use, the language is full of idioms,
something is as important as what you say. The use euphemisms, proverbs and flowery phrases that
of Arabic allows rhetoric to be used, sometimes in will baffle and sometimes confuse most foreigners.
a disparaging way with threats, promises, Finally, when Arabs communicate in writing, their
exaggeration and slogans, whereas English tends language tends to be both elaborate and formal,
to avoid it, although that is changing with the which can send conflicting messages to the
popular press and the rise of populist rhetoric. untrained reader’ (Al-Omari, 2008, p. 83).

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Translation is a problem. There are certain words Arab world. The aim of the course was to teach
in Arabic that are not immediately translatable and students to manage the United Nations
the language needs a translator who can preserve Correspondence Manual and the United Nations
the key message, but without being too literal. Editorial Manual, discussed above. At the end of
the course the students completed a short exam,
This study examines how this difference in the use which involved three types of test. First was a
of rhetoric influences diplomatic writing in gapfill activity in which students had to insert the
English. By definition, diplomatic writing is correct diplomatic phrase into a letter from a
diplomatic and conforms by and large to the British Ambassador to the Head of the Central
guidelines laid down by the United Nations. It Bank of the country he or she was stationed in. A
advocates the avoidance of ‘strong language’ and second gapfill activity requested the students to
sets out a form of phraseology which makes a complete an official communiqué using words
state’s position reasonably clear while avoiding listed. The third activity involved re-ordering the
any kind of extreme or potentially provocative sentences of a UN note verbale regarding the
expression, particularly through the use of violation of airspace in Bosnia Herzegovina.
rhetoric. It explores the language used by trainee
diplomats responding to a diplomatic relations The final activity was a free style writing task. It
crisis and examines the relationship between UN involved writing a note verbale from the Ministry
conventional forms of expression and the use of of Foreign Affairs, in English, to the Foreign
potentially provocative rhetoric conveyed through Minister of another country whose air force jets
the use of emotive adjectives and adverbs, nouns had ‘buzzed’ (flown very close in order to
and verb phrases. It also recognises that the use of intimidate) two national airliners flying in
certain words might be due to the international airspace.
misunderstanding of dictionary or thesaurus
translations and suggests ways in which diplomats Using the United Nations Correspondence
and other writers can learn to use less emotive and Manual, the note verbale might have read
more precise descriptive language in their something like this.
communication.
The Minister of Foreign Affairs of STATE sends his
4. STUDY AND RESULTS compliments to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of
The study is the result of a course in diplomatic STATE and wishes to express its concern over
writing conducted for trainee diplomats from the reports of disruption to the flight path of two

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international airliners by fighter jets from STATE. force jets. Although the opening paragraph
followed by and large the format proposed above,
The incident, which occurred on DATE and took the description of the incident and its possible
place in international air space, caused consequences were effectively a breach of
considerable concern to aircrew and passengers diplomatic language and used words expressing
alike and may constitute a violation of emotion and anger, which may have been seen as
international airspace regulations. out of place in a diplomatic exchange. Of the 34
drafts examined, eight maintained a degree of
The ministry avails itself of the opportunity to neutrality while expressing concern over the
request the ministry of STATE to urgently incident. 26, however, felt it necessary to express
investigate the occurrence. their concern in a stronger fashion. In the
examples that follow the numbers in brackets after
Notice the use of the 3rd person and the formulaic the italicised phrases indicate the number of times
phrases, which act to establish respect as in, sends a word or phrase was used in the correspondence.
his compliments, ministry avails itself of the
opportunity. The accusation is similarly expressed Three letters used expressions describing the
in an indirect style using the phrase, wishes to behaviour of the state that had ‘buzzed’ the
express its concern. It explains the issues as far as airliners, such as aggressive behaviour (2) and
the airliner passengers and crew were concerned, categorically unacceptable behaviour. In this case
politely but firmly, using the phrase, caused more diplomatic language might refer to behaviour
considerable concern to aircrew and passengers which has caused concern. Twelve letters referred
alike. It also contains a threat, but one which is to actions or acts as hostile (10), a clear act of
expressed indirectly, as in the phrase, may aggression and conflict and unacceptable acts. In
constitute a violation of international airspace this case it might have been better to avoid the
regulations. The note finishes with a request, once outright accusation of aggression and focus on the
again wrapped in very polite terms, as in, the effects on the crew and passengers with a phrase
ministry avails itself of the opportunity... like caused the crew and passengers acute fear
and discomfort.
34 students completed the test and all did well.
However, the weakest point was the composition Three letters used the word threat accompanied
of the note verbale to the Ministry of Foreign once again by ‘undiplomatic’ adjectives. Examples
Affairs protesting the violation of airspace by its air are a violent explicit threat, a violent explicit threat

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to the lives of innocent civilians and a clear violent the likelihood of reprisals, as in these examples: in
threat. More muted expressions of displeasure the light of evidence of its hostile acts, this
were contained in seven communications, as aggressive action, if it re-occurs in future, will force
follows: is very disappointed, this action is not the the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to take unpleasant
best and gravely disappointed (5). In all cases the action to protect our people, any further such acts
notion of intentional threat should be avoided could trigger a response by STATE and …. will not
as the intention is not proven. The key is to focus hesitate to take necessary measures (2). This last
on the physical event and, if the writer wishes, its example is a firm but more acceptable
effect on the passenger and crew, which can be phraseology, but it is nonetheless a threat. Threats
documented, and not on the intentions of the by all means, but they need to be kept within the
fighter jets or the state to whose air force they confines of international law. What are they
belonged as that isn’t known for sure although it talking about? Armed conflict, denial of overfly
may be suspected. rights or withdrawal of diplomatic relations? The
most likely threat is recourse to international law,
Intensifiers were used in a number of but the state concerned doesn’t have enough
communications to strengthen the expression of evidence yet. So, a consequence may be hinted at,
outrage at the incident. Here are some examples. but cannot be stated in either specific or general
The STATE protests strongly against the STATE’s terms.
behaviour, …strongly urges the government to
reconsider its categorically unacceptable In summary, this relatively small sample shows
behaviour, …strongly denounces the aggressive how even in a diplomatic environment
behaviour of STATE airforce, …constitutes a declamatory and emotional expressions of strong
flagrant infringement of sovereignty, protest feeling can find their way into diplomatic
categorically, categorically not accepted and correspondence. The key linguistic devices used to
violates the law of international airspace. express feelings are adjectives and adjectival
A more legally neutral expression nevertheless phrases (e.g. aggressive, flagrant, unpleasant,
includes a ‘strong’ word violation as a noun in violent, unacceptable), adverbs and adverbial
constitutes violations of safety/ international law phrases (e.g. categorically, strongly), nouns and
(2). These simply need to be left out for the reasons noun phrases (e.g. violation, infringement, threat,
stated above, no proof. aggression), and verbs and verb phrases (e.g.
violate, force, trigger, denounce, take unpleasant
Finally, a number of communications clearly state action).

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In addition, the placing together of certain words the ability to perceive emotions, to access and
creates a phrase intended to intensify the generate emotions so as to assist thought, to
expression of anger at the incident, as in: understand emotions and emotional knowledge
categorically unacceptable, violent explicit, clear and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to
violent, and flagrant infringement. promote emotional and intellectual growth.
Developed and publicised by Harvard
This paper has taken as a case study the situation psychologist Daniel Goleman, emotional
of Arabic-speaking trainee diplomats, but in fact intelligence consists of five qualities, namely, self-
diplomats speaking any language are in danger of awareness, self-regulation, internal motivation,
overreacting, especially if faced with actions empathy, and social skills (Goleman, 2006).
which might put their citizens in danger. The
question is how do we teach trainee diplomats Self-awareness is the ability to recognise and
and indeed all foreign language students how to understand personal moods and emotions and
recognise and tone down possibly provocative drives, as well as their effect on others. Indicators
language. of self-awareness include self-confidence, realistic
self-assessment and a self-deprecating sense of
5. DISCUSSION humour. Self-awareness depends on one’s ability
5.1 Using emotional intelligence to monitor one’s own emotional state and to
Although the state whose airliners were ‘buzzed’ correctly identify one’s emotions.
by opposition fighters had a right to be angry,
diplomatic correspondence is not the place to Self-regulation is the ability to control or redirect
express it. Diplomacy is all about reading between disruptive impulses and moods and the propensity
the lines. A diplomat will understand immediately to suspend judgment and to think before acting.
what lies behind the neutral phraseology and Indicators include trustworthiness and integrity,
measured language and protocol of a comfort with ambiguity and openness to change.
communication. No one denies international
incidents such as these give rise to strong feelings, Internal motivation is a quality that allows one to
but in diplomatic correspondence these feelings recognise what is personally important in one’s
need to be expressed in carefully considered, life, a joy in doing something, curiosity in learning
neutral language, and with allowances made for and a propensity to pursue goals with energy and
the so-called emotional intelligence. Mayer and persistence. Indicators include a strong
Salovey (1997) define emotional intelligence as achievement drive, optimism and a commitment

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to organisation. emotions or experiences in others. Indicators are

an ability to search for and find common ground
Empathy is the ability to understand the emotional and build rapport (Goleman, 2006).
makeup of other people, a skill in treating people
according to their emotional reactions. Empathatic The process of understanding emotional
people tend to be good at intercultural sensitivity intelligence (Goleman, 2006) is explained below
and concern, or care or a wish to soften negative (Table 1).

Table 1
The process of understanding emotional intelligence

Awareness of emotions Management of emotions

Self Self-awareness Self-management

Others Social awareness Relationship management

In relation to oneself, the key is understanding governance and statecraft the use of political
one’s own emotions and feelings. That leads to language has changed and, in the opinion of
social awareness of others’ feelings and needs. As many, coarsened, as much more emotional and
a result of growing awareness of oneself, one even derogatory language has entered politicians’
learns to manage one’s own emotions and discourse, partly as a result of the increasing use of
ultimately better manage one’s relationship with social media by politicians aiming to reach their
others. Feelings and expression are very closely public.
linked, so understanding one’s own feelings can
lead to a better understanding of the right There is much discussion as to whether electronic
language to use in a response to a situation and a forms of communication can be considered
better use of appropriate language to manage diplomatic. These relatively new forms of
situations which might reflect or lead to conflict. communication, such as tweets, emails, blogs and
vlogs, may not be seriously considered as official
5.2 Social media and ‘tweetplomacy’ diplomatic correspondence, but they are very
There are arguments to suggest that in the world of influential and the danger is the text can be easily

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manipulated for political purposes, if only to ‘It remains to be seen whether

maintain public presence and get you and
the rise of ‘tweetplomacy’ will
publicise your state’s and maybe your opinions.
They have become essential means of expressing
continue or whether there will be
views on events and a way of communicating with
a backlash and maybe an
the public. attempt by the UN or other
agencies to establish norms and
Known by many as ‘tweetplomacy’, the media styles considered more suitable
used are Twitter, emails, Facebook posts, blogs and
to diplomatic and governmental
vlogs. The principal Twitter political communicator
online public discourse’
in the world right now is President Donald Trump
of the United States, although he is far from the
only one. Trump, however, is notorious for the way 5.3 A methodology for developing critical
he expresses his views directly, emotionally and awareness of language
often quite rudely in making disparaging What is important in diplomatic language is to
comments about those he disapproves of, such as avoid emotive language, particularly, adjectives,
‘Sleepy Joe’ Biden (Democratic contender for the intensifiers (particularly adverbs), nouns and verbs
Presidential Election in 2020), or ‘crooked in favour of more neutral and indirect language,
Hillary’ (to describe his Democratic opponent, which nevertheless conveys the facts, the
Hillary Clinton, in the 2106 presidential election). seriousness of the situation, the evidence and
Trump also referred to the Mayor of London, Sadiq possible actions and outcomes, without, however,
Khan, as ‘a disaster’ and ‘a national disgrace’ in adding insult to injury. So, as a teacher, advising
his tweets criticising Khan’s difficulties in students on how to avoid the use of emotive
controlling an outbreak of knife-crime in London, language in official communication while making
leading to the death and injury of a number of your point clearly, how should one proceed? Here
mainly young people. It remains to be seen are five steps.
whether the rise of ‘tweetplomacy’ will continue
or whether there will be a backlash and maybe an RECOGNISE. Select words and phrases from a text
attempt by the UN or other agencies to establish (written assignment or reading passage) that
norms and styles considered more suitable to contain possibly emotive language. Present it to
diplomatic and governmental online public the students. If it’s from a written assignment, don’t
discourse. identify the student who wrote it.

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ANALYSE. Analyse the words or phrases. What do ‘What is important in diplomatic

they mean? What emotions are they trying to
language is to avoid emotive
express and with what force?
language in favour of more
MANAGE. Ask the group to find alternative words
neutral and indirect language,
and phrases that express the same sense, but in a which nevertheless conveys the
more neutral fashion (e.g. instead of blasted, use facts, the seriousness of the
criticised, instead of thwarted, use rejectedI. situation, the evidence and
possible actions and outcomes,
REFLECT. Ask the students what they have learned
without adding insult to injury’
and as a result what they will do, say (write) and,
most importantly, think differently in future in a
come from any language community. It has also
similar situation.
identified the role of a more neutral and balanced
use of language in both national and international
CRITICAL THINKING. Ask students to bring
situations, especially where observation, critical
examples into class of texts where they feel the
analysis and balance are important, and explained
language is unbalanced with regard to the
how the United Nations approach has established
situation or people described. Ask them to find
norms for international language use for the
more neutral words and phrases to use as
official languages of the UN. It has also examined
substitutions.
a case study of letters responding to a potential
international incident drafted by Arabic-speaking
This is a very valuable exercise in raising critical
students of diplomacy working in English, and has
awareness among intermediate and advanced
identified the use of emotive language and
language students and enabling them to critically
suggested how it can be modified to offer a more
evaluate what they read and what they write.
neutral and balanced approach. Finally, the paper
Fifteen minutes once a week will have a definite
has suggested a methodology teachers can use to
effect on raising critical awareness of language.
raise critical awareness and encourage good
practice in the drafting of official correspondence.
6. CONCLUSION
Strong feelings are inevitable and frequently
All languages use rhetoric to express feelings and
commendable, but balanced delivery is
engage their audiences. This paper has chosen
paramount in the maintenance of positive
examples from Arabic speakers, but could have
international relations, especially in diplomacy.

Training, Language and Culture 53

Training, Language and Culture doi: 10.29366/2019tlc.3.2.3
Volume 3 Issue 2, 2019 rudn.tlcjournal.org

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54 Training, Language and Culture