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LECTURE /2nd SEMESTER 23

Volcanic Hazards

Volcanic Hazards o More associated with "effusive eruption"

o phenomena arising from volcanic activity = non-violent volcanic eruption
that pose potential threat to persons or
property in a given area within a given Ashfall / tephra Fall
period of time o shower of pyroclastic materials
Direct Volcanic Hazards
o also known as “primary volcanic
hazards”
o forces that directly kill or injure people
or destroy property or wildlife habitat
o examples: lava flows, ashfall or tephra
fall, Pyroclastic Density Current, Ballistic
Projectiles, Volcanic Gases Particle size classification
Indirect Volcanic Hazards o Ash - less than 2 mm in diameter
o Lapilli - 2 - 64 mm in diameter
o also known as “secondary volcanic
o Blocks - greater than 64 mm in diameter
hazards”
o volcanism-induced environmental Plinian Eruption
changes that lead to distress, famine, or
o ejects a large amount of volcanic gas and
habitat destruction
materials
o examples: lahars, Debris Avalanche or
o creates a large mass of cloud called
Volcanic Landslide, Tsunami
"eruption column" above the volcano
o volcanic materials in the eruption
Lava Flow
column will fall down and become tephra
o molten volcanic rock flowing out of the
fall.
erupting crater or fissure
o Lapilli and blocks will fall relatively near
o can bury, crush, cover and burn anything
the volcano.
in its path
o Ashes can reach farther places.
o least dangerous among the different
o Tephra fall that deposit a large amount
volcano hazards
of ash is called an ash fall.
o have a speed of 3km/day to 50 km/h
o speed is determined by the lava's Impacts of Ashfall / Tephra Fall
viscosity (resistance to flow), density, and
o very dangerous when it carries lapilli and
local area's land features
block
Impacts of Lava Flow o force of impact of falling fragments can
heavily damage buildings
o People in the anticipated path of flow can
o can cause roof collapse
be evacuated immediately
o damages agricultural lands by covering
o Can do a lot of damage on the properties
and killing vegetation
left behind
o damages power and communication
o Can crash, burn or bury everything in its
lines, and other infrastructures
path
o causes respiratory problems
o Can largely damage agricultural lands
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Volcanic Hazards

Pyroclastic Density Current o includes water vapor, hydrogen, carbon

o moving masses of mixed volcanic rock monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
fragments and hot gasses sulfide, sulfur trioxide sulfur dioxide
o produced when an eruption column chlorine and hydrogen chloride
collapses
Impacts of Volcanic Gases
o fast moving mixture of fragmented
volcanic materials and hot gasses o Damage the eyes, skin and respiratory
o very dangerous phenomenon system
o Damage vegetation, fabrics, and metals
o Affects the atmosphere and environment
o Less dangerous than other volcano
hazards

Lahar
o mud flow of volcanic debris and water
o most deadly and destructive among the
secondary volcanic hazard
Pyroclastic flow o has a speed of 1.3 m/s to 40m/s
o reaches far places
o high concentration o covers a wide area of land
o move in contact with ground o occurs for a long period of time
o confined to valleys o carries a large amount of volcanic debris
Pyroclastic surge which can destroy, carry, or bury
anything in its path
o low concentration o erodes the ground at the edge of the river
o move above ground o damages buildings and infrastructures
o expand over hill and valleys standing on the riverbanks
Impacts of Pyroclastic Density Current o destroys plains and agricultural lands
Primary (Hot Lahar)
o can cause asphyxiation (death by
suffocation) and incineration (death by o caused by pyroclastic materials reaching
burning) watersheds or eruption of a crater lake
o can bury and crush due to volcanic
Secondary (Cold Lahar)
fragments carried by the current
o caused by heavy rains
Ballistic Projectiles
o ejection of large rocks and magma Debris Avalanche or Volcanic Landslide
fragments that follow nearly parabolic o outward and downward movement of
trajectories volcanic debris, soil and rocks over a
o usually 10-15 cm slope
o result from the built up of volcanic
Volcanic Gases debris or from a volcanic earthquake that
o gases that are released to the atmosphere renders a land section too weak to
during an eruption support its weight
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Volcanic Hazards

o closely associated with erupting

stratovolcano (composite volcano)
o has high mobility can reach tens of
kilometers from the collapsing land
section
o less likely to occur than other volcanic
hazards
o moves with great magnitude that can
crush and bury anything in its path
o caused by magma intrusion beneath the
surface, a steam-blast explosion (mixture
of heat and water) or an earthquake

Tsunami
o giant sea wave caused by displacement
of water due to volcanic earthquake or
eruption under water
o primary volcanic hazards, like debris
avalanches and pyroclastic flows,
entering bodies of water can also cause
tsunami
o travels at very high speed
o rare compared to other volcanic hazards
o very hazardous and destructive
especially to those living near coastal
areas
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Hydrometeorological Hazard - Typhoon

Hydrometeorological Hazard o Circulating air creates vortex and

o Phenomena of atmospheric, hydrological, increases intensity
or oceanographic nature o Originates from the Indian Ocean
o May cause loss of life, injury, or other
Tropical Cyclone
health impacts, property damages, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and o “bagyo”
economic disruptions, or even o Any intense circulating weather system
environmental damages o Occurs in the Low Pressure Area (LPA)
o Can also be a factor in other hazards over tropical seas and oceans
o Gradual and sudden 1. Tropical Depression
o Short term and long term -63 kph and lower
o Largely damaged is environment 2. Tropical Storm
-64 to 88 kph
Potential hydrometeorological hazards 3. Severe Tropical Storm
o According to National Oceanic and -89 to 117 kph
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 4. Typhoon
o Cyclone, typhoon, flood, storm surge, -118 to 220 kph
tornado, flash flood, thunderstorm, el 5. Super Typhoon
nino and la nina -<220 kph

Typhoon
o Originated from North Pacific Ocean Public Storm Signal
o Has strong maximum winds and heavy
Signal No. 1
rainfall
o Circulates as it moves region per region o Winds of 30-60 kph
o Large, violent tropical cyclone o Expected in at least 36 hours
o Counterclockwise direction o Very light to no damage
o The circulation of the typhoon is because
Signal No. 2
of Coriolis Effect
o Average number of typhoons that cross o Winds 61-100 kph
the Philippines yearly = 20 o Expected in at least 24 hours
o Center of the eye is about tens of o Light to moderate damage
kilometers in diameter
o Center of the eye is clear of strong winds
Signal No. 3
or rain o 100-185 kph
o Weakest point of the typhoon is the eye o Expected in at least 18 hours
or vortex o Moderate to heavy damage
Signal No. 4
Cyclone
o Winds of more than 185 kph
o Large system of winds that circulates o Expected in at least 12 hours
about a center of low atmospheric o Heavy damage
pressure
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Hydrometeorological Hazard – Thunderstorm and floods

Thunderstorm
o Produces lightning and thunder, heavy o Cumulus cloud becomes very large
rainfall from cumulonimbus clouds and o Water becomes heavy
possibly a tornado o Raindrops starts to fall
o Violent local disturbance o Cool dry air starts to ender the cloud
o Accompanied by lightning, thunder and o Downdraft = column of air pushing
heavy rain and often by strong gust of downward; makes rain
wind, and sometimes by hail o Gusty wind line
Components of thunderstorm to form o Most likely for hail, heavy rain, frequent
o Moisture lightning, strong winds, tornadoes
o Rising unstable air
o Lifting mechanism to keep the air rising
Dissipating Stage
o Occurs after about 30 minutes
How does thunderstorm form o Downdrafts overcome the updraft
1. Sun heats the surface of the earth,
o Warm, moist air can no longer rise
warming the air
o cloud can no longer form
2. Warmer air rises
o dies out with light rain
3. Brings moisture or water vapor
o rainfall decreases in intensity but
4. Continues to rise
lightning remains a danger
5. Air transfers heat due to convection
6. Water vapor begins to cool, condense, Flood
and form a cloud o rise in water level
7. Cloud grows upward where the o water level recedes at a slower rate
temperature is freezing o usually brief
8. Ice particles are created from freezing o relatively high flow
liquid and collide from each other o measured by stage height or discharge
9. One particle can rip off a little bit of ice o rising tide
and grab some electric charge Cause of flooding
10. Lots of these collisions build up big o intense and prolonged rainfall
regions of electric charges to cause a bolt o river overflow
of lightning o high coastal and estuarine waters
11. Ripping apart of these molecules creates o ice and snow melts in temperate areas
the sound waves we hear as thunder o blasting
Three stages of a thunderstorm o construction of temporary dams
Cumulus Stage o failure of hydraulic and other control
structures
o Condensing moist warm air forming o mismanagement of hydraulic structures
cumulus cloud Types of flood
o Updraft = rising column of warm air
Flash flood
pushing cumulus cloud upward
o Cloud will continue to grow as long as o violent convection storms of a short
warm air below it continues to rise duration
o Little-to-no rain o falling over a small area
o Occasional lightning o occur in steep slopes
Mature Stage o most common in mountain districts
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Hydrometeorological Hazard – Thunderstorm and floods

o often the result of heavy rains of short

duration
o has critical impact
Fluvial (riverine) flood
o wide range of river and catchment
systems
o result of exceeding capacity of stream
channels
Single event floods
o widespread heavy rains
o several hours to a few days
o over a drainage basin
Multiple event floods
o heavy rainfall associated with successive
weather disturbances
Seasonal floods
o occur with general regularity
o result of major seasonal rainfall activity
Coastal floods
o caused by storm surges and high winds
o coinciding with high tides
Estuarine floods
o caused by seaward flow of river water
and landward flow of saline water during
high tides
Urban floods
o occurs when intense rainfall
o within cities and towns
Effects of floods
o destruction of properties
o devastation of agricultural crops
o negative impact on livelihood and local
economy
o lost of lives, injuries, and diseases
o possible contamination of bodies of
water
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Hydrometereological Hazards – Storm surge

Storm surge Factors that influence the build-up of water level

o an unusual localized increase in seawater during a storm surge
level brought by the strong winds, waves Storm intensity
and low atmospheric pressure of a storm
o higher than the normal or regular o storm surge is mainly wind driven storm
astronomical tide intensity
o primary cause of about 90 percent of o related to the wind speed of a storm
casualties o influences amount of surge produced
o damage to properties in coastal areas Pressure effect
during a tropical cyclone
o Philippines is highly prone to storm o lower atmospheric pressure results in a
surges because of its location near the higher storm surge level
equator in the Pacific region and due to o lowered atmospheric level and wind
the extensive length of its coastline speed are major causes of storm surge
o According to the World Factbook, the formation
Philippines has a total coastline length of Size
36,289km making it the fourth longest in
the world o tropical cyclone with larger diameter will
o Tsunami = harbor wave in Japanese; form a higher surge
seismic sea wave o wind brought about by larger tropical
cyclones push on a larger surface area of
the ocean and affects this area for longer
period of time
Storm forward speed
o tropical cyclone travelling with a higher
velocity will produce a higher surge along
an open coast
o slow moving tropical cyclone also causes
more destruction
o greater amount of rainfall is dumped
over the area which causes more flooding
inland
Angle of approach to coast

o amount of surge formed is affected by

angle by which the tropical cyclone hits
the coastline
Effect of the earth’s rotation

o tendency for ocean currents to be

deflected as a result of the earth’s
rotation
o “Coriolis effect”
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Hydrometereological Hazards – Storm surge

Identify any vulnerability and repair

Rainfall effect
it.
o Water levels can rise quickly in estuaries 2. Sandbags are a valuable tool to
o large volumes of accumulated rainwater prevent water from entering your
from watersheds in higher elevation home. This approach requires
areas, which are drained by rivers, specific instructions from your local
encounter waters driven by the tropical emergency officials.
cyclone from the open ocean 3. Learn how to turn off the gas and
electricity in your house. You may be
Geometry of coastal area
instructed by local authorities to shut
1. Bathymetry these off.
- appearance of the ocean or sea bottom 4. If you live in an area that is subject to
resulting from variation in depth with flooding, do not store your important
different portions documents in the basement. Keep
2. Topography them at a higher level, protected from
- wide low lying areas are more flood damage
vulnerable to storm surges 5. Ensure that your family has an
3. Shape of coastline emergency kit and plan.
- concave coastline = higher storm surge 6. Ensure your emergency kit is
level portable, in a back-pack or suitcase
4. Local features with wheels.
- found within coastal area may affect the If a storm surge is forecast
flow of water and the behavior of storm 1. Check supplies including
surge medications, radio, flashlight and
batteries.
Timing 2. You may have to evacuate. Keep your
o occurrence of a lot of other natural emergency kit close at hand.
phenomena, timing plays a role 3. Make sure the basement windows are
o the formation of a storm surge during a closed.
tropical cyclone coincides with high 4. Fuel your car. If evacuation becomes
astronomical tide resulting the surge is necessary, it will be hard to stop for
higher gas.
Storm surge risk reduction measures During a storm surge
1. Storm surge prediction, hazard map 1. Stay inside where you are protected
preparation, and zoning from the water. It's best to be on the
- land surveys downwind side of the house, away
2. Construction of storm surge barriers from windows.
- planting of plants 2. Monitor the storm's progress and
3. Wetland protection listen for warnings or instructions
- clear plants from wetland to decrease from local officials.
build up of water level 3. Before driving anywhere, listen
Preparing for a storm surge carefully to rescue officials who will
1. Check your house and land for any be coordinating evacuation plans.
potential dangers related to flooding. 4. Do not drive through flood waters.
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Hydrometereological Hazards – Storm surge

5. Be aware of risks such as

hypothermia from cold water or
drowning from running water.
After Yolanda/ Haiyan
Affected
o 16,000,000 people
o 3,400,000 families
Destroyed
o more than 1 million houses
o 33 million coconut trees
o 243 and 33 transmission towers and electric
cooperatives
o 600,000 hectares of agricultural land
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Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

Signs of Impending Volcanic Eruption

1) Increase in the frequency of volcanic quakes
with rumbling sounds
2) increased steaming activity
o change color of smoke (white to black or
gray)
3) Crater glow
o due to presence of magma at or near the
crater
4) Ground swelling (or inflation), ground tilting
and ground fissuring
5) landslides and rock falls
o from the summit area not attributable to
heavy rains
6) drying up of vegetation
o around the volcano’s upper slopes
7) Increase in the temperature of hot springs,
wells and crater lake near the volcano
8) variation of chemical content
o springs, crater lakes within the vicinity of
the volcano
9) drying up of springs / wells around the volcano
10) Development of new thermal areas and/or
reactivation of old ones
o appearance of solfataras

Why do we need to know the volcanic eruption signs

o for evacuation purposes
o to minimize injuries
o to minimize casualties

Phreatic eruption
o volcanic eruption without warning
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Signs of Impending Sinkhole and Landslide

Warning signs of an impending landslide o water causes alteration of the

1) earlier landslide as indicator pressure within the slopes of a
o frequent occurrence of landslide = terrain
weaker soil = more prone to o debris flow is a very wet, very mobile
landslides landslide, where water is loaded with
o inspecting an area of an old landslide trees, mud, rock, and everything else
for scarps and deposits is a clear caught in the current
indicator that a landslide will o low water level precedes the arrival of
reactivate the debris flow surge
2) tension cracks
o caused by the stress and friction Warning sign of an impending ground subsidence
produced by geologic materials 1) Trees or fence posts that tilt or fall
moving apart 2) Foundations that slant
o tension cracks above an existing 3) New small ponds that appear after rain
landslide can hint at a future 4) Cracks in the ground
reactivation 5) Sudden drainage of a pond
o located on higher elevated ground 6) Rapid appearance of a hole in the ground
o found on flat terrain are caused by 7) Dips, depressions, slopes that appear in a
fault movement and not landslide yard
indicators 8) Dead patches of grass or plants
3) things moving 9) Sinkholes in the neighborhood
o deformation and movement of non- 10) Wilted vegetation in a limited area
living objects not caused by human 11) Well water that is discolored or
manipulation can also indicate a contaminated with debris
landslide 12) Cracking or buckling of home's concrete
o trees are bending in up in a J-curve as slab
a sign that the ground slips out from 13) Presence of odd bugs like slugs,
underneath them centipedes in homes
o patch of angled forest on a slope 14) Earthly odor in home after rain
o rapid landslides are results of sudden 15) New or widening cracks
collapse of a slope 16) Separation between walls and ceiling or
o slow landslides are categorized by floors
movement of floor tiles, deformation 17) Cracks around door and window frames
of door frames which causes 18) Cracked grout between tiles
difficulty in closing and opening the 19) cracked tiles
door, and broken electric posts, gas, 20) stair step cracks in blocks or bricks
water and sewage pipes 21) Uneven floors, warping of hardwood,
o creaking and cracking bulging or sagging sections
4) water doing something different 22) Doors or windows that don't open or
o obvious changes in water flow close easily
o springs, seep, or wet ground may 23) Cracks in sheetrock near doors or
appear on a seemingly dry terrain windows
o unexpected withdrawal of water
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Natural Signs Impending Tsunami

Storm surge warning, be prepared ready to evacuate

o abnormal rise in seawater level during a at moment's notice
storm, measured as the height of the 2) Do not assume that after on wave, the
water above the normal predicted danger is over. If you cannot evacuate to
Tidal Wave higher ground, evacuate vertically to a
o shallow water wave caused by the higher floor, onto a roof, up a tree, or
gravitational interactions between sun, grab a floating object
moon, and Earth 3) Follow posted evacuation routes, where
Tsunami present. Take your animals with you but
o series of giant waves do not delay your evacuation to collect
o height could be greater than 5 meters them.
o sea waves resulting from the 4) If you are at sea, stay there, Boats are
disturbances of ocean floor by an generally safer in water deeper than 100
earthquake meters
o commonly generated by under-the-sea 5) Monitor the tsunami's progress and
earthquakes listen for warnings or instructions Erom
Local Tsunami local officials.
6) Watching a tsunami could put you in
o confined to coasts within a hundred grave danger. If you can see the wave,
kilometers of the source usually you are too close to escape.
earthquakes and a landslides 7) If you are safe when the first tsunami
o can reach the shoreline within 2 to 5 hits, stay put until authorities declare all
minutes is safe as more waves may follow.
Far Field or Distant Tsunami After a tsunami
1) Be prepared for aftershocks, which could
o can travel from 1 to 24 hours before generate another tsunami.
reaching the coast of the nearby 2) Return home only after local officials tell
countries you it is safe.
o coming from the countries bordering 3) Be aware of secondary effects. These
Pacific Ocean like Chile include landslides, contaminated water,
Before a tsunami threatens mudflows, damaged bridges, buildings,
1) If you live near or visit a coastal area, and roads and other hazards.
learn about the risk of a tsunami. Some 4) Do not light matches or turn on lights or
at-risk communities have maps with appliances until you are sure there are no
evacuation zones and routes gas leaks or flammable liquids spilled.
2) Know and practice community Avoid use of contaminated water.
evacuation plans and map out your 5) Place help sign in your window if you
routes from coming from your house, need assistance.
work, and other areas. 6) Experiencing a disaster is challenging
3) Learn the signs of an impending tsunami enough, but during the COVID-19
4) Create a family emergency plan with all pandemic it can feel even more difficult.
your family members.
During a tsunami
1) Move quickly to higher ground away
from the coast. In case of a tsunami
DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION 05
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Mitigation of Landslide and Ground Subsidence

Geological Hazards o Develop emergency plans and emergency

o Naturally occurring management programs
o Can cause potential danger o Organize and conduct trainings and
seminars on how to prepare and properly
Mitigation respond to a landslide
o Reduce the risk of life or property
damage from a potentially dangerous
incident
o Prevent or reduce the risk of life, social
and economic, and natural resources
from natural hazards
Mitigation strategy: Landslide
Individual Level
o Determine if your location is susceptible
to landslide
o Know and make a list of the proper
authorities to contact
o Learn how to recognize signs of slop
instability
o Immediately report observed signs of
slope instability to authorities
Community Level
Mitigation strategy : Ground Subsidence
o Regulate the construction of new
buildings of infrastructure that can Individual Level
increase the load of unstable slope
o Determine if your location is an area
o Monitor or avoid other activities like
susceptible to subsidence
logging, putting up plantations, and
o Avoid settling in areas known to be
excessive irrigations, on known unstable
susceptible to ground sinking
slopes
o Prepare for chances of flooding
o Develop and enforce ordinances and
regulations on the land-use management
of landslide-prone areas Community Level
o Work on stabilizing the landscapes of
o Install ground subsidence monitoring
areas known to be susceptible to
systems
landslide by implementing:
o Regulate or prevent activities like
-biological measures = plantation of
excessive water with withdrawal, oil and
grasses and deeply rooting trees
gas extraction, and mining
-engineering remedial measures =
o Avoid further construction of new
construction of landslide barriers and
structures in areas already experiencing
drainage structures
ground subsidence
o Prepare provisions for basic survival
o Modify or strengthen the structures that
needs
are already built in areas experiencing
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Mitigation of Landslide and Ground Subsidence

ground subsidence by:

-elevating the road and other structures
during construction
-enforcing structures foundations
-constructing / adding drainage and
pumping systems

Precautionary measures for landslide and sinkholes

During a landslide
o Be attentive to unusual such as cracking
objects, moving debris, and rolling
boulders
o Stay away from the path of debris
o Stay alert and awake
o Stay on elevated and sturdy area
o Avoid low-lying areas and steep slopes
o If unable to escape, curl into a tight ball
to protect the head
After a landslide
o Stay away from a slide area
o Listen for the latest emergency
information
o Follow warnings and instruction from
the local government
o Watch out for flooding and debris flow
o Check for injured or trapped people
During a sinkhole
o Find refuge in a stable ground or open
area
o Wait until structures on and around the
sinkhole stops moving
o Wait for local government
announcements
After a sinkhole
o Stay away from the sinkhole
o Monitor the damages on objects
o Do not throw anything into the sinkhole
o Secure whatever is left of your properties
o Relocate to safe grounds
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Geological Map

Geological Map
o Special kind of map
o Shows the distribution of:
-rock types and structure
-soil types and layers
-topographic features
-geologic age
-other geological features
o Information derived from:
-geological survey
-aerial photographs
-satellite images
o Can be combined with other types of map
using the Geographic Information
System (GIS)

Geological map features

o Faults
o Rock types
o Tilts
o Folds
o Volcano classification / location
Symbols in geological maps
o Thick lines and thin lines
o First capitalized letter in geologic unit
o Colors
o Dotted contact line
Geological map of Leyte
o Volcanoes location
o Volcano
o Status / classification
o Fault lines
o Geologic ages
o Rock types
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Geological Hazards – Landslides and Sinkholes

Geological Hazards
o gradual or sudden earth natural
processes that cause harm etc.

Landslide
o downslope bulk displacement of rocks
and soil
o collapse of weak land section
o water under bedrock causes landslide Fall
o varies in velocity based on numerous
o rapid movement
factors:
o immediate notice of effects
-slope angle
o happens in steep to almost vertical slope
-types and size of materials displaced
o loose materials of soil, rocks, and
-amount and thickness of the moving
sediments
mass
-ground’s water content
o can be differentiated into several types
base on the rate of its movement and
materials displaced
Creep
o slowest
o could happen over long period of time /
gradual
o effects cannot be noticed immediately Slide
o continuous movement of soils and rocks
o rapid movement
from 7cm to 7mm in size
o immediate notice of effects
o gliding down to pre-existing surface that
doesn’t rotate along a concave surface

Flow
o kind of like mudflow Slump
o happens rapidly
o resemble a stream o rapid movement
o mixture of soil, rocks, and other o immediate notice of effects
sediments o downward rotation of rocks, soil, and
sediments along a concave upward
surface
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Geological Hazards – Landslides and Sinkholes

o blocks of surface moves Possible effects of ground subsidence

o serious damage to buildings and
infrastructures
o flooding and land sterilization
Sinkhole
o severe ground subsidence
o result of long geological process
underground
o can appear suddenly
Possible causes of landslide
o very dangerous and catastrophic
Natural
o weathering
o slope angle
o soil profile and its components
o groundwater activity
o earthquakes & aftershocks
o extreme and / prolonged rainfall
Human activity
o deforestation
o adding weights on soil
(industrialization/urbanization)
o vibration due to traffic (boulders,
machineries, etc)
o mining and quarrying
Possible effects of landslide
o endangering life and properties
o deforming landscapes
o changing current land use

Ground subsidence
o settling or subsiding of earth’s surface
below natural ground surface level
o causes sinkholes
o usually occurs over long period of time /
gradual
o less dangerous than other hazards
Possible causes of ground subsidence
o dissolution and collapse of limestone
o excessive groundwater withdrawal
o mining
o oil and gas extraction
o earthquakes
o change of season
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Fire Hazard

Fire
Heat
o Chemical process of combustion or
burning o Fire cannot ignite unless it has certain
o Substances chemically combine with amount of heat
oxygen from the air o Cannot grow without heat
o Releases light, heat, and smoke o Sources- candle flame, fireworks,
o Composed of three elements – hear, fuel, lightning, stove flame
and oxygen
Fuel
Pros
o Fire needs fuel to form
o Gives warmth o Wick serves as fuel in the candle
o Cooking food o Can be made to react so that it releases
o Used in many industrial processes energy in the form of heat
o Light source o Types- gas (Butane, lpg, propane), liquid
Cons (vegetable oil), solid (burning tire, plastic)

o Causes injury or even death

o Destroys important materials
o Burns down houses or forests
Fire triangle
o Elements for fire to ignite- heat and fuel
o Oxidizing agent- oxygen
o Fire only happens when these elements
are present
o Simple model for understanding the
necessary elements for most fires
o If incomplete, there will be no fire

Oxygen
o Once fire is enclosed, all oxygen turns
into carbon dioxide and the fire stops
o Air we breathe
o When combined with flammable vapors
given by fuels, It creates a form of heat at
a molecular level
o Source of ignition causes it to combust
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09
LECTURE / 2nd SEMESTER 23

Hydrometereological Hazards – ENSO

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) o Coupled with reversal of the overlining

o Naturally occurring o Counterpart to El Niño
o Not an effect of climate change; effects o Sometimes follow El Niño events at
worsen due to climate change irregular intervals of about 2-7 years
o Happens every 2-7 years; now, every year o Lower-than-normal air pressure over the
due to climate change Western Pacific
o Involves cyclic fluctuating ocean Indications of La Niña in the Philippines
temperatures o Anomalies in rainfall, temperature, and
o Occurs in central and eastern equatorial tropical cyclone activities
pacific; Philippines is near here o Formation of tropical cyclones
o Coupled with changes in atmosphere o Increasing number of tropical cyclones
o Causes extreme regional-scale weather o Massive flooding, intense rains brought
and climate pattern changes in various by Southwest monsoon
regions of the earth
o Cyclic pattern of three phases
o Some countries don’t experience
El Niño
o “boy child” = Spanish
o Warming of seawater
o central-east equatorial pacific
o Occurs every few years
o December first experienced
o Ocean component of ENSO
o Occurs in the pacific basin every 2-9 years
o December-february
o Phase-locking in annual cycles = rainfall
fluctuations
o Biennial cycle or often preceded by La
Niña
Effects of El Niño in the Philippines
o Drought / dry spell
Indication of El Niño in the Philippines
o Delayed onset of rainy season
o Early termination of rainy season
o Weak monsoon activity
o Far tropical cyclone tracks
o Fewer tropical cyclones entering in PAR
o Less intense tropical cyclones
La Niña

o “little girl” = Spanish

o Large-scale cooling of the ocean surface
temperatures
o Central-east equatorial pacific