Comptes Rendus

Géoscience
Sciences de la Planète

Michel Faure
Alpine, Variscan, eo-Variscan belts: comparison between hot and cold orogens
from the examples of French segments

Published online: 31 May 2023

https://doi.org/10.5802/crgeos.215

Part of Special Issue: Geodynamics of Continents and Oceans – A tribute to Jean Aubouin
Guest editors: Olivier Fabbri (Université de Franche-Comté, UMR CNRS 6249,
Besançon), Michel Faure (Université d’Orléans-BRGM, UMR CNRS 7325, Institut des
Sciences de la Terre, Orléans), Laurent Jolivet (Sorbonne Université, ISTeP, UMR 7193,
Paris) and Sylvie Leroy (Sorbonne Université, CNRS-INSU, ISTeP, Paris)

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Comptes Rendus
Géoscience — Sciences de la Planète
Published online: 31 May 2023
https://doi.org/10.5802/crgeos.215

Geodynamics of Continents and Oceans – A tribute to Jean Aubouin / Géodynamique des

continents et des océans – Hommage à Jean Aubouin

Alpine, Variscan, eo-Variscan belts: comparison

between hot and cold orogens from the examples of
French segments
a
Michel Faure

a Institut des Sciences de la Terre d’Orléans (ISTO), UMR 7327-CNRS/Université

d’Orléans/BRGM, Campus Géosciences, 1A Rue de la Férollerie, 45071 Orléans

Cedex 2, France
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract. The Cenozoic Alpine, and Paleozoic Variscan and eo-Variscan collisional belts are compared
in the framework of the Wilson cycle considering differences between cold and hot orogens. The
W. Alps result of the opening and closure of the Liguro-Piemonte ocean, whereas the Paleozoic Eo-
variscan and Variscan orogenies document multiple ocean openings and collisions in space and a
polyorogenic history in time. Jurassic or Early Ordovician break-up of Pangea or Pannotia megacon-
tinents led to the formation of passive continental margins, and the opening of Liguro-Piemonte, or
Rheic, Tepla-Le Conquet, and Medio-European oceans, respectively. In Paleozoic or Mesozoic, micro-
continents such as Apulia and Sesia or Armorica and Saxo-Thuringia were individualized. The oceanic
convergence stage was associated with the development of arcs and back-arc basins in the Variscan
belt but magmatic arcs are missing in the W. Alps, and inferred in the Eo-variscan one. Though the
nappe stack is mainly developed in the subducted European or Gondwana crust in the western Alps
and Eo-variscan cases, the Moldanubian nappes formed in the upper plate in the Variscan case. The
Alpine and Variscan metamorphic evolutions occurred under ca. 8 °C/km and 30 °C/km gradients,
respectively. During the late- to post-orogenic stages, all belts experienced “unthickening” accom-
modated by extensional tectonics, metamorphic retrogression, and intramontane basin opening. The
importance of crustal melting, represented by migmatites, granites, and hydrothermal circulations in
the Variscan and Eo-Variscan belts is the major difference with the W. Alpine one. The presence, or
absence, of a previous Variscan or Cadomian continental basement might have also influenced the
rheological behavior of the crust.
Keywords. Hot and cold orogens, Alpine, Variscan, Eo-variscan, Oceanic convergence, P–T paths,
Crustal melting.
Published online: 31 May 2023

1. Introduction The scenario formalized by the Wilson cycle [Wil-

son, 1966, Dewey and Bird, 1970, Burke and Dewey,
Since the early times of plate tectonics, mountain 1974] is divided into several stages, namely: (i) pre-
building is viewed as a consequence of lithospheric orogenic lithospheric divergence, characterized
evolution at converging plate boundaries, though by ocean basin opening, between two continents,
intracontinental orogens may also develop in places (ii) orogenic lithospheric convergence with succes-
where lithosphere has been previously thinned. sively oceanic subduction, continental subduction,

ISSN (electronic) : 1778-7025 https://comptes-rendus.academie-sciences.fr/geoscience/

2 Michel Faure

and final collision when two continents contact, forms the substratum of Medio-Europa. The Alpine
leaving a few relics of oceanic lithosphere as an ophi- chain stricto sensu is geographically subdivided into
olitic suture, (iii) late to post-orogenic stage intracon- the Western (French–Italian), Central (Swiss) and
tinental deformation characterized by the disappear- Eastern (Austrian) parts (Figures 2, 3). In the follow-
ance of relief accommodated both by erosion and ing, due to space constraints, only the Western Alps
tectonics. Note that continental subduction is not will be considered.
a relevant criterion for collision, since this process The W. Alpine belt results from the succession of
may also occur in intracontinental belts and ob- the following events: (i) Pangea break-up, (ii) opening
duction chains in which the upper plate consists of of the Liguro-Piemonte (LP) ocean, (iii) disappear-
oceanic lithosphere. This simple Wilson cycle model ance of the LP ocean by subduction below the Apu-
does not reflect the variety of collisional processes lian margin, (iv) subduction of the European-derived
as plate velocities, lithosphere convergence vectors, Briançonnais continental ribbon below the Apulian
slab dip, and crust internal rheology are not consid- margin, and (v) collision of the European continen-
ered. The ophiolitic suture separating two collided tal margin with Apulia. Collision led to crustal thick-
continents may be erased by late tectonics, particu- ening, nappe stacking, topographic rise, foreland and
larly by strike-slip movements. It became popular to intramontane terrigenous basin formation, and ex-
distinguish “hot” and “cold” orogens due to their dif- humation of the deeply buried oceanic and conti-
ferent thermal state, and crustal rheology [e.g. Van- nental crust.
derhaeghe, 2012, Jamieson and Beaumont, 2013, and Unlike this simple pattern of a single oceanic
references therein]. Such a distinction was already lithosphere jammed between two continental crusts,
recognized as “hercynotype” and “alpinotype” oro- the Variscan belt exhibits a more complex tec-
gens before the onset of plate tectonics [Zwart, 1967]. tonic framework. In the following, we deal with the
In Europe, the Cenozoic Alpine and Paleozoic Variscan segment that extends from SW England and
Variscan belts are examples of collision orogens. Belgium to S. France. From North to South, it is sub-
However, in spite of similar architectural designs, divided into several lithotectonic domains, namely:
each belt exhibits also its own peculiarities. This (i) Northern foreland in Laurussia, (ii) Rheno-
paper explores in which way the features of cold- Hercynian, (iii) Saxo-Thuringian, (iv) Armorica mi-
narrow and large-hot orogens can be recognized in crocontinent, (v) Moldanubian, and (vi) Southern
the Alpine and Variscan belts. Emphasis is placed on foreland in Gondwana (Figure 4). In terms of plate
the tectonic, metamorphic and magmatic events oc- tectonics, the domain boundaries correspond to
curring during each stage of the Wilson cycle. Due ophiolitic sutures, even if ophiolites are not always
to space limitations, this comparison is restricted well preserved due to subsequent tectonics. The
to the French segments of the two belts. A detailed Rheic, Tepla-Le Conquet, and Eo-variscan sutures
description of the Alpine and Variscan belts is be- separate continental blocks: Laurussia-Avalonia,
yond the scope of this article [for details see Matte, Saxothuringia, Armorica, and N. Gondwana mar-
1986, Lagabrielle and Lemoine, 1997, Lemoine et al., gin. The Western Alps result from a single cycle of
2000, Agard et al., 2002, Schmid et al., 2004, Agard lithosphere divergence and convergence from Late
and Lemoine, 2005, Faure et al., 2005, 2009, Ballèvre Triassic (ca. 225 Ma) to Miocene (ca. 10 Ma), dur-
et al., 2009, Beltrando et al., 2010, Lardeaux, 2014a,b, ing 215 My. In contrast, the Variscan orogen was
Lardeaux et al., 2014; Table 1]. produced by Eo-variscan and Variscan Paleozoic
cycles of rifting and rewelding of Saxo-Thuringia,
2. Tectonic zonation and Armorica microcontinents between Laurussia
and Gondwana [e.g. Pin, 1990, Faure et al., 2005].
At the scale of the peri-Mediterranean belts, the Consequently, the Variscan orogeny can be consid-
Alpine system (Figure 1) is related to the lithospheric ered as the result of a polycyclic and multi-collisional
convergence between Europe and Africa through the process that developed during 260 Ma from Edi-
opening and closure of several intervening oceanic acaran (ca. 550 Ma) to Late Carboniferous (290 Ma),
basins. The Variscan belt, including parts overlain involving three oceanic basins, diachronously closed
by Meso-Cenozoic basins, and the Alpine basement, along three subduction zones.
 Michel Faure 3

Table 1. Main litho-tectonic elements of the W. Alps, Eo-variscan, and Variscan belts

Western Alps Devonian Eo-Variscan belt Carboniferous Variscan belt

Ophiolites Liguro-Piemonte ocean Medio European ocean Rheic & Tepla oceans
With (Monviso) or without (Drain unit, Audierne) Lizard klippe
(Chenaillet) metamorphism Le Conquet ophiolites

Subduction complex Helminthoid flysch Ile de Groix Not exposed in France

Schistes lustrés
Magmatic arc Absent Ligerian arc (inferred) NE Morvan arc (Somme series)
and Limousin tonalite line
Back-arc basin Back-arc basin: Back-arc: Brévenne ophiolites
(St-Georges/Loire unit)

Basement nappe Austroalpine nappe Mauges nappe Not documented in France

Concealed below Paris basin
Ductile syn- Schistes lustrés nappe Upper Gneiss Unit Para-autochthonous Unit
metamorphic nappes Briançonnais nappes Lower Gneiss Unit thrust sheets
Penninic recumbent folds
HP Metamorphism Eclogite, Blue schist. Eclogites, HT Granulites Not documented in France
Gradient 8 °C/km Blue schist. Gradient
8–10 °C/km
MP/MT metamorphism Amphibolite facies Barrovian metamorphism. Barrovian metamorphism.
30 °C/km 30 °C/km
Non- or Dauphinois Fold-and-Thrust Not documented in France North Fold-and-Thrust belt
weakly metamorphic belt (Ardennes, SW England)
nappes Helvetic recumbent folds South Fold-and-Thrust belt
(Montagne Noire, Pyrenees)

Foreland basin Helvetic molasse Absent North foreland basin

Po plain molasse South Foreland basin

Intramontane basin Some alpine valleys Intramontane coal basins

Pre-orogenic magmatism Triassic basalts, no Jurassic Felsic and mafic volcanites Brévenne back-arc basin
magmatism Alkaline plutons Vosges klippen line

Syn-orogenic magmatism Absent Absent Guéret biotite–cordierite

granitic massif

Late to post orogenic Rare (Biella, Adamello, Bergell Absent Visean “Tufs Anthracifères”
magmatism in Central Alps) Monzogranites
Two-mica granites
Mg–K granites

Crustal melting Rare (Lepontine dome) Devonian Migmatite Carboniferous Migmatite

3. The pre-orogenic stage to this rifting stage. In the External Crystalline mas-
sifs, east-facing normal faults coeval with syntectonic
3.1. Liguro-Piemonte ocean: Pangea breakup deposits in their hangingwalls document a middle
to late Jurassic age for the main rifting stage, but
After the completion of the Variscan orogeny, a contemporaneous magmatism is absent.
Permian-Triassic peneplain developed upon the The Callovian–Oxfordian (ca. 165–155 Ma)
eroded chain. A Carnian (ca. 225 Ma) early rifting opening age of the Liguro-Piemonte ocean is
episode occurred in the Briançonnais zone [Lemoine paleontologically and radiometrically constrained
et al., 2000], and the Late Triassic alkaline magma- [Cordey and Bailly, 2007, Li et al., 2013]. Sedimen-
tism recognized in the Helvetic zone is also ascribed tological and structural observations suggest that
4 Michel Faure

Figure 1. Distribution of the Alpine (yellow) and Variscan (brown) orogenic systems. The continuity of
the Alpine belt is disrupted by the opening of the Neogene back-arc basins. The Variscan belt forms
the basement of the Alpine one. The Neoproterozoic Cadomian belt is hidden by younger formations
or reworked in the Variscan belt. Ar: Ardenne, Co: Corsica, Ma: Maures, AM: Armorican Massif, EA:
Eastern Alps, MC: Massif Central, Mi: Minorca, Ro: Rhodope, S: Schwarzwald, Sa: Sardinia, SCa: South
Carpathians, SM: Serbo-Macedonian, St: Strandja, TESZ: Trans-European Suture Zone, V: Vosges, WA:
Western Alps, WCa: Western Carpathians.

the opening of the Liguro-Piemonte ocean was ac- 3.2. Variscan rifting: Pannotia break-up
commodated by east-dipping detachment faults
[Lemoine et al., 1987, Lagabrielle and Lemoine, In the Variscan belt, two rifting events occurred dur-
1997]. At the Pangea scale, the Liguro-Piemonte ing the Ediacaran–Cambrian (ca. 550–540 Ma) and
ocean corresponds to a left-lateral pull-apart basin early Ordovician (480–465 Ma). The early one is rep-
linking Central Atlantic and Tethys. Furthermore, in resented by alkaline felsic magmatism exposed in
Central Alps, the Cretaceous Valaisan basin and Montagne Noire or in Normandy. This aborted rifting
the Bio Unit (Figure 3), similar to the Schistes episode did not result in continental break-up. The
Lustrés, can be also considered as other oceanic main Variscan rifting took place in Early Ordovician.
basins that isolated the Briançonnais and Sesia con- Alkaline or calcalkaline plutonism is widespread in
tinental ribbons with respect to Europa and Apulia, the Moldanubian, Armorican and Saxothuringian
respectively. domains [e.g. Ballèvre et al., 2012] Ordovician felsic
volcanic-sedimentary “porphyroïd” formations are
 Michel Faure 5

Figure 2. Tectonic map of the European Alps showing the European External, Internal, and Apulian
domains, the foreland and hinterland molassic basins, and the Eocene–Oligocene plutons.

recognized in S. Brittany, Vendée, S. Limousin, Al- the Eo-Variscan suture in S. Brittany [Faure et al.,
bigeois, Rouergue, Cévennes [Pouclet et al., 2017, 2005, 2008, Ballèvre et al., 2009]. In the French Massif
Cousinié et al., 2022]. Alkaline basalts, dolerite, and Central, Early Paleozoic ophiolites are not exposed.
gabbro are also locally exposed [Pin and Marini, The km-sized masses of serpentinite displayed in
1993]. The Ordovician rifting is responsible for the Decazeville, Central Limousin, or in Cantal are in-
development of “leptyno-amphibolite complexes” terpreted as pieces of infra-continental mantle. Deep
[e.g. Lardeaux, 2014a,b, and references therein]. This oceanic sedimentary rocks (i.e. siliceous mudstone,
peculiar formation consists of cm- to m-scale alter- radiolarian chert) are missing.
nations of rhyolitic lavas, tuffs, mafic lavas, dolerite, In Pyrenees, the Late Ordovician unconformity
gabbro, and subordinate ultramafics. Such a bimodal upon Early Ordovician rocks was regarded as an
magmatism commonly develops in areas where in- evidence for an Early Paleozoic Caledonian orogeny.
tense crustal thinning triggers mantle upwelling, However, it is now interpreted as a post-rift onlap
and partial melting. The leptyno-amphibolite com- upon the Early Ordovician rifting [Laumonier and
plex, exposed in both Upper and Lower Gneiss units Wiazemsky-Donzeau, 2014, Puddu et al., 2019]. In
but with different metamorphic grades, represents Central Brittany, the Early Ordovician syn-rift ter-
the ocean-continent transition. The Early Ordovician rigenous deposits are unconformably covered by
turbidites in Montagne Noire and Pyrenees are also the Arenig Armorican sandstone post-rift deposit
ascribed to the Early Paleozoic rifting event. [Ballard et al., 1986]. In Ardenne, the Early Devo-
In spite of the intense ductile deformation and nian unconformity upon Cambrian–Ordovician tur-
metamorphism experienced by these formations, it bidites, previously considered as an evidence for a
is possible to unravel the passive continental mar- Caledonian event, is now interpreted as the mark of
gin from a proximal sediment-dominated part to the post-rift event [Sintubin et al., 2009].
a distal magmatic-dominated part (Figure 5). The In summary, the Variscan pre-orogenic stage led
true oceanic basin with ultramafics, gabbro, diabase, to the development of three continental stripes,
and oceanic sediments are only recognized along from South to North in the present coordinates: Ar-
6 Michel Faure

morica, Saxo-Thuringia, and Avalonia. These mi-

crocontinents were separated by oceanic basins,
called Medio-European, Le Conquet-Tepla, and
Rheic oceans. They drifted from the N. Gondwana
margin, represented by the S. part of the Armorican
Massif, Massif Central, Pyrenees, and S. Vosges. An
important difference with the W. Alps already ap-
pears at this stage, the Gondwana passive continen-
tal margin was the place of a widespread magmatism
whereas syn-rift magmatism is absent in the Alpine
one.

4. The oceanic convergence stage

4.1. Western Alps: Liguro-Piemonte Ocean clo-

sure

The Alpine orogeny started with the closure of the

Liguro-Piemonte ocean, accommodated by eastward
subduction below Apulia (Figure 6A). The Alpine
oceanic convergence is at variance with the Wilson
scheme since the magmatic arc is lacking, and even
arc-sourced detrital Cretaceous zircons are absent
in the flysch deposits [e.g. Chu et al., 2016]. The
Late Cretaceous Helminthoid flysch is considered as
a trench-fill deposit that escaped deep-seated sub-
duction but was thrust in Middle Eocene upon the
Briançonnais zone. In contrast, the Schistes Lustrés-
with-ophiolites nappe is interpreted as the meta-
morphic part of the subducted material. The HP/LT
metamorphism is well documented [Agard et al.,
2002, Lardeaux, 2014a; Figure 7]. Two types of ophi-
olites are distinguished: the weakly deformed ones
(e.g. Chenaillet) that probably belong to the upper
Figure 3. (A) Tectonic map of the Western plate, and the ophiolite thrust sheets that record a
Alps with the sense of synmetamorphic duc- HP/LT metamorphism (e.g. Monviso) attached to the
tile shearing. MB: Mont Blanc, B: Belledonne, subducting plate.
P: Pelvoux, A: Argentera, GP: Gran Paradiso,
DM: Dora Maira, DB: Dent Blanche, MR: Monte 4.2. The Eo-Variscan belt: Medio-European
Rosa, PF: Penninic Front, MJ: Mont Jovet [mod- ocean closure
ified from Lemoine et al., 2000, Agard and
Lemoine, 2005]. (B) Schematic crustal-scale In France, Eo-Variscan ophiolites formed in the
cross section (located in the map) of the West- Medio-European ocean are exposed only in S. Brit-
ern Alps [modified from Roure et al., 1989]. The tany, along the Nort-sur-Erdre fault, and in the Au-
Internal klippes of Prealps, Mont-Jovet, and dierne bay. In the former area, the mafic-ultramafic
Dent Blanche, exposed in the northern part of association and sedimentary rocks, devoid of HP
the Western Alps are projected on the line of metamorphism, are ascribed to the upper plate (Fig-
section. ure 6). They overthrust gneiss and migmatites of the
Champtoceaux complex, correlated to the Massif
 Michel Faure 7

Figure 4. Structural map and crustal-scale cross section (located in the map) of the Variscan belt of
Western Europe [modified from Matte, 1986, Faure and Ferrière, 2022].
8 Michel Faure

Figure 5. Simplified reconstruction of the Gondwana passive continental margin in Early Ordovician.
PAU: Para-autochthonous Unit, LGU: Lower Gneiss Unit, UGU: Upper Gneiss Unit. The UGU will experi-
ence a high to ultra-high pressure metamorphism during continental subduction.

Central Upper Gneiss Unit. In France, blueschists are 4.3. The Variscan belt: Rheic and Tepla oceans
rare, the largest exposures are found in S. Brittany closure
(Ile de Groix) where metapelites and metabasites are
interpreted as formed in an accretionary complex The Carboniferous Variscan orogeny corresponds
[Bosse et al., 2005, Ballèvre et al., 2009; Figure 7]. to the closure of the Rheic and Tepla-Le Conquet
The architecture of the Eo-variscan belt documents oceans with ophiolitic sutures located in the Eng-
a stack of nappes similar to the Alpine one (Fig- lish Channel and in NW Brittany, respectively (Fig-
ure 4). The ophiolitic nappe is tectonically overlain ures 4, 6C). In the Léon (i.e. Saxo-Thuringian mi-
by the Mauges nappe with Neoproterozoic meta- crocontinent), the top-to-the-North synmetamor-
morphic rocks already deformed during the Cado- phic ductile shearing argues for a S-directed sub-
mian orogeny, and unconformably covered by Early duction [Rolet et al., 1994, Faure et al., 2010]. An-
Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. The disappearance of other evidence for southward subduction is found in
the Medio-European ocean was accommodated by a the NE Massif Central (Morvan area). There, basalt,
northward subduction below Armorica. The oceanic andesite, volcanic-sedimentary rocks and massive
convergence setting has to take into account also the sulfide deposits support a Late Devonian magmatic
St-Georges-sur-Loire Unit located in the Armorica arc [Delfour, 1989, Faure et al., 2005]. The Brévenne
block immediately north of the Eo-variscan suture. ophiolites represent the back-arc basin opened dur-
This block-in-matrix unit is interpreted as a back-arc ing the southward subduction of the Tepla ocean.
basin, north of a possible magmatic arc subducted Between the Ardennes and Vosges, geophysical
during the Armorica–Gondwana convergence [Fig- data also document south dipping Rheic and Tepla
ure 6B; Cartier and Faure, 2004, Faure et al., 2008, sutures [Edel and Schulmann, 2009]. The Devo-
Ducassou et al., 2011]. nian diorite-granodiorite massifs of the Limousin
“tonalite line” [Didier and Lameyre, 1969, Peiffer,
1986] are also interpreted as an evidence for arc
plutonism.
 Michel Faure 9

Figure 6. Compared geodynamic cross sections during the Alpine (A), Eo-variscan (B), and Variscan
(C) convergence stage showing the diversity of subduction with forearc ophiolites (FAO), magmatic arc,
back-arc basin. In the Alps, the Bio unit might be also an oceanic basin that separated the Sesia block
from Apulia. Ch: Chenaillet, HF: Helminthoid flysch. PF: future Penninic front. To the North, the Valais
ocean separated the Briançonnais block from Europe. In the Variscan belt, the Carboniferous tectonic,
metamorphic, and magmatic features developed in the Moldanubian Domain are located in the upper
plate [from Lemoine et al., 2000, Faure et al., 2005, 2008].

5. The collisional stage the SE to the NW that developed during this stage
is documented by the shift of radiometric ages from
5.1. Western Alps: suturing of the Liguro-
Paleocene (ca. 50 Ma) to Miocene (ca. 10 Ma) [Monié
Piemonte ocean and Philippot, 1989, Ford et al., 2006, Bonnet et al.,
The contact between two continents, i.e. collision, 2022]. The sedimentary record also shows a NW-ward
was preceded by continental subduction as demon- migration of the terrigenous deposits. The erosion
strated by the HP and UHP metamorphism recog- of the early reliefs in the Internal zone supplied the
nized in the Internal Crystalline Massifs (Dora Maira, material for the Middle Eocene (ca. 40 Ma) Briançon-
Gran Paradiso) and Briançonnais zone [Chopin, nais black flysch, then in the Outer zone, the Priabo-
1984, Agard et al., 2002, Beltrando et al., 2010, nian (35 Ma) grès d’Annot-Aiguilles d’Arves flysch,
Lardeaux, 2014b; Figure 7]. The nappe stacking from and the Rupelian (ca. 30 Ma) Dauphinois flysch.
10 Michel Faure

Figure 7. Compared PT paths for the Western Alps, Eo-variscan and Variscan Moldanubian domains
[modified from Agard and Lemoine, 2005, Bosse et al., 2005, Faure et al., 2009, Lardeaux, 2014a,b]. Note
the contrast between cold (8 °C/km) and hot (30 °C/km) thermal gradients in the Alpine and Variscan
belts, respectively.

The syn-tectonic molassic sedimentation in the fore- Limousin, Marvejols, Lyonnais areas; e.g. Faure
land basin continued until the Miocene (10 Ma). et al., 2005, Lardeaux, 2014b; Figure 7]. As men-
Although the structural style and thermo- tioned above, the protoliths of these rocks are not
barometric conditions may change along the strike ophiolites but mafic and felsic dykes and sills em-
of the belt, the general architecture of the Western placed during the early Ordovician rifting within a
Alps is acknowledged from top to bottom with: (i) an thinned continental crust. The UHP assemblages
uppermost Austroalpine continental crust domain argue for ca 100 km deep continental subduction
overlying (ii) the Liguro-Piemonte oceanic sedimen- [Lardeaux et al., 2001, Berger et al., 2010]. The age of
tary and magmatic rocks, in turn overlying (iii) the the Eo-variscan HP metamorphism is still disputed:
Briançonnais sedimentary nappe stack that over- either around 415–400 Ma [Pin and Lancelot, 1982,
thrusts along the Penninic thrust iv) the less de- Do Couto et al., 2016] or 370–360 Ma [Bosse et al.,
formed and metamorphosed Dauphino-Helvetic do- 2000, Paquette et al., 2017, Lotout et al., 2018]. At the
main (Figure 3). Microtectonics document a general lithosphere scale, the collision between Gondwana
top-to-the-NW ductile shearing. However, during the and Armorica was responsible for a nappe stack,
Miocene, a SW-ward nappe displacement developed from top-to-bottom: (i) the Mauges nappe derived
in the S. part of the Dauphinois zone (Figure 3). from Armorica, (ii) the ophiolitic units derived from
the Medio-European Ocean, (iii) the (U)HP meta-
5.2. The Eo-Variscan Gondwana–Armorica: su- morphic units, referred to as the Upper Gneiss Unit,
(iv) the Lower Gneiss unit. The last two units derived
turing of the Medio-European ocean
from stretched, or hyperextended, Gondwana con-
HP to UHP eclogites and granulites are exposed tinental crust. It is worth to note that the lowermost
in the Moldanubian domain [S. Brittany, Vendée, units, Para-autochthonous and Fold-and-Thrust
 Michel Faure 11

belt, did not experienced the Eo-variscan tectono- Devonian formations, and Tournaisian unconfor-
metamorphic events. mity [Cogné, 1965, Paris et al., 1982, Rolet, 1982,
Moreover, an important difference between the Faure et al., 2017]. In NE Massif central, the north-
Alpine and Eo-variscan orogens is the development westward shearing was responsible for emplacement
in the latter of a pervasive crustal melting coeval of the Brévenne back-arc ophiolitic rocks on top of
with the exhumation of the HP rocks (Figure 7). the retrogressed Eo-Variscan gneiss [Leloix et al.,
Migmatites are widespread in the paragneiss of the 1999, Faure et al., 2005].
Upper and Lower Gneiss units. After the continen- The final S-directed nappe stacking, coeval with
tal subduction, the UGU underwent an adiabatic greenschist facies conditions, occurred in Visean-
decompression that retrogressed the eclogites into Bashkirian (ca. 340–320 Ma) in the hinterland basin
garnet amphibolites. In the same time, the Al-rich of Southern Massif Central, Pyrenees and Vendée.
metapelites and felsic orthogneiss were melted to In Montagne Noire and Pyrenees, thrusting was a
produce the metatexites observed in the Champto- syn-sedimentary event with a turbiditic sedimenta-
ceaux, Limousin, Sioule, Haut Allier, Lyonnais, and tion [Engel et al., 1978, Delvolvé et al., 1998]. A sim-
Rouergue areas. The migmatites in the UGU and ilar pattern is recognized in the northern foreland
LGU yield zircon U/Pb ages at 385–380 Ma and 380– basin: Ardenne, SW England [Figure 4; e.g. Fielitz and
375 Ma, respectively [Faure et al., 2008]. They exhibit Mansy, 1999].
a NE–SW striking mineral lineation coeval with top-
to-the-SW shearing that suggest syn-convergence ex- 6. The intracontinental syn- to late conver-
humation. In Morvan, Devonian migmatites that in- gence
clude eclogites and retrogressed garnet amphibo-
lites [Godard, 1990] are older than Frasnian (ca. 383– 6.1. Western Alps
372 Ma) sedimentary rock [for details see Leloix et al., In the Inner zone, the exhumation of the metamor-
1999, Faure et al., 2005]. phosed oceanic and continental units was accom-
modated by ductile normal faults, such as the Mon-
5.3. The Variscan collisions: suturing of the Rheic viso one [Ballèvre et al., 1990]. Although not exposed
and Tepla-Le Conquet ocean in the Western Alps, a HT/LP (metamorphism devel-
oped during the Oligocene (28–21 Ma) in the Lep-
The Variscan orogeny stricto sensu corresponds ontine dome [Figure 2, Berger et al., 2020]. The sil-
to the closure of the Rheic and Tepla-Le Conquet limanite and K-feldspar isogrades, oblique to the
oceans through S-directed subductions (Figure 6). thrust contacts, define an elliptical domal shape. The
The collision of Laurussia with Saxo-Thuringia gave Bergell granodiorite emplaced along the Tonale line.
rise to N-displaced Lizard ophiolitic klippe in SW The Miocene exhumation of the External Crystalline
England. The collision of Saxo-Thuringia with Ar- Massifs accommodated by thrusting [e.g. Leloup
morica was responsible for the N-directed syn- et al., 2005, Egli et al., 2017] was coeval with belt
metamorphic nappes exposed in the Léon block. In parallel extension [Sue et al., 2007]. In the External
other places, similar structures are concealed be- zone, intracontinental shortening was responsible
neath the sedimentary rocks of the Paris basin, as for the NW- and SW-ward thrusting of the Dauphino-
shown by the ECORS seismic profile [Cazes et al., Helvetic Mesozoic series upon the molassic deposits
1985]. The Variscan collisions reworked the Eo- (Figure 2). Sismotectonics, stress tensor analyses and
Variscan structures of the Moldanubian domain in geodetic data reveal a complex tectonic pattern with
the Massif Central and S. Armorican massif. It is a small displacement rate (ca. 1–2 mm/yr) accom-
worth to note that this domain belongs to the up- modated by thrusting in Jura and Po plain, and belt-
per plate. A top-to-the NW ductile shearing, coeval transverse extension in the Internal zone. GPS data
with a MP/MT metamorphism, developed in the and paleomagnetism argue for a counterclockwise
Famennian–Tournaisian [ca. 360–350 Ma; Figure 6; rotation of Apulia. Thus, the origin of the present tec-
Faure et al., 2009, Do Couto et al., 2016]. This event, tonics results from both body forces due to gravita-
called “Bretonian phase” was recognized in Central tional re-equilibration of the thickened crust, and far-
Brittany by the erosional gap of Late and Middle field boundary forces related to Apulia indentation.
12 Michel Faure

6.2. Variscan belt morican Massif, the syn- to late-orogenic plutonism

was associated with dextral strike-slip faults of the S.
Intracontinental tectonics likely related to the ex- Armorican and N. Armorican shear zones [Jégouzo,
humation of the Eo-Variscan rocks are not docu- 1980].
mented. On the contrary, the Variscan late to post- During the late Carboniferous, the Massif Cen-
orogenic stage is recorded by magmatic, tectonic, tral and Armorican massif experienced a second
and sedimentary processes. The Variscan orogen extensional event ascribed to the post-orogenic
displays a large amount of magmatic rocks emplaced stage. The opening of coal-bearing intramontane
from Late Tournaisian (biotite–cordierite Guéret basins was controlled by normal or strike-slip faults
massif) to Gzhelian. Carboniferous migmatites are with a NNE–SSW maximum stretching direction
widespread from the Léon block to the Pyrenees, [Malavieille et al., 1990, Faure, 1995]. The Velay
through South Armorica, Vendée, Massif Central, granite-migmatite dome formed also during this late
and Central Vosges. The migmatites, formed at the Carboniferous event [e.g. Barbey et al., 2015, Moyen
expense of metasediments and orthogneiss, are et al., 2017, Laurent et al., 2017]. Mg–K magma, wide-
dated between 330 and 325 Ma, with younger ages spread in the NE Massif Central and Vosges, formed
around 315–305 Ma close to post-migmatitic intru- by the melting of a mafic lower crust with some
sions [Bé Mézème et al., 2006, Turrillot et al., 2011, mantle input. Lamprophyre dykes are also inter-
Augier et al., 2015, Trap et al., 2017, Vanderhaeghe preted as a consequence of asthenospheric up-
et al., 2020]. The tectonic setting of the domes, welling. The HT granulite xenoliths in the Neogene
namely, diapiric, compressional, extensional, or lava record a HT/LP metamorphism similar to the
transcurrent, will not be discussed here [for details one observed in the Alpine Ivrea zone or some Pyre-
see Van Den Driessche and Brun, 1992, Echtler and nean massifs (Castillon, Agly). These rocks form the
Malavieille, 1990, Faure, 1995, Franke et al., 2011, layered lower crust depicted in the ECORS seismic
Denèle et al., 2014]. profile [Cazes et al., 1985].
The Late Visean magmatism is also represented
by the “Tufs anthracifères” volcanic-sedimentary se- 7. Conclusive remarks
ries exposed in the NE part of the Massif Central
This brief review of the main features of the Variscan
and S. Vosges. The emplacement of this series that
and Alpine orogens shows that these belts resulted
consists of undeformed and unmetamorphosed fel-
of crustal thickening due to nappe stacking after the
sic and intermediate-type lava flows, pyroclastites,
closure of oceanic domains. The main features re-
sandstone, siltstones, and coal measures, was con-
lated to the geodynamic evolution stages of the W.
trolled by a NW–SE stretching during the onset of the
Alps, Eo-variscan, and Variscan belts are listed in
late orogenic extension in the northern Moldanubian
Table 2. Moreover, the Eo-variscan, Variscan, and
Domain, whereas the thickening event was still active
Alpine belts exhibit some differences that can be re-
in the S. Massif central, and Pyrenees. In the Northern
lated to the diversity of the thermal gradients and
Massif central, the “red granites” and microgranites
crustal inheritance.
of the Montagne Bourbonnaise represent the deep
part of this late orogenic magmatic suite.
7.1. Passive continental margins
Due to different crustal sources, per-aluminous
two-mica granites and porphyritic monzogranites of As introduced in Section 3.2, the pre-Variscan Or-
Serpukhovian to Bashkirian age (ca. 325–310 Ma) are dovician passive continental margin resemble the
distinguished [Didier and Lameyre, 1969]. The for- magma-rich margins [e.g. Geoffroy, 2005]. This fea-
mer group is well represented in S. Brittany, Vendée, ture represents a significant difference with the Juras-
and Limousin, and the latter is mainly exposed in sic Alpine continental margin in which syn-rift mag-
NE and SE Massif central. Both pluton types are syn- matism is absent [e.g. Lemoine et al., 2000]. One ex-
tectonic bodies characterized by a NW–SE stretching planation might be that the Ordovician rifting was ac-
recorded in the plutons, contact aureole, and country commodated by a higher strain rate than in the Alps,
rocks. Ductile normal faults coeval with pluton em- allowing a fast mantle denudation that enhanced
placement support an extensional setting. In the Ar- crustal melting.
 Michel Faure 13

Table 2. Compared geodynamic evolution stages of the W. Alps, Eo-variscan, and Variscan belts

Western Alps Devonian Eo-Variscan belt Carboniferous Variscan belt

PRE-OROGENIC Triassic rifting in Apulia and Late Cambrian Late Cambrian
Continental rifting to Briançonnais. Early Ordovician rifting Early Ordovician rifting
ocean opening Normal faulting in External Leptynite-amphibolite complex and
Crystalline Massifs, Sardic/Ardennian unconformity Le Conquet ophiolites
no magmatism Drain ophiolites
Liguro-Piemonte ocean Medio European ocean Rheic & Tepla oceans
(Middle Jurassic) (Early Ordovician) (Early Ordovician)

OROGENIC Helminthoid flysch: trench Ile de Groix (subduction Not exposed in France
fill Schistes Lustrés melange ?)
Oceanic subduction (U)HP metamorphism
(Monviso)
Magmatic arc Absent Ligerian arc (inferred) Morvan arc
Limousin tonalites
Back-arc basin Absent St-Georges/Loire back-arc basin Brévenne Back-arc ophiolite

Continental subduction Austroalpine nappe Mauges nappe Saxo-Thuringian (Léon):

Internal Crystalline Massifs top-to-the N shearing
Penninic recumbent folds Moldanubian syn-metamorphic Moldanubian:
thrusting Top-to-the NW thrusting
Collision Schistes Lustrés nappe HP-UHP metamorphism Reworking of Eo-Variscan
(eclogites, HT granulites) structures
MP/MT metamorphism
Intracontinental MP/MT metamorphism Upper
thrusting Gneiss Unit thrusting upon Lower
E → W migration of flysch Gneiss Unit Moldanubian:
basins Para-autochthonous Unit
Helvetic recumbent folds South-directed Fold-and-Thrust
Dauphinois Fold-and-Thrust belt (Montagne Noire,
belt Pyrenees)
Briançonnais nappes Rheno-Hercynian: North-
directed Fold-and-Thrust belt
(Ardenne, SW England)

LATE TO POST-OROGENIC Central Alps: Visean marine deposits

Lepontine dome Tufs Anthracifères
Biella, Bergell, Adamello Two-mica granites
plutons Monzogranite
Mg–K granites
Crustal melting Migmatites Devonian migmatites Carboniferous Migmatite
Foreland basin Helvetic molasse Not documented North foreland basin
Po plain molasse South hinterland basin
Intramontane basin Not documented Not documented Gzhelian coal basins

7.2. Crustal melting granites are not yet exposed to the surface. However,
as UHP rocks are already exhumed from ca. 90 km,
In the Western Alps, evidence for crustal melting is a large amount of plutons would be expected as
absent. Migmatites are restricted to the Lepontine well. A possible cause for the rarity of Alpine melt-
dome in Central Alps. The rare Oligocene plutons ing could be that the middle and lower crusts are
represent a few volume compared to the huge mass formed by unfertile rocks left after the Variscan melt-
of the Variscan ones. It might be argued that Alpine ing. The Paleozoic rocks that already released melts
14 Michel Faure

were unable to produce new magmas in the Ceno- 7.4. The basement question
zoic. The difference in crustal melting behavior re-
flects the contrasted thermal gradients recognized in In the Alps, nappe stacking involves Meso-Cenozoic
cold and hot orogens. The Alpine one of ca. 8 °C/km sedimentary rocks and Paleozoic metamorphic or
was colder than the Eo-variscan and Variscan gra- magmatic rocks shaped up during the Variscan
dients of ca 20–30 °C/km (Figure 7). However, the orogeny [e.g. Faure and Ferrière, 2022, and refer-
Eo-variscan prograde metamorphic gradient is also ences therein]. In the Variscan belt, a Neoproterozoic
estimated at 8 °C/km before reaching a 30 °C/km Cadomian basement exists in Armorica and Saxo-
one during exhumation. It has also been shown Thuringia, even not exposed in the Léon block. In the
that in the northern part of the Massif Central, the Moldanubian domain, Neoproterozoic sedimentary
Late Visean thermal imprint was able to reset the and magmatic rocks do exist, but they cannot be con-
40
Ar/39 Ar chronometer [Faure et al., 2002]. These ob- sidered as a basement since they experienced their
servations raise the question of the origin of heat. first deformation only during the Variscan orogeny.
On the basis of the Himalayan case, it is often ar- There, reference to “Cadomian” events is therefore
gued that the increase in radiogenic elements due to groundless in this domain. The lithological contrast
crustal thickening triggered the melting of hydrated between “soft” and “hard” rheologies might be also
rocks to produce per-aluminous magmas [Lameyre, the cause for the different structural styles between
1984]. Although this mechanism likely played a role, the Moldanubian and Armorican domains.
the widespread distribution of migmatites and gran-
ites throughout the entire belt, even in the weakly
7.5. Orogenic time scale
thickened external zone, is hardly explained by an in-
tracrustal heat source. Alternatively, a mantle source The ignorance of several parameters such as the pre-
can be envisioned. Mantle convection, lithosphere cise age and thermal state of the oceanic lithosphere,
mantle delamination or slab breakoff would allow the or the dip angle of the subducting slab, does not
rise of hot asthenosphere bringing enough heat to allow us to accurately depict the geodynamics of
melt the continental crust. the converging lithospheres. Nevertheless, a rough
computation provides a semi-quantitative estimate
7.3. Fluid circulation and ore deposits of the different stages of the Eo-variscan, Variscan
and Alpine orogenic evolution. From a Callovian–
The Variscan belt is famous for its metallic resources Oxfordian age (∼160 Ma) for the opening of the
mined since Celtic times. Au, Sb, W–Sn, Li–Be ore Liguro-Piemonte ocean and an early Eocene age
deposits are displayed in the French Variscan mas- (∼55 Ma) for the continental subduction or incipient
sifs [e.g. Chauris and Marcoux, 1994, Bouchot et al., collision, the life-time of the Liguro-Piemonte ocean
1997, Marignac and Cuney, 1999]. These deposits are was about 105 My. In contrast, the Medio-European
linked to the late- or post-orogenic hydrothermal and ocean was a short lived one, ca. 80 My, from the Early
magmatic episodes. Massive sulfide deposits are ex- Ordovician (∼480 Ma) break-up of Pannotia to the
posed in the S. Iberian pyrite belt, or in the NE Massif Eo-variscan collision at ca. 400 Ma. The Rheic Ocean
Central where they are associated either to the Mor- also opened in Early Ordovician, but closed in Early
van magmatic arc or Brévenne back-arc basin devel- Carboniferous (∼360 Ma). This 120 My long duration
oped during the oceanic subduction stage. In con- might account for the development of arc and back-
trast, ore deposits are rare in the Western Alps. As ex- arc basins.
ceptions, the St-Véran, Servette-Chuc and Praborna In the Alps, the collisional stage lasted ∼45 My
mines, and scattered small sized Cu deposits are from Ypresian (55 Ma) to Tortonian (10 Ma). The du-
recognized in the ophiolites of the Schistes Lustrés ration of the Eo-variscan collision to post-collision
nappe, but they are related to the pre-orogenic hy- stages is difficult to estimate since Devonian molasse
drothermal events. Thus a dry and sterile Alpine crust is not documented. A minimum 30 My time lapse
is at variance with an hydrated, fertile Variscan one. is assumed from continental subduction (∼400 Ma)
Furthermore, the “cold” temperature gradient was to migmatisation (∼370 Ma). From the Tournaisian
unable to enhance fluid circulations. (360 Ma) to late Carboniferous (Gzhelian 300 Ma), the
 Michel Faure 15

Variscan collision duration (60 My) was longer than Ballèvre, M., Fourcade, S., Capdevila, R., Peucat,
the Alpine and Eo-variscan orogenic ones. J. J., Cocherie, A., and Fanning, C. M. (2012).
The Eo-variscan and Variscan orogenies docu- Geochronology and geochemistry of Ordovician
ment multiple collisions in space and a polycyclic felsic volcanism in the Southern Armorican Massif
orogenic history in time. With a single cycle, the case (Variscan belt, France): implications for the break-
of Western Alps is simpler, but a more complex evo- up of Gondwana. Gondwana Res., 21, 1019–1036.
lution might be accepted for the entire Alpine belt if Ballèvre, M., Lagabrielle, Y., and Merle, O. (1990). Ter-
the Valaisan ocean of Central Alps is considered. Fur- tiary ductile normal faulting as a consequence of
thermore, it can be argued that the Alpine cycle is not lithospheric stacking in the Western Alps. In Roure,
completed yet since the African plate is still subduct- F., Heitzman, P., and Polino, R., editors, Deep Struc-
ing below Europe (Figure 1). After the closure of the ture of the Alps, volume 156, pages 227–236. Mem.
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orogen might also present a bivergent architecture, Barbey, P., Villaros, A., Marignac, C., and Montel, J.-M.
and a polyorogenic evolution similar to the Variscan (2015). Multiphase melting, magma emplacement
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Velay example (Massif Central, France). Bull. Soc.
Conflicts of interest Géol. Fr., 186, 93–116.
Bé Mézème, E., Cocherie, A., Faure, M., Legendre, O.,
The author has no conflict of interest to declare. and Rossi, P. (2006). Electron microprobe monazite
geochronology: a tool for evaluating magmatic age
Acknowledgements domains. Examples from the Variscan French Mas-
sif Central. Lithos, 87, 276–288.
This article benefited of constructive comments and
Beltrando, M., Compagnoni, R., and Lombardo, B.
suggestions of R. Carosi, J. Malavieille, O. Fabbri,
(2010). Ultra-High-pressure metamorphism and
J. Ferrière, and L. Jolivet.
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