(2016-2017 EVEN SEMESTER)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

S U B J E C T N A ME : RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING

SU B J EC T C O D E : CE6604(Regulation 2013)

C LA S S / S E M : I I I YEA R / VI

Sl. No Name of the Faculty

A D
Designation Affiliating
College

2
Mr.P.Vignesh

S C
Mr.M.S.Chenthil Dheebu
Assistant Professor

Assistant Professor
SC A D C ET

SC A D C ET

CEC DLI CLI

i
 Table of contents

S l No C O N T E N TS PAGE NO

a Aim and Objective

iii

b Detailed Lesson Plan

iv

c U N I T – I R A I L W AY P L A N N I N G 1
P A RT - A

d P A RT - B 4

D
f UNIT – II RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND
M A I N TE N A N C E 21
P A RT - A

g
P A RT - B
A 24

i
P A RT - A

P A RT - B
S C
UNIT – III AIRPORT PLANNING
43

45

U N I T – I V AI R P O R T D E S I G N
64
j
P A RT - A

P A RT - B 67
k
U N I T – V H A R B O U R E N G I N E E RI N G
l P A RT - A 86

m P A RT - B 89

n UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS 112

ii
Aim of the Subject
 This course imparts the student’s knowledge of planning, design,
construction and maintenance of railway tracks
 The students acquire proficiency in the application of modern techniques
such as GIS, GPS and remote sensing in Railway Engineering.

.
Objective of the Subject
 To impart knowledge of the various construction techniques of railways

 To attain adequate knowledge about airport planning and design with the
prime focus on runway and taxiway geometrics

 To attain adequate knowledge in various tunneling techniques and piling

techniques.

jetties, quays and spring fenders.

A D
 To impart knowledge about conversant with the definition, purpose, location
and materials of coastal structures such as piers, breakwaters, wharves,

 The students acquire knowledge on site reconnaissance for location and

p l a nn i n g o f h arb o u rs

Course Outcomes:

S C
1. Railway engineering is a multi-faceted engineering discipline dealing with
the design, construction and operation of all types of railway systems
2. Acquire Knowledge about various types of rail constructions and
ma i n t e n a n c e
3. Understand the application of technology and scientif ic principles to the
planning, functional design, operation of airport engineering
4. Student should also be able to know the planning and design of
harbours, components and environmental concern of port operations

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 A N N A U NI V E R S I T Y , C HE N N A I - 2 5
S Y L L A B US C O P Y
Regulation 2013
CE6604 RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS AND HARBOUR ENGINEERING
LTPC
3 003
O B JE C T I V ES :
To expose the students to Railway planning, design, construction and
maintenance and planning and design principles of Airports and Harbours.
.
U N IT I RAILWAY PLANNING 10
Signif icance of Road, Rail, Air and W ater transports - Coordination of all
modes to achieve sustainability - Elements of permanent way – Rails, Sleepers,
Ballast, rail fixtures and f astenings, - Track Stress, coning of wheels, creep in
rails, def ects in rails – Route alignment surveys, conventional and modern

super elevation, widening of gauge on curves- Points and Crossings.

U N IT II RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
D
methods- - Soil suitability analysis - Geometric design of railways, gradient,

A 9

S C
Earthwork – Stabilization of track on poor soil –- Tunneling Methods, drainage and
ventilation –- Calculation of Materials required for track laying - Construction
and maintenance of tracks –Modern methods of construction & maintenance -
Railway stations and yards and passenger amenities- Urban rail – Infrastructure
f o r M e t r o , M o n o a n d u n d e r g r o u n d r a i l wa y s .
U N IT III AIRPORT PLANNING 8
Air transport characteristics-airport classification-air port planning: objectives,
components, layout characteristics, socio-economic characteristics of t he
Catchment area, criteria f or airport site selection and ICAO stipulations, Typical
airport layouts, Case studies, Parking and circulation area.
UNIT IV A I RP O R T DE S I G N 8
Runway Design: Orientation, W ind Rose Diagram - Runway length - Problems
on basic and Actual Length, Geometric design of runways, Conf iguration and
Pavement Design Principles – Elements of Taxiway Design – Airport Zones –
Passenger Facilities and Services – Runway and Taxiway Markings and lighting.
iv
UNIT V HARBOUR ENGINEERING 10
Definition of Basic Terms: Harbor, Port, Satellite Port, Docks, W aves and Tides –
Planning and Design of Harbours: Requirements, Classif ication, Location and
Design Principles – Harbour Layout and Terminal Facilities – Coastal Structures:
Piers, Break waters, W harves, Jetties, Quays, Spring Fenders, Dolphins and
Floating Landing Stage – Inland W ater Transport – Wave action on Coastal
Structures and Coastal Protection W orks – Environmental concern of Port
O p e r a t i o n s – C o a s t a l Re g u l a t i o n Z o n e , 2 0 1 1 .
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
• On completing the course, the students will have the ability to Plan and
Design various civil Engineering aspects of Railways, Airports and Harbour.
TE X T B O O K S :
1.Saxena Subhash C and Satyapal Arora, "A Course in Railway Engineering",
Dhanpat Rai and Sons, Delhi, 2003
2.Satish Chandra and Agarwal M.M, "Railway Engineering", 2nd Edition, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2013.
A D
S C
3.Khanna S K, Arora M G and Jain S S, "Airport Planning and Design",
Nemchand and Brothers, Roorkee, 2012.
4.Bindra S P, "A Course in Docks and Harbour Engineering", Dhanpat Rai and
Sons, New Delhi, 2013

RE F E RE N C E S :
1.Rangwala, "Railway Engineering", Charotar Publishing House, 2013.
2.Rangwala, "Airport Engineering", Charotar Publishing House, 2013.
3.Rangwala, "Harbor Engineering", Charotar Publishing House, 2013.
4.Oza.H.P. and Oza.G.H., “A course in Docks & Harbour Engineering”. Charotar
Publishing Co., 2013
5.Mundrey J.S. “A course in Railway Track Engineering”. Tata McGraw Hill, 2007.
6.Srinivasan R. Harbour, “Dock and Tunnel Engineering", 26th Edition 2013

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Unit Sl Ref Hours Cumulativ
T o pi c s t o b e c o v e r e d
No No Planned e H our s
Introduction; Objectives; CO s ,
References; Time Table, Evaluation
01 TB1&TB2 1
pattern, Significance of Rail, Air, Road 1
and Water Transportation

Meaning of Sustainability; Different

02 types of modes; Coordination plan to TB1&TB2 1
2
achieve sustainability; Elements of PW

Introduction, Functions of Rails;

03 Requirements; Types of rail sections; TB1&TB2 1
Length of Rails; Kinks in Rails; Buckling 3
of Rails
Sleepers-Types; Sleeper D ens i t y

D
04 T B1 & T B2 1
Ballast-Requirements; Types (list)
4
Rail Fixtures and Fastenings-Fish

05
Plates (requirements; Section);Spikes

A
(requirements; Types (pictures)); Bolts TB1&TB2 1
5

C
(Types with pictures); Cast Iron Chair;
Keys advantages of Morgan key

06

07
S
Track Stresses-discuss eight points;
Creep in Rail (definition; effects of TB1&TB2
c r e e p ; me a s u r e m e n t o f c r e e p

Coning of W heels; Route alignm ent

T B1 & T B2
1

1
6

surveys Gradient-types of Gradients

7
Superelevation-Introduction

08 Superelevation-derivation; Negative SE T B 1& T B2 1 8

09 T B1 & T B2 1 9
Soil suitability analysis

Points and Crossings-Turnouts 10

10 T B1 & T B2 1
Crossings

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Unit Sl Re f Hours Cumulative
No No Topics to be covered Pl an n ed H o ur s

E a r t h wo r k soil stabilization –
11 TB1&TB2 1
Tunneling Methods
11

12 Tunnel Ventilation Drainage TB1&TB2 1

12
13 Materials required for track laying TB1&TB2 1
13
Track Maintenance (modern methods):
Introduction; Mechanized Maintenance;
14
14 Need/ requirement for Mechanized TB1&TB2 1
Maintenance Methods of mechanical
Tamping (off-track tamping)

15
Track Maintenance (modern methods):
Methods of mechanical Tamping (on-
track tamping-Light on-track, heavy on- TB1&TB2

A D
t r a c k ) ; Me a s u r e d S h o v e l P a c k i n g ( MS P -
me r i t s , d e m e r i t s )
1
15

16
Track Maintenance (modern methods):
Measured Shovel Packing; DTM

S C
TB1&TB2 1
16

Railway Station & Yards: Site Selection

17 Classification of Railway Station Block TB1&TB2 1
Station Non-block Stations; Junction 17
Station; Terminal Station

Railway Station & Yards: Types of

18
Yards (passenger bogie yard; Goods
18 TB1&TB2 1
Yard; Marshalling y ard (Type-
Flat/Gravitational/Hump)

19
19 TB1&TB2 1
Un d e r g r o u n d r a i l w a y s - m o n o r a i l

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Unit Sl Re f Hours Cumulative
No No Topics to be covered Pl an n ed H o ur s
Air Transport (advantages &
20 TB3 1
Limitations ); Airport Classification
20
Airport Planning: General, Airport
21 TB3 1
Ma s t e r P l a n , I C A O R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
21

Airport Planning: Regional Planning,

22 TB3 1
data required before site selection
22
23 Airport Planning: Airport Site Selection TB3 1
23
Airport Planning: Estimation of future air
24 TB3 1
t ra f f i c n ee d s (b ri e f )
24

D
25 A i rp ort P l an n i ng : A i rp o rt L a y o u t TB3 1
25
26 Vehicular Circulation and Parking Area; TB3 1

27
A pro n
Basic Parking Configurations: Number
A TB3 1
26
27

C
of gate positions, Aircraft parking
system;

Unit
No
Sl
No

28
Topics to be covered

Runway Design: Runway Orientation,

cross wind component and wind
coverage, wind rose
S Re f

TB3
Hours
Planned

1
Cumulative
Hours

28

Runway Design: Type I wind rose

29 TB3 1
diagram, Type II wind rose diagram
29

30 Airport Runway: basic runway length, TB3 1

30

correction for elevation, temperature,

31 TB3 1
gradient
31
32 P r o b l e m s o n r u n wa y l e n g t h TB3 1 32
 33 Airport configuration, Taxiway Design TB3 1
33

34 Ru n wa y an d taxiway marking an d TB3 1

lighting 34
35
35 Ru n wa y an d taxiway marking an d TB3 1
lighting

Unit Sl Re f Hours Cumulative

Topics to be covered
No No Planned Hours
Def inition of basic terms: Harbour, port,
36 satellite port (net), docks, waves and TB4 1
tides 36

Planning and design of harbours :

37

38
Harbours, Requirement of a harbor,
classification

Components of a
structures: Definitions
h arb o r

A
coastal
D TB4

TB4
1

1
37

38

39

40
B re a k w a t e rs :
classification only

Jetty, Dock
classifications)
Introduction,

S C
fenders
broad

(broa d
TB4

TB4
1

1
39

40

41 Piers; Wharves (broad classification) TB4 1 41

42
42 TB4 1
Dolphins; Coastal Protection (Brief)

43 Inland Water Transportation (ITW) TB4 1 43

E n v i r o n me n t a l Co n c e r n of P ort 44
44 NE T 1
O per at i on

45
45 Co a s t a l Re g u l a t i o n Z o n e 2 0 1 1 TB4 1

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 U N I T I – R A I L W A Y P L A N N I N G ( P A R T- A )

1. List the various gauges used in Indian Railways? (May/ June 2012)

a) Broad Gauge (B.G.) – 1.67 mtrs.

b) Meter Gauge (M.G.) – 1.00 mtrs.

c) Narrow Gauge (N.G.) – 0.762 mtrs.

d) Light Gauge or Freeder Track Gauge –0.610 mtrs.

2. Give the various functions of rails? (May/ June 2011)

1. Rails provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for passage of heavy moving
loads with a minimum friction between the steel rails and steel wheels.

2. Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads, lateral and barking

D
forces and thermal stresses.

3. The rail material is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid replacement charges
and failures of rails due to wear.

A
C
3. Define obligatory point. (May/ June 2012)
Obligatory points are controlling points which govern the alignment of railway tracks.

S
Some important obligatory points are; (i) Important towns and cities (ii) Shortest width
and permanent path of rivers (iii) Hill passess.

4. What are the disadvantages of “Coning of wheels”? (Nov/ Dec 2012)

The disadvantages are;
 Pressure of horizontal components near the inner edge of rails has a
tendency to accelerate wearing of rails.
 It tends to turn rails outwardly and consequently, the gauge is widened.
 Cause damages to outer edge of rails, if no base plates are provided.

5. What is meant by cant deficiency? (Nov /Dec 2012)

The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of the average speed of different
trains on the track. This equilibrium cant or super elevation will fall short of that
required for speed higher than average speed. This storage of cant is called
cant deficiency.

1
6. What are the various types of the Gradients that are adopted in
laying a railway track? (May /June 2013)
( 1 ) Ru l i n g g r a d i e n t s
(2) Momentum gradients
(3) P u s h er gr a di en t s
(4) Gradients in station yards.

7. On a B.G track of 4° curve, equilibrium cant is provided for a speed of 60

km/hr. Calculate
(i) Value of equilibrium cant
(ii) Maximum speed allowing maximum deficiency (May /June 2013)

G i v e n d a ta :
De g r e e o f c u r v e = 4 °
Nominal Gauge (B.G) = 1750 mm
Speed of train
S o l ut i o n
= 6 0 k m/ h r

A D
Equilibrium cant e =
GV 2
127R
C
Radius of curvature R = 1750/D = 1750/4 = 437.5 m

S = 1750 x 602/127x 437.5= 113.39 mm

8. List the uses of Remote sensing in route alignments. (Nov / Dec 2013)
Gives a birds’ eye view of a large areas. Ground condition can be defined with
a combination of satellite images and topographic maps.

9. Mention the functions of formation (Nov / Dec 2013)

Formation is the base over which the ballast is spread. Sometimes the natural
ground may not meet the requirements for placing ballast. In such cases a raises
bank is constructed over the natural ground which is called the embankment.
Sometimes, the formation below the natural ground is made which is called
cutting.

2
 10. What is creep? How is it prevented? (Nov/ Dec 2014)

Creep is the longitudinal movement of rails in a track.It occurs due to several

reasons The effect of creep tends to dig the track. It is prevented by providing
sufficient ballast which could hold the rails.

11. What do you mean by sleeper density? (Nov/ Dec 2014)

Sleeper density is defined as the number per rail length. It is specified as
M+ x wh e r e M is the length of the rail in metres
X i s t h e n u mb e r t h a t v a r i e s

12. Sketch the cross section of a permanent way (May/ June 2015)

A D
S C

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 P ART B

1. Explain the permanent way components with neat sketch. (May / June2013)

The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers & resting on ballast & subgrade is called as
railway track or permanent track something temporary tracks.

In permanent way, the rails are joined in series by f ish plate & bolts and then they are
fixed to sleeper by different types of fastening.

A D
Rails:
S C
P e r m a ne nt w a y

Rails are unsymmetrical I sections,made up of steel.They are laid along two parallel
lines over sleepers.Rails are joined longitudinally by fish plate or by welding.These are
placed end to end to provide a continuous & level surface for trains to move.

Types of rails.

1.Double headed rails.

2.Bull headed rails

3.Flat footed rails.

F u nc t i o ns :

1.Act as gider and transmit load to large area of formation through sleepers and ballast..

4
2.It should be an economic section consistent with strength stiffness and durability

3.The head of rail should have adequate depth to allow for allow for vertical wear.

4.W eb should be sufficiently thick to withstand stresses.

Sleepers.

Sleepers are members generally laid transverse to the rails on which the rails are
supported and fixed, to transfer the loads from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.

Functions of sleepers:

Sleepers perform the following functions,

1. To hold the rails to correct gauge.

2. To hold the rails in proper level or transverse tilt i.e., level in turnouts, cross-overs,

D
3. To act an elastic medium between the ballast and rails to absorb the blows and
vibrations of moving loads.

A
4. To distribute the loads from the rails to index area of ballast underlying it or to the
girders in case of bridges.

C
5. They also provide means to rectify track geometry during service life.

Ballast: layer of material which is place below and packed around sleepers for

S
distribution of load from sleepers to the formation.

F u nc t i o ns :

(i ) Provides level and hard bed for sleepers

(ii) To hold sleepers while passage of trains

(iii) Forms a load distribution medium between sleepers and formation

(iv) Provides elasticity and resilience to the track for proper riding comfort.

(v) Acts a draining of water.

(vi) Resists lateral, longitudinal and vertical displacements of the track

Ty pe s :

(i ) B rok e n s t one (ii) Gravel (iii) coal or ash cinders

(ii) (iv) Sand ( v ) Mo o r u m (vi) Selected earths

5
 2. If a 8° curve track diverges from main curve of 5° in an opposite direction in
the layout of a B G yard. Calculate the super elevation and speed on branch
line, if the maximum speed permitted on the main line is 45 kmph. (Nov / Dec
2010) (8 mark)

S o l ut i o n:

Radius of main curve,

Rm =1719 = 214.9 m
8
Radius of branch curve,
Rb =1719 = 348.8 m
5
S u p e r e l e v a t i o n o f m a i n li n e ,
em= 1.315 V2
R

em= 1.315 x 452

D
214.9
= 12.39 cm
Assume cant deficiency as 76 mm = 7.6 cm

A
Theoretical super elevation on main line = Cant deficiency + change in super elevation (ch)
12.39 = 7.6 + ech

i.e.,
ech

eb
S C
ech= 12.39 – 7.60 = 4.79 cm
= eb – 7.6
-4.79 = eb – 7.6
= 2. 81 c m
Super elevation of branch = 2. 81 c m
S p e e d o f b r a n c h li n e = √eb x R
1.315
= 2 7 . 1 0 k mp h
S p e e d o f b r a n c h li n e = 27. 1 0 k m ph

3. What are the requirements of an ideal rail joint? Explain the various rail joints
used in railways with neat sketches. (Nov / Dec 2013)
Requirements of Ideal Rail Joints:
Two rails are connected by a joint which forms the weakest part of the track.

6
 Different fastenings are used to make this joint as much efficient as possible. The
characteristics of a good ideal rail joint are as follows:
 The rail joint should hold the two ends of rails as nearly as possible and
should be at same level in a straight line.
 It should have the same strength and stiffness with rails.
 It should provide space for expansion and contraction of rails due to
changes in temperature.
 It should be arranged in such a way that any rail while repair.
 It should be durable, cheap in initial cost and maintenance.
 It should provide sufficient elasticity to absorb vibrations and shocks.
 It should provide resistance to the longitudinal forces developed due to
acceleration, deceleration.

D
 The joint fittings should be simple and universal type so that iit can be used
for all types of sleepers.

A
Types of Rail joints:
Depending upon the position of joints or sleepers, rails are classified as

C
(1) According to position of joints:
 Square joints

S
 Staggered joints
Square joint: W hen a joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the joint in the parallel rail,
it is known as a square joint and it is very common in straight track.
Staggered joint: W hen a joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the centre of the
parallel rail length, it is known as a staggered joint.

7
 (2) According to position of sleepers:
 Suspended joints
 Supported joints
 Bridge joints

S u s pe n de d j oi nt :
The rail joint, when placed at the centre of two consecutive sleepers is known as
suspended joint.
In this type of joint, load will be equally distributed on sleepers and also when joint
is depressed, rail ends are pressed down evenly.
It is most commonly adopted since it provides greater elasticity.

A D
Supported joint: S C
W hen the sleeper is placed exactly below the rail joint, it is known as supported
joint.
These types of joints are not used at present.

8
 Bridge joint:
W hen a suspended joint is bridged by a m etal piece so as to connect the ends of
the two rails and thereby preventing bending stress in the rail.

A D
4. Briefly explain the modern methods of surveys for track alignment. (Apr /
May 2011) (8 mark)

C
Introduction:
Railway planning needs precious and cost effective methods of surveying. Modern

S
methods like GIS, GPS etc were incorporated for effective surveying.
Different features :
 Survey of India map
 Village map
 W ard / block map
 Updating of map
Application of modern survey equipments for railway alignment surveying:
i. Global positioning system (GPS)
It measures co-ordinates of any point anywhere on the globe. This survey is
possible at any weather conditions and a minimum of 24 no. of satellites at a distance
of 10,000 km from earth’s surface will be involved in surveying.
ii. Electronic distance meter (EDM)
EDM works on electromagnetic waves travel between the given origin and

9
 destination. Typical EDM can measure a distance upto 5 – 10 km.
iii. Total station (TS)
It works on same procedure of EDM but it also measures the angle along with the
distance. It is more accurate than EDM and has a least count of one second. Also
reduces human interventions and measurements.
iv. Geographical Information systems (GIS)
It is a system of software and hardware. It is used to prepare highway, railway
alignment. Techniques of GIS such as buffering and network analysis are widely
applied in highway and railway planning.
v. Re m o t e s e n s i n g d a t a p r o d u c t s
a. Aerial photos
b. Satellite imageries

D
c. High resolution satellite imageries
Merits of modern methods:

A
 Rapid process of surveying
 Optimum resource planning

C
 Acceleration construction programming
 More accuracy

S
 Less time consuming
 Updating and correction of old map will be much easier.
Demerits of modern methods:
 Applies only for skilled workers
 Exact boundaries cannot be determined on satellite imageries
 Procurement of equipment/systems such as GPS, EDM, GIS, Stereo potters are
cost intensive.

10
5. Determine all the elements of a turnout, when the following data is given:
Heel divergence = 13.65 cm
Angle of switch = 1 34’ 27”
Gauge = 1.676 m
N u m b e r o f c r o ss i n g = 8.5 (Nov / Dec 2012)

A D
S o l ut i o n: S C
N u m b e r o f c r o ss i n g = 8.5
Gauge of track (G) = AT = E E’ = 1. 676 m
Angle of crossing (α) = = = cot-1 (8.5)
(i) Curve head, CL
CL = 2 GN
= 2 x 1.676 x 8.5
= 28.49 m
Heel divergence (d) = 13. 65 m
= 0. 136 5 m
(iii) Ra d i u s o f c u r v e ( R)

11
 R = 1.54 + 24N2
= 1.54 + 248.52
= 1735.54 m
(iv) S wi t c h L e a d ( S L )
2
SL = √ 2 𝑥 1735.54 - 0.137
= 58.91
(v) Lead Crossing (L)
L = G cot α/2 - √2𝑅𝑑 - d2
= 1.676 x cot α/2 – 58.91

6. Illustrate with neat sketches a right hand or a left hand turn out, points and
crossings and explain their working principles. (Apr / May 2011)

Turnout:

A D
A turnout is a complete set of points and crossings along with lead rails which
enables a rolling stock to be diverted from one track to another.
Important components:

C
 A pair of points or switches
 A pair of stock rail
 Check rail
 Lead rail
 Stretcher bar
 Crossings or ‘V’ piece
 W ing rail
S
Points or Switches:
Ty pe s :
Stub switch: No separate tongue rail is provided
Split switch: Loose heal type
Fixed heal type
Constituents:
 A pair of stock rails AB and CD
 A pair of tongue rails PQ and RS

12
 A pair of heel blocks
 A gauge tie plate to ensure correct gauge

A D
C o m p o n e n t s o f a r i g ht ha n d t u r n o ut

S C

Details of a switch

13
 Details of a crossing

A D
S C

Point rail and splice rail

C r os s i n gs :
Definition and purpose: A Crossing is a device, inserted at a location where two rails

14
cross each other. It enables the wheel flanges of rails to pass f rom one track to another
track. Flanged wheels jump over the gap provided from the throat to the nose of the
crossing.
Constituents: A crossing consists of
 Two rails called point and splice rail which are machined to form nose. The
point rail ends at the nose.
 A left hand and right hand wing rails form a throat and diverging again on
either side of nose.
 A pair of check rails to guide and to provide a path for wheel flanges.

Working principle of points and crossings:

a. Split switch: It consists of tongue rail and a stock rail with fastenings. A pair of

D
them constitutes a set of points. The points by their operation can divert traff ic
moving in facing direction from one track to another track.

A
b. Crossing device: A crossing is a device introduced at the intersection of two
running rails to permit the wheel flanges, moving along one to pass across the

C
other. The crossing should be rigid enough to withstand against severe
vibrations.

S
c. Check rail: A pair of check rails are provided to guide the wheel flanges and to
route a path for them by which the sideway movement is prevented.

7. Explain super elevation giving its relationship with gauge, speed and radius
of the curve. (Nov / Dec 2014) (8 mark)
Superelevation:
Superelevation or cant is the difference in height between the outer and inner rail
on a curve. This is provided in the field by a gradual lifting of the outer rail while
maintaining the inner rail in its original level.
F u nc t i o ns :
i. To minimize the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
ii. To have better load distribution on both the rails
iii. To modify the effect of lateral forces

15
 iv. To provide a comfortable journey to the passengers
Equilibrium superelevation:
W hile vehicle on curves experience an outward centrifugal force due to the radial
acceleration. The centrifugal force is given as
F = m (V2 / R) = (W / g) (V2 / R)
Where F = c e n t ri f u ga l f orc e (t o n n e s )
W = weight of the vehicle (tonnes)
V = speed (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)
R = radius of the curve (m)
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force, the outer rail of the curve is
raised with respect to the inner rail by an amount equal to the superelevation.

D
Let � be the angle that the inclined plane (line joining the top inner and outer rails)
make with the horizontal. Then
ө

A
Tan = Superelevation = e
Gauge G
ө

C
Also Tan = Centrifugal f orce = F
W ei ght W

Equilibrium Superelevation

16
Equating the values of Tan �
e =F
G W
Or e = F x G = W x V2 x G
W g R W
i. e . , e = GV2
gR
wh e r e , e = superelevation
G = gauge (min)
= gauge length + width of rail heads
This is equal to

D
1750 for BG tracks
105 8 f or M G t r ac k s

A
8. What do you understand by “cant deficiency’? (Apr / May 2015) (8 mark)

C a nt de f i c i e nc y :

S C
W hen a train moves around a curve at a speed more than the equilibrium speed,
then deficiency in cant occurs. Thus the cant def iciency is the difference between the
theoretical cant required for high speed and the actual cant provided.
C a nt e x c e s s :
W hen a train moves around a curve at speed less than the equilibrium speed then
excess in cant occurs. Thus cant excess is the difference between the actual cant
provided and the theoretical cant required.
Cant gradient:
Cantgradient and deficiency gradient express the increase or decrease in the cant
or the deficiency of the cant in a given length of transition. For example, a gradient of 1 in
1000 represents that a cant deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained or lost in every 1000
mm of transition length.
The maximum values of cant deficiency prescribed for Indian railways are given below:

17
G a u ge Gro u p N or m a l c a nt Remark
de f i c i e nc y ( m m )

BG A and B 75 For BG group

BG C, D a n d E 75 A & B routes: 100 mm cant
deficiency permitted only for nominate
stock and routes with the approval of CL
MG - 50
NG - 40

9.What is meant by gradient and enumerate the various types of gradient with
all the details.(Nov / Dec 2008)(May / June 2012)
Any departure of the track from the level is known gradient or gradient. Reason for

D
the usage in railway track
1. To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible

A
2. To reach the various stations located at different elevation
3. To reduce the cost of the earthwork.

Types of gradient
1. Ruling gradient
2. Momentum gradient

S C
3. Pusher or helper gradient
4. Gradient at Station Yard
1. Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient on a section may be defined as a gradient which determines
the maximum load that the engine can haul on the section.
In determination the ruling of the section may be defined as, it will not only be
that the survey of the gradient that will come into play but also the length of the gradient
and it’s position
In plain terrain = 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
In hilly terrain = 1 in 100 to 1 in 150

18
2. Momentum gradient
The rising gradient is called as momentum gradient and in such cases a steeper
grade than the ruling grade can be adopted.
The gradient on the section which through more severe than the ruling gradient,
do not determine the maximum load of the terrain but on account of their favorable
position on the track.
For example in valleys, a falling gradient is usually followed by a rising gradient
3. Pusher or helper gradient
If the grade concentrated in a Specific section such as mountainous section.
Instead of limiting the terrain load.
It may operationally easy or even econom ical to run the terrain on the basis of
load that can carry in the remaining portion of the track and arrange for an assisting

D
engine is called pusher or helper gradient.

A
4. Gradient in Station Yard
The gradient at Station Yard has to be sufficiently low due to the following reason

C
(a) To prevent the movement of Standing vehicle on the track due to the effect of
t h e g r a v it y

S
(b) To prevent the additional resistance due to the grade on the Standing Vehicle
G r a de C o m p e n s a t i o n
In order to avoid the resistance beyond the allowable lim it, the gradients are
reduced on curves. Then the reduction can be named as Grade compensation

9.Enumerate the concept of an grade compensation and also explain the basic
formulas used in grade compensation.(Nov / Dec 2012)(April / May 2011)(Nov /
De c 2 0 0 7 )
Due to the rigidity of the Wheel base, it is sometimes found on the Curve that the
rails are tilled outwards so that the actual gauge in more than the theoretical value
W heel Base is def ines as the distance between the adjoining Axes which are
held in a rigid frames.The maximum value of the rigid wheel base in India on B.G Yard
and M.G yard are 610cm and 48 cm respectively. To prevent the tendency the gauge of

19
the track is sometimes widened on Sharpe Curves. The amount of widening of gauges
depending upon the radius of the Curve, Gauge and rigid Wheel base on the vehicle.
The various f ormulas are Available for finding out the Extra W idth of the gauge
required on Curves. Incase, the Extra width should not Exceed 25mm on 1676mm and
1435mm gauges and 16mm on the M.G. Some rules are mentioned as follows

Rule 1:

D = (B+L2)*125 / R
W h ere
D= Extra width of the gauge in mm
B= Rigid W heel base in mm

D
L = L a p o f t h e C urv e
R= R a d i u s o f t h e C u r v e

A
Now, the value of lap of flange in mm is obtained by the Following equation

C
½
L = 2 [(D+H)*h]
W her e

S
D= Di a m e t e r o f t h e W h e e l s i n m m
H= Depth of the W heel flange below in mm
Rule 2:
Multiple half of the W heel base by lap of the flange and when divide this result by the
radius of the curvature plus half the gauge
Multiple the gradient by 3000 and the result will be the Extra required in mm. The Wheel
base, lab of flange, radius of the curvature and the gauge to be Expressed in meters
Rule 3:
The gauge was widened for a curve of over 3 degrees. But at present the Gauge
is not widened up to the curvature of 4.5 degree on the B.G Yard and 5-9 to on M.G in
USA the practice is not to widen the gauge at the rate of 3mm for every 2 degrees of
curvature up to a maximum of 19m.

20
 UNIT II – RAILWAY AND CONSTRUCTION MAINTENANCE

P ART A

1.What are the types of signals based on the various categories(May/June 2015)
or What are the characteristic classification of signals? (May/June 2013)

i. Operating characteristics a) Audible signals b) Visual indication signals

ii. Functional characteristics a) Stop signals b) W arner signals c) Disc signals d)

Co l o u r e d s i g n a l s

iii. Locational characteristics a) Outer signals (reception) b) Home c) Starter s

ignals d) Advanced Starter signals

iv. Special characteristics a) Routing signals b) Repeating signals c) Co-acting

signals d) Calling- on signals e) Indicators

D
2.State the principles of interlocking. (May /June 2011).

(a) When a train is properly set and locked to a particular line, it shall be
responsible to unlock or reverse points.

A
(b) It shall be impossible to admit trains from opposite or converging

S C
directions in the same line, at the same time.
(c) When a signal is set for a particular line, it shall be impossible for loose
wagons from any yard to obstruct the line.

3.What is meant by track circuiting? (May /June 2011).

Track circuiting is an electric circuit formed by combining running rails, signals

and cabin. Its prime function is to specify the presence of any train or vehicle on the
track. Various types of circuits used in Indian Railways are:

(i) D.C track circuit

(ii) A . C t ra c k c i rc u i t
(iii) Electric track circuit

4.What is cross-over? (May /June 2012).

When two adjacent parallel or diverging tracks, which may be straight or curved,
are connected by t wo sets of turnouts, with or witho ut a straight length bet ween them,

21
the connecting line is known as cross-over.

.5. List the components of switch (Nov/Dec 2012)

A set of switches or points comprises of the following components:
(i) A pair of stock rails
(ii) A pair of tongue rail or switch rail.
(iii) A pair of heel blocks
(iv) Slide chairs
(v) S t re t c h er b ars
(vi) A gauge tie plate.

6.Define interlocking (May /June 2013).

Interlocking is defined as the mechanical relationships established between

various levers operating the signals and the points through mechanical or electrical
agencies such that contrary effects are not at all possible in the working of the signal

D
mechanism.

7.Distinguish between gravity yard and hump yard. (Nov/Dec 2013)

S l no
Gravity yard

A Hump yard

2
the marshalling yard provided

S C
W a g o n s m o v e u n d e r g r a v it y i n

wi t h s u i t a b l e g r a d i e n t
Shunting operations are carried
out slowly assisted by engine
p ow er.
The wagons are pushed upon
the hump by the engine and
then allowed to gravitate
Shunting operations are
carried out quickly

Uneconomical since power is Economical since no power is

3 required to move the wagons required to move the wagons

8. What are the various sources of moisture in a railway track? (May /June2014)

The various sources of moisture affecting a railway track are: a) Surface water
due to rain, dew or snow. b) Hydroscopic water or Held water. c) Seepage water d)
Moisture by capillary action in sub grade.

9. What is a buffer stop? (May /June2015)

T he dead end of a siding or the end of any t rack of terminal station is not kept
bare but a form of stop or barrier is provided at the end of the track, to prevent the

22
vehicles, from running off the track. This stop or barrier provided at the end, across the
track of a siding or at terminal station is known as “Buffer stop”.

10. Write the difference between ‘loop and siding’. (Nov/Dec 2012)

Loop: Loop lines are the ones provided near the station building to stop slow-
moving or passenger trains to stop and give way for express trains to move on
the mainline without any difficulty.

Siding: Sidings are provided at the marshalling yard. There are three types of
sidings

(i) Reception sidings – intended to receive incoming trains.

(ii) Sording sidings – for shunting operations
(iii) Departure sidings – similar to reception siding and is used for
de p art ure

A D
S C

23
 P ART B

1. How are stations classified? Explain the features of each station. (May/June
2014)
Stations and yards are the field control units of the railway communication system.
They also provide waiting places and repairing places for the locomotives and wagons.
Classification of Railway stations:
Two categories: 1. Operational considerations
2. Functional considerations
Operational considerations:
As per Indian railways, (i) block stations or (ii) non-block stations
(i) Block station: No traffic is dealt, but trains have to get permission to proceed
further. Further classified as A, B, C classes.

h o me s i g n a l

A D
A – incoming train is received after clearing at least a distance of 400 m beyond

S C
a) A - Class Station
B –permission to the incoming train is given before the receiving line is made
clear within the station section

24
 b) B – Class station

C –stations where train do not stop

c) C – Class station
(ii) Non-block station: classified as D-class or flag stations. Only traffic is dealt
and no arrangements to control the movement of train. Located between two
block stations.

D
Functional classification:
(i) Halt stations
(ii)
(iii)
Fl a g s t a t i o n s
Wayside junctions
A
C
(iv) Junction stations
(v ) Te r m i na l s t a t i o ns

S
Halt stations: simplest station where trains can stop on a railway line. Provided with
small waiting shed, name boards are provided at both end.

Halt station

25
Flag stations: provided with station building and staff. Provided with booking off ice,
benches, drinking water facility. Sometimes siding is also provided for stabling of wagons
booked for that station.

Flag station

A D
Wayside station: called as crossing station. Provision is made to cross an up and a down

C
train or for over-taking the slow-moving trains by the fast-moving trains.

S
A wayside or crossing station on a single-line section
Junction stations: is a meeting point of three or more line coming from different
conditions.
a. Feasibility to interchange of traffic inbetween main and branch lines

26
 b. Possibility to clean and repair vehicles which terminate at the junctions
Occur between a single branch line and a single or double main lines or between double
branch line and main tracks.

Junction station with single main line and single branch line

A D
Terminal station: station at which a railway line or one of its branches ends or terminates
without further proceeding. Provided with facilities to reverse the locomotive, examination
pits, additional sidings, ticket office, restaurant etc.

S C

Terminal station

27
2. What is marshalling yard? Explain with a neat sketch, the working of a hump
type of marshalling yard. (Apr / May 2011)
Y a r d:
A yard is defined as a system of tracks laid within definite lim its for various
purposes such as storing of vehicles, making up trains, despatch of vehicles, etc. It
attends to unscheduled movement of trains subjected to rules and regulations.
Ty pe s :
 Passenger yards
 Goods yards
 Marshalling yards
 Locomotive yards
Marshalling yards:

D
The main purpose of marshalling yard is to isolate goods wagons received from
various centres in order of station at which they are to be sent. It works as

A
distribution centres and also the empty wagons are kept in marshalling yards.

S C

Design aspects of marshalling yards:

 Shunting operations should not disturb the regular movement of trains.
 More number of wagons should be despatched rather than storing more wagons.

28
 It should be feasible for future expansion so as to accommodate more goods
traffic.
 To the maximum extend the marshalling yards should be m ade parallel to the
running lines.
 All main stations should have the marshalling yard facility.
 Wagons are to be made to move in one direction only.
 Adequate repair f acility for sick wagons.
 Enough lighting arrangements should be made to function at all times.
 The cost of construction and maintenance should be low.

Layouts of marshalling yards:

An ideal layout of marshalling yard consists of three types of sidings:

D
a) Reception sidings
b) Sorting sidings

A
c) Departure sidings
a) Reception sidings:

C
These sidings are used to receive incoming trains. These sidings are laid
in the f orm of parallel grid with equal length. Such arrangement enables

S
the goods trains to stand on these sidings till they are shunted out.
b) Sorting sidings:
These sidings are intended for shunting operations. Each sidings is
allotted to specif ic destination wagons. The sorting sidings are generally laid in
the form of a fan or balloon. The number of sidings depends on the number of
des t i nat i o ns .
c) Departure sidings:
These are similar to reception sidings. If the mainline is not busy their
sidings may be omitted. The number of sidings both for reception and
departure depend on the intensity of traffic on the main line, time required
to marshall and number of goods trains to be marshalled at the same time.

Types of marshalling yards:

 Flat yards

29
  Gravitation yards
 Hump yards
H u m p y ar d s:
Hump or summits or man-made hills are provided and the wagons are
pushed upto this point by the engine. Then the wagons are allowed to gravitate
down the slope. The modern trend is to adopt this type of marshalling yards as
shunting operations are carried out more quickly than gravity or flat yards.
They are found to be more economical because no power is required to
move the wagons. A rising gradient of 1 in 150 or 1 in 175 is provided at the
pushing end for a length of about 183 metres. Then the hump is kept level and it
is followed by falling gradients of 1 in 150 and 1 in 300 an then level. (Ref Fig)

A D
S C H u m p ya r d
Functions: The stopping of individual wagons or group of wagons in hump yards
is c a r r i e d o u t a s f o l l o w s :
(i) Men run along the wagons and apply the wagon brakes at the desired point of
stoppage.
(ii) Retarders may be employed to stop the moving wagons. These are blocks or
bars which are fixed on either side of the rails. The retarders are operated
automatically to press against the sides of wheels of moving wagons to stop
it.
(iii) Skids may be placed on the rails to prevent further movement of wagon by
friction developed on skid.
The action of hump yards is little uncertain because the rate of movement of wagons
d e p e n d s o n t h e f o l l o wi n g f a c t o r s :

30
  Climatic conditions
 Different types of axle-boxes
 W eight of the wagons

3. Describe the following:

(i) Necessity of track maintenance (6 )
(ii) Essentials of good track maintenance (5 )
(iii) Advantages of proper track maintenance (5)(May/June 2014)

(i) Necessity of track maintenance:

There are mainly two reasons for maintain track in proper order:
New track:

D
 The newly laid track will settle down slowly, so special gangs are to be employed
to bring the embankment to the proper formation level.

A
 Generally 4 men are employed per kilometre length of this track for this purpose.
C o ns t a nt u s e :

C
 The railway tracks are being constantly used by trains, therefore it requires some
treatment to remain in the working condition.

S
 It is achieved by maintenance gangs all along the railway track, which keeps the
track in good condition.
 For this type of maintenance the track is divided into suitable sections, each
having a length of about 6 km for main line and 8 km for branch line section and
one gang is attached to this section. The num ber of men required depends on
the volume of traffic, nature of soil and strength of permanent way.

(ii) Essentials of good track maintenance:

The following are the characteristics of a well maintenance track
i. Curvature of gauge subjected to limitations.
ii. Rails at same level with appropriate super elevation at curves.
iii. Alignment free from kinks and other irregularities
iv. Gradients as per standards, prescribed.

31
 v. Track with the property of resilience to regain its original position after
deformation.
vi. Track with lateral strength to withstand side thrust and centrifugal and lateral
forces and to maintain the alignment intact.
vii. Upkeep and maintenance of radius of curvature, super elevation, points and
crossings.
viii. Perfect drainage system.
ix. Precaution against creep.
x. Various components of the railway track such as formation, ballast, sleepers and
rails fullfill the essential requirements of maintenance.

(iii) Advantages of Proper track maintenance:

D
It consists of one gangmate or ganger, one keyman and nine to ten workers for B.G and
about four to five workers. Each gang works in a length of about 90 meters a day. The

A
d u t i e s o f g a n g ma t e , k e y ma n a n d P . W . I a r e :
i. The ganger is the head of the gang and he is personally responsible for the

C
upkeep of track in his section.
ii. The ganger must keep his section in good running condition at all times.

S
iii. He is responsible for maintaining the track in his section in correct alignment and
level.
iv. The ganger has to arrange for tools and other equipments required by his gang.
v. The points and crossings should be periodically checked and exam ined by the
gan ger.
vi. In case of emergency, the ganger should stop or slow down a running train by
the use of temporary signals.
vii. In case of accident, the ganger should look after the broken fittings of the rolling
stock and track components.

4.(i) List the conventional and modern methods of maintenance of railway track.
What are the different types of equipment used?

32
4.(ii) What are the advantages of w elded rails? Describe any one method of
welding the rails. (May/June 2012)

(i) Track maintenance:

The maintenance of track irrespective of old or new is to be done periodically.
Since the track may be damaged due to weathering effect like rain, sun and sand, track
ma i n t e n a n c e i s n e c e s s a r y .
Conventional methods of track maintenance:
The conventional method of m aintaining of tracks by manual labour has been
traditionally accepted. The calendar system of maintenance has been followed by
Indian railways. As per this system a time table has been charted out which outlines the
track maintenance work to be performed by gangs in the course of the year. The

D
following operations are carried out:
 Through packing

A
 Systematic overhauling
 Packing up slacks

C
i. Th r o ug h pa c k i ng :
Due to the movement of trains over the track f requently the ballast under

S
the sleepers become loose. The ballast under the sleepers should be
regularly packed so as to keep the track in good running condition.
ii. Systematic overhauling:
In order to ensure the best possible standard of track conditions, tracks
s h o u l d b e o v e r h a u l e d ( r e n e wi n g ) p e r i o d i c a l l y .
iii. Picking up Slacks:
Slacks are those points in the track where the running of trains is faulty or
substandard. Depending on the season working sessions are decided. In
rainy season only slacks are picked up and no through packing is done. In
every working session, a certain number of days in each week are allotted
for picking up of slacks.
Modern methods are track maintenance:
 Track Machines (TMs)

33
  Measured shovel packing (MSP)
 Directed Track maintenance (DT M)
i. Track Machines:
Different types of track machines are used in Indian railways are discussed
below:
Plassermatic tamping m achines have the functions of tamping, levelling and
aligning.
Plasser Ballast cleaning m achine is used to excavate, clean and put the screen
ballast back in the track and remove unwanted material.
Switch relaying machines are used which can remove and install parts or
complete assemblies of points and crossings.
Track Relaying Trains are capable of relaying the entire track automatically with

D
very less use of labour.
ii. Measured Shovel packing:

A
It comprises of taking accurate measurements of track defects such as
unevenness and voids in ballast.

C
iii. Directed Track Maintenance:
It is a method of maintaining track based on the directions that are given for

S
maintenance every day rather than routine maintenance.
Different types of equipments used in maintenance:
TOOLS REQUIRED DURING MAINTENANCE
S.No Name of the tool Use
1 Beater cum pickaxe To pack ballast under sleeper
To verify the distance between inner
Rail guage
2 faces of rails i.e. gauge
3 Cant board To verify cant
4 Spanner To tighten or loose fish-bolts
5 Powrah To handle the ballast
6 Jim crow To bend the rails
7 Auger To drill holes for the spikes
8 Chisel To cut rails, bolts, etc.
9 Lifting jacks To lift the track
10 Rail tongs To lift the rails.
11 Ballast screens To screen the ballast
12 Sleeper tangs To lift sleepers

34
 (ii) Advantages of welded rails:
a) It increases the life of rails due to decrease in wear of ends.
b) It results in decrease in maintenance cost to the extent of about 25%.
c) It results in comfort of passengers due to smooth working of the track.
d ) T h e c r e e p is c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d .
e) For track circuited and electrified tracks, the welding of rails shows better results.
f) They are helpful for large bridges as rails of length equal to each span give better
performance and reduce the effect of impact.
g) It decreases construction cost due to less number of rail joints.
h) The fast and heavy traffic may be permitted on track with long welded rails.
i) The rail coaches and wagons with reduced weights can be used on the welded
track.

D
j) The pulling effort is reduced due to elimination of the loss of strain energy and
impact energy at rail joints, hence it reduces fuel consumption.

A
k) The use of long welded rails affords more lateral, longitudinal and vertical stability
to the track.

C
Methods of welding:
 Electric arc welding

S
 Oxy-acetylene welding
 C he m i c a l w e l di n g
 Flash-butt welding

Oxy-acetylene welding:
In this process, intense heat is produced by means of oxy-acetylene f lam e. Site
welding can be done, since it can be easily carried from one place to another. The cost
of welding is high and this can be adopted for cutting of steel.
It is also known as gas pressure welding process and it is used widely due to
various techno-economic considerations. In this process, the rail ends are heated by
gas mixture. The temperature does not reach the fusion temperature of the rail ends
either at the beginning or at the end of the welding process. The welding temperature

35
renders easy plastic flow where upon the application of pressure causes the welding
surface to come into close contact and be joined with smooth upsetting.
It is mainly perform ed mechanically as a result of which, the weld strength is
uniform and its reliability is high. In India, it was successfully used for rail welding on the
Konkan Railway for its entire 760 km. The gas pressure welding plants can be either as
a portable plant or as a movable plant.

6.Name the various methods of tunneling in hard and soft rocks. Describe one in
each case. (R 2013)

Tunneling may be basically divided into two main groups.

(a) Tunneling in hard rocks
(b) Tunneling in soft rocks

Tunneling in Hard Rocks

 Full face method
 H e a di n g a n d b e n c h m e t h o d

A D
C
 Drift method
 P i l ot t u n n e l m e t h o d

Full face method

S
The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do
not exceed 3 m. In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled
at the same time. Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large
number of drills mounted or fixed on these columns at a suitable height as shown in Fig.
A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1200 mm centre-
to-centre distance are then drilled into the rock, preferably in two rows. These holes are
charged with explosives and ignited. Next the muck is removed before repeating the
process of drilling holes.

36
 Vertical columns

Sliding drill

Sliding drill

Full face method

Advantages
(a) Since an entire section of the tunnel is tackled at one time, the method is completed
expeditiously.
(b) Mucking tracks, which are tracks used for collecting muck, can be laid on the tunnel
floor and extended as the work progresses.

larger tunnels too.

Disadvantages
A D
(c) W ith the development of the ‘jumbo’ or drill carriage, this method can be used for

S C
(a) The method requires heavy mechanical equipment.
(b) It is not very suitable for unstable rocks.
(c) It can normally be adopted for small tunnels only.
Tunneling in Soft Ground or Soft Rock
Tunneling in soft ground or soft rock is a specialized job. It does not involve the use of
explosives and the requisite excavation work is done using hard tools such as pickaxes
and shovels. In recent times, compressed air has also been used for this purpose.
During excavation, the rail requires support at the sidewalls and the roofs depending
upon the type of soil. The support could be provided in the form of timber or steel plates
or other sim ilar material. The various operations involved in soft rock tunneling are as
follows:
( a ) E x c a v a t i o n o r mi n i n g
(b) Removal of excavated material
(c) Scaffolding and shuttering
(d) Lining of tunnel surface

37
The nature of the ground is the most important factor in deciding the method to be used
for tunneling.
The important methods of tunnelling in soft rock are:
 Forepoling method
 Linear plate method
 Needle beam method
 American method
 English method
 Austrian method
 Belgian method
FOREPOLING METHOD
Forepoling is an old method of tunnelling through soft ground. In this method, a

D
frame is prepared in the shape of the letter A, placed near the face of the tunnel, and
covered with suitable planks. Poles are then inserted at the top of the f rame up to a

A
viable depth. The excavation is carried out below these poles, which are supported by
vertical posts. The excavation is carried out on the sides and the excavated portion is

C
suitably supported by timber. The entire section of the tunnel is covered thus. The
process is repeated as the work progresses.

Wo o d e n p o l e
Support

Sheet
S
Forepole

Cross-sectional view
Forepoling method

Forepoling is a slow and tedious process and requires skilled manpower and
strict supervision. The method has to be meticulously repeated in sequence and there is
no short cut for the same.

38
7.Explain about Track Drainage, and how Surface and Sub surface Water Can be
removed From Railway track. Give all in Details. (AUC NOV/DEC 2011)

Definition
Drainage of a track, Station Yards and platforms are the three places W here
Drainage arrangements are needed. Track Drainage Comprises of Interception,
Collection and disposal of from the track. This is done by adopting proper Surface and
Subsurface Drainage System.
Types of track Drainage

Surface Drainage
Surface W ater due to rain or Snow or Flow From Adjacent areas have to be
Disposed of Through Surface Drainage. Surface Drainage has to be attended to in
three locations. Drainage in mid- Section Between railway Stations.
1.Drainage in mid-section
2.Drainage in Station Yards
3.Drainage at Station
Platforms

A D
C
1.Drainage in mid-section
A typical arrangement of cross Section of a mid-section. Side Drains may be
unlined or lined. At a level Crossing all water should flow to the side Drains. In cutting

S
catch water Drains Have Been Provided Wherever Necessary. All Extra Ballast on the
Side Should be Recovered W hich Encourage Growth of the vegetation.

2.Drainage in Station Yards

Open Surface Drains-Shaped Drains, Longitudinal Drains and Open Drainage
are Provided to Free Station Yard From W ater.

39
 A typical surface drainage system with open Drains for a Station Yard .Every
Station Yard is Provided with a network of Cross and Longitudinal Drains.

In Station Yard the vulnerable points are water columns and carriage watering points
with washing Hydrants.

3.Drainage at Station Platforms

For Drainage of Station Platforms the following Points Should be Taken into
account 1.Slopes away From the track
2. Discharge on non-Track Side
3. Discharge not towards Ruin-through lines
In general all end of platforms should be sloped away From the Track. all other
Discharges Form tea Stalls, Toilets, W ater taps. If there is need be covered
longitudinal Drains Should Be Provided
In case of island platforms, all Drains Should discharge on the less important side of the
track

A D
S C
2.Sub-Surface Drainage
Sub-surface water is due to the capillary water. Other sources are seepage from
adjacent areas percolation of rain water. The sub grade and the formation are
immediately affected by the Sub-Surface irrigation.

1. Provision of an inverted fillers

2. Sand piling
3. Laying of Geotextiles
4. Other Methods

1. Provision of an inverted fillers

An inverted fillers blanked of adequate thickness is provided between the ballast

40
and the week formation. The Blanket is of non-Cohesive material with enough bearing
capacity to sustain the load.
The inverted fillers Blanket is a very effective method of improving the bearing
capacity. It serves as a porous m edium to drain to drain off the Surface W ater and
Serves as a barriers for the upward movement of fine Grained particles

2. Sand piling

A D
Sand f illing is an effective technique . A series of 30cm diameter vertical holes
are drilled inside and outside the rail to a depth of 2-3m. the holes are filling with clean
sand and the surface is resurf aced. The area covered by the Sand piles Should be
About 20% of the formation area. Sand piles provide a mechanical support and the

C
Drainage of the Sub grade improves.
Further by the arrangement of the Subsoil rises through the sand column And
get evaporated.

41
3. Laying of Geotextiles
Geotextiles are made of polymers which are Extensively as a new Technique in
improving the Soil Properties and Drainage.
On Indian railways Geotextiles are Extensively used. Geotextiles are having the
unique property to allow water to pass through but not the soil fines. They not only
W ork as separate and filters But also as reinforcement bed.
Geotextiles are either laid directly below the ballast or sandwich between a
50mm layer of sand on top and a 25mm layer so sand below so that the ballast directly
does not rest on Geotextiles .and thereby preventing tear and puncture of textiles .

4. Other Methods
All other methods W hich are used to for Soil Stabilization m ay be used to arrest Sub-
Soil water. Cement Grouting , Chemical Grouting.

A D
S C

42
 UNIT III – AIRPORT PLANNING

P ART - A

1. What is wind rose diagram? (May /June2011)

The diagram showing direction, duration and intensity of wind over a certain
period in a specified region is known as wind rose diagram.
2. Write the difference betw een cross wind component and wind coverage
(May /June2011)
Cross wind component: The norm al component of the wind (V cos θ) with a
velocity V and direction making an angle θ with the centre line of runway is called
as cross wind component.
Wind coverage: The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind
component remains within the limits is called the wind coverage.

D
3. What is the difference between runway and apron? (May /June2011)
Runway: Runway is a long and narrow rectangular strip which is constructed with
adequate structural strength for landing and takeoff of aircrafts at an airport.

A
Apron: Apron is the area provided on land so as to accommodate aircraft for
purposes of loading and unloading passenger, mail or cargo, fuelling parking,
ma i n t e n a n c e e t c .

S C
4. What is transitional surface in airport design? (May /June2011)
Transitional surface lies along the side of the strip and part of the side of the
approach surface. It slopes upwards and outwards in the inner horizontal
surface.
5. State the importance of airport drainage (Nov/Dec 2012)
(i ) Improper surface drainage leads to ponding and making way for
hazardous movement of aircrafts on runways, taxiways, aprons etc.
(ii) Improper sub-surface drainage m ay weaken the subgrade and thus
reduce the load bearing capacity of the soil resulting in distress to
pavements.
(iii) Good drainage arrangements increases the efficiency of all the
pavements.
(iv) Good drainage increases the efficiency of the airport by providing all
weather service.
(v) Good drainage reduces the maintenance cost of an airport.

43
6. What is wind rose diagram? (May /June2011)
The graphical representation of wind data comprising of direction, duration and
intensity is called wind rose
7. What are the factors influencing runway length? (Nov/ Dec 2013)
(i ) Aircraft’s landing is normal.
(ii) Aircraft after starting a takeoff completes the takeoff safely.
(iii) Aircraft after starting a takeoff is brought safely to a stop, if there happens
to be an engine failure.
8. State the primary functions of an airport drainage system.(Nov/ Dec 2013)
The following are the functions:
(i ) Removal of surface water from the pavements.
(ii) Lowering of the sub-surface water level in the airport area so as to be

D
within permissible limits.
(iii) Intercepting and diverting the surface and sub-surface water flow

A
originating from lands adjacent to the airport area.
9. What is an airport master plan? State the steps in its formulation.

C
Master plan of an airport is the one wherein the concept of ultimate development
of the airport is made by a planner. It is made both for the expansion of an

S
existing airport and a new airport. The following are the steps
(i ) Preplanning
(ii) Achieving goals.
10. What is clear zone? (Nov/ Dec 2014)
Clear zone is the inner most portion of an approach area which is the most
critical area. It is generally recommended to procure adequate land for effective
implementation of zoning laws. It is achieved by clearing all the obstructions
excluding minor obstructions such as fences, ditches etc.
11. What are the factors affecting runway design? (May /June2015)
Following are the factors affecting runway design
(i ) Cross wind component
(ii) W i nd c ov er ag e
(iii) Calm period

44
 P ART B
1. Discuss in detail the factors affecting the choice of selection of site for an
airport. (Apr / May 2011, May / June 2012)
Introduction
Site selection is a very crucial in airport planning. A few alternate sites identified
in the designated region are evaluated against set criteria and the best among them is
chosen. Cost of construction, cost of maintenance, efficiency and safety of airports
depend upon sites. Therefore, sites for airports are selected with very great
consideration. Federal aviation agenc y (FAA) and international civil aviation
organization (ICAO) have stipulated norms for various param eters. The f ollowing are
some criteria elements.
(i) Regional plan

D
(ii) Types of airports
(iii)Ground accessibility

A
(iv) Topography
(v) Soilcharacteristics

C
(vi) Meteorological factors
(a ) Wi n d

S
(b) Frost and fog
(c) Temperature
(vii) Noise nuisance
(viii) On-site and off-site infrastructures
(ix) Shape and dimensions of site
(x) Future development
2. Regional plan
(i) ICAO stipulations
A region is a larger area consisting of cities, town and villages. A regional plan
aims at balanced developm ent within the region. The regional plan, gives a bird’s eye
view of all natural and manmade features. The ICAO has stipulated a minimum distance
of separation between airports. Scrutiny of the regional plan shows shadow sub –

45
regions from transport point of view. This helps to narrow down location of proposed
airport at macro level.
(ii) Significance of regional plan in airport planning
Under significance landing system, aircraft are brought to ground with the help of
radio beam facilities. The operator of an aircraft manipulates control instruments as
directed by radio beam s. If two airports are close by, operations of electronic
instruments and movement of aircraft may interfere. Therefore, a minimum separation
as per ICAO standards is required.
(iii) Minimum spacing as per FAA
(a) Smaller airports under visibility Flight Rules(VFR) condition-3Km
(b) Bigger airports under VFR condition -6 K m
(c) Airports operating piston engine aircrafts -25Km

D
(d) A i rp ort s op e ra t i n g j e t e ng i n e a i rc ra f t s -1 6 0 K m
The proposed site should satisfy standards for separation of airports.

A
3. Types of airports
The site suitability depends upon the type of proposed airports such as

C
commercial- domestic international, or defense. In case of defensepurpose, it has
certain special requirements such as providing natural cover from air raids. If the

S
airports are located in combat zones, sites with thick bushes where aircrafts can be
parked unnoticed, is preferred.
4. Ground accessibility
Location of a site should be such that it is easily accessible by different modes-
rod, rail and water. This is very important because airline passengers are concerned
about total time taken f or journey between an origin and destination. It takes two and
half hours to travel a distance of about 2000 km between Delhi and Chennai by air
travel.
5. Topography
(i) Details: topography is details or a description of natural made features. It
refers to natural features such as ground contours, water bodies, hillocks, forests,
bushed, trees and man-made features such as pattern of land use, intensity and height
oh buildings.

46
(ii) Advantages of elevated sites:
(a) Less obstruction in approach and turning zones.
( b ) Na t u r a l d r a i n a g e
(c) Uniform wind intensity
(d) Better visibility
Tall buildings in the proximity of a site and uses, which generate wastes and
consequently attract birds, are objectionable. Therefore a site, which is better f rom
topographical point of view, should be preferred.
6. Soil characteristics
Sub grade soil supports runway and other structures o an airports. A site with
better soil characteristics is preferable because it reduces cost of grading , drainage,
construction and maintenance. Soil containing reasonable composition of pervious

D
materials like gravel or sand with a suitable natural binder is considered desirable. A
site with expansive soil like clay is considered unsuitable.

A
Desirable principal properties of soil as a runway m aterial are stability, strength
and minimum change in volume and stability under adverse conditions. Grain size

C
distribution liquid limit and plasticity index are some index properties based on which
soil is classif ied and identified. Cost of development of a site can be advantageously

S
reduced by selecting a site with favorable soil characteristics.
7. Metrological factors
Metrology is the science of atmosphere and its phenomenon. It is concerned with
direction, duration and intensity of prevailing wind, forest, fog, andtemperature. Air
transport is highly susceptible to m eteorological factors. Therefore any proposed site
should be carefully evaluated against wind, forest, and fog.
(i) Wind: Orientation of runways and eff iciency of airports greatly depend up on the
direction , duration and intensity/velocity of the prevailing wind . runway is oriented in
the prevailing wind direction. Landing and takeoff operations take place in head wind.
During both operation air craft’s heads into the wind .therefore wind data greatly
influence the site selection.in turn the desired orientation of the run way determines the
suitability of the site. W ind data on direction, duration and intensity are collected at least
or 10 years or available sites and the one which has favorable wind is chosen.

47
(ii) Forest and fog: Visibility of sites may be greatly affected by forest and fog. Any site
selected should therefore be f ree from fog, forest, and smoke. Fog generally settles in
area like a valley where wind blow is less. Smoke exists at sites nearer to industrial
areas. Therefore a site located on the leeward direction should be preferred than that on
windward direction. Trend of future development of industries should also be studied
and sites should be chosen accordingly.
(iii) Temperature: Temperature influences runway length. Increase in temperature
results in decrease in air density. Therefore, sites with standard temperature are
preferred.
8. Noise nuisance: Type and pattern developments in surrounding area play a very
crucial role in selection of sites for airports. Proximity of airports to areas of human
habitation, residential areas and institutional areas such as schools, hospitals should be

D
avoided. Intensity of noise nuisance depends upon climb-out paths of aircrafts, types of
engines propulsion and gross weights of aircrafts.

A
S C
Buffer zone for noise nitigation

9. Scope for future expansion: Area of a site selected for location of an airport
should be more than that stipulated by ICAO. It should be adequate not only to
meet present demand but also future requirements like runways, aprons, terminal
buildings etc.

48
2. What is an airport master plan? Briefly describe the steps in it formulation.
(Nov / Dec 2014)
1.Introduction
Airport planning refers to preparation of a scheme beforehand for development of
airports. Requirements of an airport are to ensure safe and speedy transport of air travel
passengers. It has to facilitate reception and departure of aircrafts with least possible
del ay s .
(i) Important objectives of airport planning:
(a) Justify the need for an airport
(b) Form ulated a layout plan for the airport and design of runways, taxi ways
and airport buildings.
(c) Prepare cost estimation and

D
(d) Propose institutional arrangements.
(ii) C o m p o n e nt s of airport planning:Airport pl anni ng has following

A
components.
(a) Assessment of traffic potential.

C
(b) Site selection
(c) Design and drawing of airport components.

S
(d) Cost estim ation
(e) Evaluation of econom ic viability, engineering feasibility and environm ent
i mp a c t .
(f) Financial resources.
(g) Institutional arrangement.
(iii) Good airfield layout characteristics:
(a) Landing. Take off and taxing – independent operations.
(b) Shortest taxiway.
(c) Safe runway length
(d) Safe approaches.
(e) Excellent control tower visibility.
(f) Adequate loading apron space.
(g) Comprehensive terminal building facilities.

49
 (h) Land area for future expansion.
(i) Cost effective construction, maintenance and operation.

2. Socio-economic characteristics of catchment areas

(i)Assessment of traffic potential
Assessment of traffic potential for a proposed airport in terms of passenger and
cargos is a crucial element in establishing the need for an airport. The first step in
assessment of traffic potential is to delineate catchment area of the proposed airport in
the national network of airports. After demarcation of imaginary influence area, socio-
economic characteristics of the population are studied.
The following aspects reflect the socio-economic characteristics.
(ii) Population
a. Total population.
b. Rate of growth of population.
c. Estimation of future population.
(iii) Economic characteristics

A D
a. pattern of employment – industries , business , government , private, others.

S C
b. income group –composition of families under high income group and middle income
grou p .
c. average per capita income of persons in income groups of HIG and MIG.
d. pattern of expenditure – proportion of expenditure for different items and more
particularly for travel.
(iv) travel- characteristics
a. frequency of air travel.
b. modal choice.
Socio-economic characteristics of the region are compared with that of other
comparable regions, where airports are already in existence. From the comparative
analysis, annual passenger volume and expected cargo volume are assessed.
3. Site selection for airports
Site selection is a critical element in airport planning. Efficiency, safety and
capacity of airports to a greater extent depend on suitability of sites. Therefore, site
analysis for alternate sites is under taken and the best among them is chosen.

50
Parameters for site selection include physical and economic characteristics of sites and
on-site and off-site facilities available.
4. Factor influencing size of an airport
(i) Type of airport i.e, domestic or international, or defense. Size of an airport
depends upon whether it is an international or domestic one.
(ii) Traffic potential of an airport region.
(iii) Aircraft characteristics such as aircraft capacity, aircraft speed, minimum circling
radius, minimum turning radius, noise level, and take off and landing distances
(iv) Site characteristics such as topography and land availability.
5. Design and drawing of airport components
Airport planning involves the preparation of following plans.
(i) Topographical plan.

D
(ii) Layout plan.
(iii) Design of runway, taxiway, and buildings.

A
(iv) Vehicular circulation and parking area plan.
(i) Topographical plan: Topographical plan indicates all natural and manmade features

C
on a site , besides boundaries of the site. Boundaries of cleared and graded area,
contour lines and access roads are marked on the topographical plans. Width for which

S
features are incorporated depends upon the type and size of the airport.
(ii)Layout plan: it is the process of laying out various elements is arranged. An airport
lay-out plan shows the positioning of various components of an airport.
(a) airport landing area- approach zone.
(b) Airport terminal area –runway, taxiway, apron, airport building, vehicular
p ark i ng
Area and airport road network.
(iii) Design of runway: following are the design elements of a runway.
(a) Runway orientation.
(b) Length of runway- basics and corrected runway lengths.
(c) Runway width
(d) W idth and length of safety area.
(e) Transverse gradient.

51
 (f) Longitudinal and effective gradient.
(g)Rate of change of longitudinal gradient.
(h) Site distance.
(i) Design of runway pavement.
Similar designs are carried out for taxiways.
(iv) Vehicular circulation and parking area: air travel passengers and visitors to
airports norm ally use motorized personal transport such as cars and vans to arrive
at or to leave airports. Therefore, road circulation and parking patterns are vital
aspects in airport planning. Road circulation pattern in an airport should facilities
easy and safe ingress and egress. Based on peak hour dem and, parking duration
and parking accumulation and basic vehicular parking pattern is designed.
6. Cost estimation

D
(i)Capital cost: Rough estimation is prepared for following constituents.
(a) Cost land acquisition and cost of land development.

A
(b) Formulation of design and drawing.
(c) Construction of terminal area and landing area.

C
(d) Cost of air traffic control devices.
(e) Cost of provision of visual aids.

S
(ii) Maintenance cost: Annual maintenance cost including repair and renovation for all
components of airports of airports is realistically assessed and provided for.
7. Economic evaluation
Objective of economic evaluation is to assess worthiness of a project. The evaluation is
done by analyzing costs and benefits, both tangible and intangible. The project is
evaluated against econom ic viability, engineering feasibility, environmental stability,
social acceptability and spatial development. Economic costs and benefits include
capital costs, and maintenance cost. Economic benefits are receipts through sale
proceeds, and rental values.
8. Institutional arrangement
(i) Organizations: Institutional arrangement is concerned with organization for
planning, design, execution, maintenance and mobilization of resources. The

52
organizational pattern depends on the type of airports and sector in which it is
developed viz.; public or private.
(ii) Financial resources: ‘Airport Finance’ deals with various methods of generating
funds for projects. Financial resources for airport projects are generated normally from
governmental sector. However, with the introduction of B.O.T concepts, private sectors
have also come forward to build new airports in the country. Capitalinvestment in road
project is generally recovered from the road users in the form of direct and indirect
taxations. The same logic may be applied for airport also.

3. (i) What are the different systems of aircraft parking? Explain the suitability of
eac h s yst e m .
(ii) Draw a typical layout of an airport show ing all the features on it. (Nov / Dec

D
2012)
(i) Introduction

A
The two major components of airport are
(i) Airport Landing Area (ii) Airport Terminal Area

C
Airport landing is the most critical of all operations. Therefore, airport-landing areas a
crucial one. Landing area includes approach zone and clear zone. In these zones,

S
airport zoning regulations are under effective enforcement. The terminal area includes,
terminal and operational buildings, vehicle parking area and service hangars.
Airport terminal is a focal point of an airport. It is always vibrant with activities.
The elements of an airport terminal area are:
(a) Apron (d) Terminal building
(b) H a n g a rs (e) Motor Vehicles parking
(c) Circulation pattern.
A p r on
It is a paved area for parking of aircrafts for embarkation and de-embarkation of
passengers, loading and unloading of cargo and serving of aircrafts without interference
to surface traffic aircrafts. Aprons in airports are synonymous with platf orms in railway
stations and quays and Jetties in harbours and ports. It is very close to terminal
buildings and hangars. The size of aprons depends upon

53
 (i) Type of airports
(ii) Nu m b e r s a n d t y p e o f a i r c r a f t s u s i n g a i r p o r t s a n d
(iii) Basic parking configurations of aircrafts.
Apron should be adequate to permit expeditious handling of airport traff ic. Apron in
subjected to higher stresses than a runway due to slow moving or stationary position of
aircrafts. Aprons should be stronger enough to withstand intended traffic.
Airports can be grouped into different patterns adjacent to terminal buildings they are
(a) Frontal system
(b) Open Apron System
-Finger system -Satellite system
Merits and de-merits of each type of aircrafts parking.
Sl.No Type of parking Description Merits and de-merits

D
1. Frontal system Aircrafts are parked in front Simple and economic.
of airport buildings Suitable only for small

A
airports
2. Open apron system Parked cob open apron, in Area is un wiedly,

C
rows T her ef or e, p a s s en g e rs
may have to walk longer

S
distances and are
exposed to weather. It is
v e r y e c o n o mi c .
3. Finger system Aircrafts are parked about Provides protection to
ex t ens i o ns of terminal passengers Further,
buildings. The extensions expansion is easier. Not
are in shapes of fingers. E c o n o mi c
4. Satellite system A small building is built on It is advantageous if
apron to park around. These satellite b u il d i n g s are
buildings are s a t e lli t e s of linked t hrou gh under
main terminal buildings. grou n d c h a n n e l.
Ho w e v e r , it involves
huge construction cost.

54
Fig. shows various patterns of aircraft parking system adjacent to terminal buildings.
Table below indicates geometric design standards of aprons.

(ii) Layout of an International Airport

A D
Pattern of parking of aircrafts

S C

55
 D
4. What are the different types of terminals? Explain its concept with neat sketchs
(Nov / Dec 2013)

Introduction
The two major components of airport are
A
(iii)

(i) Primary function of an airport building:

S C
Airport Landing Area (ii) Airport Terminal Area
Te r m i n a l b ui l d i ng
Primary function of an airport building is
to accommodate terminal and operational activities, control towers, weather bureau,
and administrative block and passenger facilities. Location of building area with respect
to runway and taxiway should provide adequate space for future expansion of all
structures. Terminal buildings should be set back by 150m and 75m for instrumental
and non-instrumental airports respectively for all class of airports.
(ii) Planning concept of terminal buildings: Terminal buildings in commercial airports
may be based on planning concept of centralization or decentralization.
Centralized : all passengers, baggages and cargos are formulated through a central
b u il d i n g .
Decentralized: passengers and baggages arrive at a point near departing planes.
(iii) Principles of passenger flow:

56
 (a) Passengers walking distance should not be more than 180m f rom the surface
transportation to their boarding in an aircraft
( b) M a x i m u m d i s t a n c e c a r r y i n g b a g g a g e – 2 5 m
(c) Maximum check-in time 3minutes.

Planning concept of terminal building

A D
C
Passenger facilities and services:
General facilities provided at airports:

S
(a) Economic longues to sit comfortably
(b) Electronic lockers
(c ) P ra y er ro o m
(d) Swimming facilities
(e) Television, children playground
(f) Departure and arrival hall
(g) Smoking rooms
(h) Inter-terminal transport
Services required at airports:
(a) Money changers
(b) Medical services
(c ) Los t and f o un d
(d) Shopping malls

57
(e) Supermarkets
(f) Duty free zone
(g) Flight information enquiries counter
(h) Nursery for feeding and changing of devess for babies
(i) Bus service stand
(j) Hotel reservation counters

A D
S CArrival hall

Departure hall

58
 International airport building and passenger facilities

A D
C
Domestic Airport building and passenger facilities

S
5. List the different types of airports. Explain the ICAO classification of airports.
(May / June 2012) (8 marks)
Types of Airports:
Airports m ay be classified differently based on the functions, usage, available
facilities, and type of aircrafts intended to be used.
a) Based on functions
i. Co n v e n t i o n a l - for normal commercial aircraft
ii. He l i p o r t s - for use of helicopters
iii. STOL ports - f or s h o rt l a nd i n g a n d t a k e o f f
iv. Seaplane bases or Aquaports - constructed on sea as a float
b) Based on usage
59
 i. Publ i c - used for public and owned by
government
ii. P r iv a t e - used for private persons
iii. Military - used for military purposes
iv. Joint use - used for military and civil purposes
c) Based on facilities
i. General airport - provided with m ore number of runways
and t ax i w ay s
ii. Special facility airport - provide with navigational aids
d) Based on type of aircraft
i. Basic utility airports, BU - accommodates most single engine and
light twin-engine aircraft (< 5670 kg)

D
ii. General utility airports, GU - accommodates additional
medium twin-engine aircrafts

A
iii. Basic transport airports, BT - for to handle business jets under
27200 kg

C
iv. General transport airports, GT - f o r a ll t y p e s o f a i r c r a f t s
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

S
The aims and objectives of ICAO are to develop the principles and techniques of
international air navigation.
The main objectives of ICAO are:
i. To promote safety to flight in internal air navigation.
ii. To regulate the order orderly growth of international civil aviation throughout the
world.
iii. To encourage the aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes.
iv. To guide in the general development of all aspects of international civil aviation.
v. To avoid discrimination between contracting nations
.
ICAO works in close coordination with other specialist institutions such as World
Meteorological Organization (W MO), International Civil Airports Association (ICAA),etc

60
Airport Classification based on ICAO
Aircraft classification helps in the design of airport. It also provides adequate
information to pilots in identifying the size and the services which the airport can
provide.
ICAO has classified airports based on the factors like
i. Ru n wa y l e n g t h , wi d t h a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l g r a d e
ii. Aircraft wheel load and tire pressure
ICAO classification based on runway length
Basic runway length Maximum
Airport R u n w a y p a v e m e nt
M i ni m u m longitudinal
ty p e Maximum (m) w i dt h ( m )
(m) grade (%)

A - 2520 45 1.25

E
2520

2100

1770

1500
2100

1770

1500

1260
A D 45

45

45
1.25

1.50

1.50

1.50

C
45
F 1260 1050 45 1.50

S
G 1050 900 45 1.50
ICAO classification based on Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL) and tire
pressure

C o de n o. Single equivalent wheel load (kg) Tire pressure (kg/cm2)

1 45000 8.5

2 34000 7.0

3 27000 7.0

4 20000 7.0

5 13000 6.0

6 7000 5.0

7 2000 2.5

61
6. What are the basic patterns of runway configurations? Discuss each pattern.
(M a y / J u n e 2 0 1 4 )
(i) Pattern of runway configuration: Configuration of runway refers to shape or
arrangement of runways. Runways may be grouped as inter-dependent or independent
units. They may be parallel or intersecting. The pattern of runway in any depends upon
volume of traffic in an airport.
(ii) Recommendation for International airport: Two intersecting runways at near
threshold is recommended for international airports. Practical annual capacity of this
pattern per unit runway is greater. Therefore, this pattern is suitable for international
airports in metropolitan cities.
Basic pattern of runways
(i) Basic pattern of runways normally adopted are:

D
( a ) S i n g l e r u n wa y s
(b) Parallel runways

A
(c) Intersecting runways
(d) N o n -i n t ers e c t i on s run w a y s .

C
(ii) Minimum Distance between parallel runways:
(a) Non-instrument parallel runways for simultaneous use:

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- 210m where the highest code number is 3 or 4;
- 150m where the highest code number is 2; and
- 120m where the highest code number is 1.
( b ) P a r a l l e l i n s t r u m e n t r u n wa y s f o r s i m u l t a n e o u s u s e :
- 1035m for independent parallel approaches;
- 9 1 5 m f o r d e p e n d e n t p a r a ll e l a p p r o a c h e s ;
- 7 6 0 m f o r i n d e p e n d e n t p a r a ll e l a p p r o a c h e s ;
- 760m for segregated parallel approaches;
(c) For segregated parallel operations
- May be decreased by 30m for each 150m so that the arrival runway is staggered
toward arriving aircrafts, subject to a minimum of 300m; and
- Should be increased by 30m for each 150m so that arrival runway is staggered
away from arriving aircrafts.

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 A D
S C
Runway configuration

Runway basic pattern

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 UNIT IV - AIRPORT DESIGN
P ART A
1. How do you select the site for terminal building? (Apr / May 2011)
 It should be centrally located with respect to the runways.
 It should have convenient and easy access to the highway.
 The site should have easy facility of natural drainage.
 There should be adequate space available for the parking of the vehicles.
2. Define exit taxiway. (May / June 2012)
Exit taxiways are the taxiways which are provided to minimise the runway
occupancy time by landing aircrafts.

3. What is a hangar? (May / June 2012)

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The large shed erected at the airport for the purpose of housing, servicing,
andrepairing of aircrafts is known as hangar.

A
4. Distinguish between ‘holding apron’ and ‘blast pad’. (Nov / Dec 2012)

C
Aprons are located on the airside area of an airport which are accommodating
aircrafts for one purpose or the other. Holding apron is provide at the end of a

S
runway to allow an aircraft to stop temporarily when the runway is occupied by
another aircraft.
Blast fences or blast pads are provided to deflect and dissipate the energy of the jet
exhaust. Based on the type of protection needed, accordingly particular type of
protection is used.

5. Define ‘number of gate position’ (Nov / Dec 2012)

Number of gate positions depend on
(i ) The peak hourly aircraft movement
(ii) The occupancy time of each aircraft in a gate position.
The number of gate positions can be obtained from the relationship
No. of gate positions = {Capacity of runway / (60 x 2)} x average gate occupancy time
It is measured in units of movements per hour.

64
6. Define calm period. (May / June 2013)
Percentage of time in a year during which wind intensity is less than minimum
intensity is termed as calm period. During calm period, intensity of wind is negligible
and do not interfere with landing and take off operations.

7. Why is airport zoning important? (May / June 2013)

To own the entire flight approach areas and the turning areas to prevent undesirable
growth of structures.

8. What is clear zone? (Nov / Dec 2014)

Clear zone is the innermost portion of an approach area which is the most critical
area. Runway clear zone length varies from 300 to 750 m.

D
9. List the factors affecting the location of exit taxiway. (Nov / Dec 2011)

A
Factors affecting the locations of exit taxiway are:
 Air traffic control

C
 Num ber of exit taxiwa ys
 Exit speed

S
 Types of aircrafts
 W eather conditions
 Topographical features
 Attitude of pilots
 Optimum locations of exit taxiwa y

10. What are the different types of aircraft parking systems? (May / June 2014)
Aircrafts can be grouped adjacent to the terminal building in a variety of ways. They
are
 Frontal or Linear system
 Open apron or transporter system
 Finger or Pier system
 Satellite system

65
11. List the various types of marking on runway. (Nov / Dec 2014)
 Centre line marking
 Threshold marking
 End-strip marking
 Touch down or landing zone marking
 Runway num bering
 Parallel runway marking
 Runway Shoulder marking

12. What are the various airport zones? (Apr / May 2015)
 Approach zone
 Clear zone

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 Turning zone

A
S C

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 P ART B
1. Explain the steps in determination of proper orientation for runway. (Apr/May
2011, May/June 2012, Nov/Dec 2012)
Orientation of runway: Orientation is positioning of runways. Orientation of a runway is
usually along prevailing wind direction. This facilitates landing and takes off operations
in 'head wind. In other words, landing and takeoff operations take place in directions
opposite to the prevailing wind. W hen landing operations take place against wind
direction, the head wind provides a braking effect to aircraft and they come to a stop in
a smaller length of runway. Similarly, when aircrafts take off, the head wind provides
greater lift on W ings of aircraft and enables it to rise above the ground within a shorter
length of runway. Therefore, a runway is oriented in head winds.
W ind data in terms of direction, duration and intensity for the selected site is collected

D
for 5 to 10 years. These factors impact orientation of runways.
C r os s w i n d c o m p o n e nt

A
Centre line of a runway is oriented along prevailing wind direction. However, it is
not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the centre line of a runway throughout

C
a year on some days of a year and few hours of a day, wind may blow making certain
angle with a centre line of the runway. If an angle between the centre line of the runway

S
and direction of wind is 0, the component along the direction of a runway is V cos � and
the component normal to the runway is V sine �, where 'V' is the wind velocity. The
normal component of the wind is termed as a cross wind component. The cross wind
component is very dangerous and may interrupt safe landing and takeoff operations. As
per ICAO, following are permissible cross wind components.
Permissible cross wind components
Airport/Aircraft Type C r os s w i nd components Field length
(velocity)
Small aircrafts 1 4 - 2 4 k m/ h <1200m

Mi x e d t r a f f i c 2 5 - 3 7 k m/ h 1200 to 1500m

Big aircrafts > 37 km/h > 1500 m

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 C r os s w i n d c o m p o ne nt
Wind coverage

D
Coverage is the percentage of time in a year during which, a cross wind com ponent I
remains within permissible limit. A runway can be safely operated only when the cross

A
wind component is within perm issible limits. For purpose of calculating coverage n
assumption is made to the effect that a deviation in direction up to 6122.5^ + 11.25°

C
degrees from directions of landing and takeoff is permissible. For example, if 'NS' s the
best orientation, the coverage for orientation is obtained by summing up durations n the,

S
directions of N NNE, NNW, S, SSE, and SSW. Below fig. shows wind directions aid
their coverage.

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 Wind directions and coverage
Calm period

Percentage of time in a year during which wind intensity is less than minimum intensity

is termed as calm period. It is assumed that during calm period, intensity of wind is

negligible and do not interfere with landing and takeoff operations. Therefore, the calm

period is added to the calculated wind coverage.

Wind rose diagram —Type I

(i)Determination of 'Orientation of Runway':

Past wind data for a selected site of an airport is collected f or as many years as

possible. Data should be collected at least for 5 years and preferably for 10 years.

Average data is obtained with sufficient accuracy. Since wind data may vary

(ii) Direction and Duration:

A D
considerably from site to site, observations should have been taken at or near a site

selected as far as possible.

Radial lines indicate wind directions. Average wind data are obtained for 16

C
directions as indicated in above Fig. Each direction covers an angle of 223". It is

S
assumed that wind may blow from any point within 22.5". Each circle in below fig.

represents duration of wind.

(iii) Best orientation of the runway:

Values of durations from wind data are marked In respective directions. All

plotted points are joined in straight lines as shown it Fig. The hest orientation of a

runway is usually along the direction of the longes line in wind rose diagram.

(iv) Wind coverage:

It is assumed that deviation of direction permissible is upto 33.7.5v (12 50 +

11.2.5). Percentage of time during which a runway can be used for landing and take off

in this example is obtained by summing percentages of time along NNW. N. NNE.

SSE.S and SSW. Fig. depicts the method to draw my wind rose diagram - type I.

69
 W i n d r os e di a gr a m – Ty p e I

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Wind rose diagram — Type II
Wind Rose diagram type II is illustrated in fig. Wind data used for type I is used for type

A
ii also. Each circle represents wind intensity to scale. Radial lines indicate wind
directions Value entered in each segment represent percentage of time in a year during

C
which wind having a particular intensity blows from the respective direction.

Wind rose diagram – Type II

70
Procedure to determine the orientation
(1) Draw three parallel lines on a transparent paper at an equal distance apart. The
distance between parallel lines is equal to permissible cross wind component. it
is drawn to the-Mame scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn. Cross
wind component in the example is 25 km/ h.
(2) Place a transparent paper over the wind rose diagram in such a way that its
centre lies over the central line of the W ind Rose diagram.
(3) W ith the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a
position that the sum of all values of duration of wind, bound by two outer parallel
lines has a maximum value. Thus, the direction indicated by the central line is the
orientation of the runway. W ind coverage is calculated by adding up all
percentages of duration shown in segments. The percentage of duration is

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assumed to be equally distributed over the entire area of segment. If outer
parallel lines of transparent strip cross a segment, proportional value is assessed

A
an d a dd e d.
Second runways

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As per guidelines of the Federal Aviation Agency (FAA), runways handling mixed
air traffic should be so planned that the coverage is more than 95%. In other words, the

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airports should be operational at least for 95% of the time in a year. For busy airports,
the wind coverage may be increased up to 100%. However, this may be possible only
by planning for second and more runways. Orientation of the second runway is the
second longest direction in the wind rose diagram. W hile calculating additional coverage
for the second runway, duration of any direction, already added for the first runway
should not be added for second time.

2.What are the various corrections to be applied on to the runway length? Explain
the amount of such corrections with a typical example. (Nov/Dec 2012)
The actual runway length to be provided should be adequate enough to meet the
operational requirements of aircraft which are intended to use the runway. It should
not be longest length required for the local conditions. The conditions to be
c ons i d ered a re:

71
  Elevation (above mean sea level)
 Temperature
 Runway slope (gradient)
Corrections if any to meet the local conditions have to be incorporate in deciding
the final length.
(a) Correction for elevation:
Air density decreases with increase in elevation. This in turn reduces lift on wings of
aircrafts. Since longer runways are required. ICAO has recommended that basic runway
length has to be increased by 7% for every 300 m rise in elevation above MSL.
(b) Correction for temperature:
Air reference temperature is the sum of monthly mean of average daily temperature
for the hottest month of a year (Ta) and the monthly mean of maximum daily

D
temperature (Tm) for same month of the year.
Reference temperature = (Ta) + { (Tm - Ta) / 3 }

A
As per ICAO recommendations, the basic runway length has to be increased at a rate of
one percent for every one degree rise of an airport reference temperature above

C
standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
Standard temperature at the site can be determined by reducing the standard

S
sea level temperature of the 15°C at the rate of 6.5°C per 1000 m rise in elevation.
(c) Correction for gradient:
Steeper gradients consume more energy of the aircraft. Because of this longer
length of runway is required to attain the desired ground speed. No specific correction is
recommended by ICAO.
But FAA recommends that after correction for elevation and temperature the length
of runway should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective
g ra d i e n t .
Effective gradient is the difference in elevation between the highest and the lowest
points of runway divided by the total length of runway before correcting for gradient.
(d) Combined correction for elevation and temperature:
Further ICAO recommends that if the total correction exceeds 35%, the required
correction should be obtained after conducting a specific study at the site.

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4.Briefly explain the Night – time aids provided at Airports. (Apr/May 2015)
Airport lighting:
Markings only help in good weather conditions. During bad weather conditions
and during night time it is essential to provide adequate lighting in the airport. Such
lightings should convey similar information’s to the pilot during good visibility conditions
as the markings do in any time.
All the airports need not to be provided with the same type and intensity of airport
lighting. They depend on the following factors:
 Airport classification
 Traffic density
 Types of aircraf ts using the airport
 Types of landing surf aces provided

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 Types of night operations planned
In order to maintain uniformity to the pilots, the colour of lights and general

A
arrangements are to be standardized. The elements which contribute for efficient airport
lighting are:

C
i. Beac o ns
ii. Boundary lighting

S
iii. Approach lighting
iv. Threshold lighting
v. Ru n w a y l i g h t i n g
vi. Taxiway lighting
vii. Apron and hangar lighting
viii. Lighting for wind and land direction indicators
B e a c o ns :
Beacon is a high luminous beam of light which is used to demark any
geographical location. It is positioned above the surrounding ground and rotated at a
specific frequency. Rotating beacon provided at airports is rotated at six revolutions per
minute. The beams are projected f rom the beacon in horizontal direction 180° apart.
One beam emits a green light and another a clear light. It is usually mounted over the
top of the terminal building or hangar.

73
Boundary Lights:
The periphery of the entire landing area is provided with lights at 90 m centre to
centre with a height of about 75 m from the ground. In order to indicate the hazardous
approach, the boundary lights a provided with the red marker lights.
Approach lighting:
For a pilot while approaching a runway f or landing, the approach lights are the
only elements of guidance. Actually before the starting point of runway, a sequence of
high-intensity lighting arrangements for a length of 900m is provided.
This forms a basic guidance f or the pilot to centre the aircraft centrally. These
lights then give way to the touchdown zone lights from the threshold of the runway. The
approach lights are normally mounted on pedestals keeping the heads of lights at equal
elevation.

D
Calvert system of approach lighting is shown in below f igure. It is widely used
and standardized by ICAO. The transverse bays each 4.2 m wide and located at 30 m

A
interval along the extended centre line of the runway. This arrangement gives suitable
information to the pilot.

S C
Approach lighting
Threshold lighting:
In order to decide about landing or not the identification of runway threshold in
important for a pilot. For this reason, the area near the runway threshold is given special
lighting arrangements. The end of approach lighting is denoted by terminal bar of red
lig h t s .
The threshold is lighted fully with a continuous line of green light extending the
full width of runway. The lights may be semi-flush or elevated type.

74
 The threshold lights in the direction of landing is green and red in the opposite
direction to indicate the end of runway.

A D
Threshold lighting

C
Runway lighting:
After crossing the threshold the pilot has to complete a touch down and then roll

S
the aircraft on the runway. The runway lighting has to be so planned and arranged such
that it provides sufficient guidelines to the pilot.
 Alignment
 Lateral displacement
 Roll
 Height of distance
Narrow-gauge pattern is used nowadays. This pattern makes use of the centre-line and
touch-down zone lights for operations in very poor visibility.
The narrow gauge pattern forms a channel of light of 18 m width up to 1140 m
from the threshold and beyond this distance. All the lights provided on the runway are
white in colour and of flush type.

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 A D
Runway lighting
Ta x i w a y l i gh t i n g:
Taxiway centre line lights:

S C
(a)Location and application: These lights are provided on exit taxiways, taxiway
intersection and apron. Primary purpose of this lighting is to provide continuous
guidance from runway centre line to the point on apron where aircraf ts commence
maneuvering for parking. Centre line lights are provided only for taxiways intended for
use during nights in runway visual range conditions of 350 m or greater. These lights
are not to be provided on taxiways, where there is low volume of traffic.

(b)Characteristics: These shall be fixed lights on all taxiways except on exist taxiways
and runways forming part of a standard taxi-routes. They show green with beam
dimensions such that lights are visible only from aircrafts on or in the vicinity of a
taxiway.

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(c)Spacings for taxiway centre line lights
All straight sections: Norm al spacing shall not be more than 30 m. However, for better
meteorological conditions, spacing’s shall not be more than 60 m.
On short straight sections < 30 m
On a taxiway intended for use in RVR s houl d no t ex c ee d 15 m
conditions of less than value of 350 m
Spacing on curves:
Light spacings in curves
Curve radius Light spacing
Up to 400 m 7.5 m
401 m t o 8 9 9 m 15.0 m
900 m or greater 30.0 m

D
S o urc e I C A O s t a n d a r d s

A
(ii)Taxiway centre line lights on rapid exit taxiways:
(a)Location: Should commence at a point at least 60 m before beginning of a

C
taxiway centre line curve and continue beyond the end of a curve to a point on the
centre line of the taxiway where aircrafts reach normal taxing speed.

S
(iii)Taxiway centre line lights on other exit taxiways:
Location: The lights should commence at a point where a taxiway centre line
marking begins to curve from the runway centre line and followed a curved taxiway
centre line marking at least to the point where the marking leaves the runway. Fig.
shows taxiway lighting.

(iv)Taxiway centre line lights:

Longitudinal intervals on runways forming part of a standard taxi-route and
intended for taxing in runway visual range conditions less than a value of 350 m are not
to be more than 15 m. Fig. presents taxiway centre line lights on runways.

77
(v)Runway guard lights:
It is provided at each taxiway/runway intersection. Configuration A is associated
with runways visual range conditions less than a value of 550 m where a stop bar is
installed and runway visual range conditions of values between 550 m and 1200 m
where traffic density is high. For conf iguration ‘B’, adjacent lights shall be alternately
illuminated and alternate lights shall be illuminated in unison. Fig shows runway guard
lig h t s

Sign positions at taxiway/runway intersections

Signs are erected to convey mandatory instructions, and information on a
specific location or destination on a movement are a . T hos e l oc at ed near
runways/taxiways shall be sufficiently low to maintain clearance for propellers and

D
engine parts.

A
S C
Runway guard lights

78
 A D
S C

Taxiway lighting

79
5.Explain with neat sketches, about the Airport markings. (Apr/May 2015)
In order to identify and recognize various airport elements by a pilot certain
markings are made on the airport area in a simple manner. By these arrangements the
pilot should distinctly identify the landing area and the wind direction.
Runway markings: It consists of
 Runway centre-line m arking
 Runway threshold marking
 Runway end-strip marking
 Runway touchdown or landing zone marking
 Runway numbering
 Parallel runway m arking
 Runway shoulder marking

D
Runway centre-line marking
The centre-line of a runway is represented by a broken strip running along the full

A
length of a runway. The width of marking is 90 cm.

S C
R u n w a y m a r k i n gs
R u n w a y t h r e s h ol d m a r k i n g
It is indicated by a series of parallel lines commencing from a distance of 6 m
from the runway end. The markings are in the form of stripes 3.60 m wide and with a

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spacing of 0.90 m. The markings are placed symmetrically on either side of the runway
centre-line.
A displaced threshold is one which is moved a certain distance from the end of a
runway. In an airport with such a threshold the markings are made. Although such
displacement reduces the length of the runway for landing, such arrangement is made
to clear obstructions in the flight path.

A D
Runway threshold marking

C
Runway End-strip marking
Edges of a runway are normally marked. In case of runways with width

S
exceeding 45 m, the strip is made in the form of long continuous lines of 90 cm width
marked near the edges.
Runway Touch-down or Landing Zone
Runway touch-down markings identify the touch-down zone for landing
operations. The coded markings are in white colour which provides distinct information.
Touch-down markings consist of group of one, two and three rectangular strips
marked symmetrically about the centre line with their num ber decreasing gradually in
the direction of landing.
R u n w a y n u m be r i n g
End of each runway is marked with a number indicating the magnetic azim uth.
For exam ple east-end of an east-west runway would be marked 27(for 270°) and the
west end 9 (for 90°)

81
 Runway numbering
Runway shoulder marking
The shoulders on the edges of a runway and taxiway are paved. Although they
appear structurally strong, they are not capable of withstanding the aircraft loads.
Runway shoulder markings are used as a supplement to runway side strips.
Shoulder markings are generally needed to guide the pilots to identify the runway from
the shoulder.

runway side stripes and the pavement edge.

A D
The colour of runway shoulder marking is yellow and is located between the

These markings consist of stripes of 1 m width and spaces 30 m apart. The

mid-point.

S C
stripes are marked slanted at an angle of 45° to the centre line and start at the runway

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 A D
S C

83
 Runway shoulder markings
Taxiway markings:
(i)Taxiway centre line marking:
(a)Location: It is marked on paved taxiways with code numbers 3 or 4. If a taxiway is
straight, the marking should be located along taxiway centre line. If it is curved, the
marking should continue from straight portion of the taxiway at a constant distance from
outside edges of the curve. For taxiways with code Nos. 1 or 2, it is marked from centre
line of the runway to the point on aprons, where aircraft stands. Purpose of markings is
to provide guidance.
(b)Characteristics: W idth - 15cm
Length -continuous,expect where it is intersects a taxi-holding position
markings. This is shown in Fig

D
(ii)Taxiway-holding position marking:
(a)Application and Location: A taxi-holding position marking shall be displayed

A
along taxi-holding position.
(b)Character: Taxi-holding positions having two patterns.

C
• A single taxi-holding position at an intersectional taxiway and precision
approach category I, II or III of runway.

S
• Multi-taxi-holding positions at an intersection, of taxiways.
A single taxi-holding position is marked as indicated in pattern ‘A’ of Fig.8.42. In
case of multiple taxi-holding positions, the one closer to the runway is marked at
indicated in pattern A of the Fig. Other taxi-holding positions f arther away from the
runway are depicted in the pattern ‘B’ of Fig.
(iii)Taxiway intersection marking:
(a)Location and Application: It is marked at intersection of two paved taxiways.
Markings located across a taxiway at sufficient distance f rom the near edge of a an
intersecting taxiway. This is to ensure safe clearance between taxing aircrafts. It should
coincide with a stop bar or clearance bar.
(b)Characteristics: It shall consist of single broken line.
Taxiway intersection marking:

84
(a) Location and application: it is marked at intersections of two paved taxiways.
Markings are located across a taxiway at sufficient distance f rom the near edge
of a intersecting taxiway.
(b) Characteristics: consists of single broken line. Illustrated in the following figure.

A D
S C

Taxi way marking

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 U N I T V – H A R B O U R E N G I N E E RI N G
P ART - A
1. Distinguish between quay and pier. (Apr / May 2011)
Quays are artificial structures where vessels can land. Normally quays are parallel to
coast and they are made up of monolithic structures.
Piers are built out from a shore into sea where vessels are berthed either at the
head or along side. They exit at sea side resorts for use of visitors and for landing
and embarkation of passengers.

2. What is the necessity of docks? (Apr / May 2011)

In docks, repairing of vessels, cleaning and painting works at bottom are carried out.
The docks and docking arrangements should be such as to expose ship’s exterior

D
fully and keep it out of water during progress of repairs or renovation.

A
3. What do you understand about ‘littoral drift’? (Nov / Dec 2012)
As a result of wind effect the sand is carried in a zig zag form along the shore. Such

C
process of movement and deposition is complex. Such sand driff ing f orming at the
proximity of foreshores are called as littoral drift.

S
4. How will you orient the entrance of a harbour? (Nov / Dec 2012)
A harbour should be easily accessible which is based on the location. The entrance
of the harbour should be so designed such that it is easily negotiable during storms.
It also depends on f actors like density of traff ic, number of entrance available at a
harbour, navigational requirements and the degree of protection.

5. What is a breakwater? Name its types. (Apr / May 2015)

Breakwater is a structure constructed to reflect and dissipate the force of wind-
generated waves. The main function of a breakwater is to break the momentum of
water by means of wave breakers.
Types of breakwaters are:
 Mound or heap breakwater

86
  Mound with superstructure breakwater
 Vertical wall breakwater

6. Differentiate between ‘neap tide’ and ‘spring tide’. (May / Jun 2014)
At new moon or full moon or one or two days after, tides rise higher than the normal
height and fall lower than the normal and these tides are known as spring tides.
One or two days after the moon in its quarter, the tides rise and fall less than that at
other times and such tides are referred to as Neap tides.
The height of spring tides is generally 1.5 to 2 times as that of neap tides.

7. Distinguish between ‘tides’ and ‘waves’. (Nov / Dec 2014)

The gravitational forces between earth and other celestial bodies like sun and which

D
in turn cause periodical variations in the level of water surface is called as tides.
W aves are produced by joint action of wind and water. It has tremendous damaging

A
power as the harbour barriers. The storm waves take place in the open sea due to
the action of wind.

Dredging has to be done periodically for the reasons below:

(i)
C
8. Why is dredging so essential in port operations? (Nov / Dec 2014)

S
During the construction of structure in a harbour complex, the wastes and
other construction rubbish gets deposited in the bed. Thus to maintain design
depth the excess material has to be removed.
(ii) The depth of water required has to be decided before finalizing a harbour site.
(iii) W aves and tides have a tendency depositing sand and silt which has to be
removed periodically by dredging.

9. What are the types of harbour? (Apr / May 2015)

(i) Based on protection needed:
( a ) N a t u r a l ( b ) S e m i - Na t u r a l ( c ) A r t i f i c a l
(ii) Based on the Utility:
(a) Harbour of refuge (b) Commercial (c) Fishery

87
 (d) Military (e) Marina
(iii) Based on Location:
(a) Canal (b) Lake (c) River (d) Sea

10. How to decide the entrance of the harbour?(NOV / DEC 2012)

A harbour should be Easily accessible which is based on the location. The
entrance of harbour should be designed Such that it is easily negotiate during the
Storms. The entrance is generally placed of the sea such that the effect of rough sea is
minimum.

A D
S C

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 PA R T B
1.Classify harbours on broad basis and on the basis of utility and explain them.
(Apr/May 2011, May/June 2012)
Primary classification

Primarily, harbours can be classified under three categories

1. Natural or land locked harbours

2. Protected harbours
3. Artificial harbours

(i)Natural or land blocked harbours: Natural harbours are formed entirely by inlets
from sea. They m ay also be constituted by headlands or projecting parts of a coast
converging towards each other. They have narrow entrances laeding to a sheltered area
of water. They may be of coral reefs, along coast line or a series of islands forming
lagoons with gaps in coral reef. Natural harbours do not require protective or formative

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works. Ex. Sydney,Melbourne,Baltimore,Bombay,kandla.

The estuary of a large river may also f orm natural type of harbours. These may or

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may not be near sea. Some are as much as 50 – 70 km, inland. Entrance at the mouth
of a river, if narrow, may require protection against heavy seas and shoaling by
construction of break waters. Occasionally considerable amount of dredging and training

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works may be needed to keep m ain navigation channel navigable in all states of tides.
E x . n e wy o r k , L o n d o n , L i v e r p o o l .

(ii)Protectedharbours: Protected harbours are partly natural and partly artif icial. They
are formed primarily in bays or such position in coast line. Artificial construction of break
waters or entrance moles may supplement existing natural features. They give
protection from wave action to vessels, using or entering harbours. Fig shows the
concept of protected harbour

Typical example: Cape town, Vishakhapatnam.

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 Na t u r a l Ha r b o u r

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P r ot e c t e d H a r bo u r

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Artificial Harbour

(iii)Artificial harbours: Artificial harbours have to be created where there are little or no
pronounced natural features. Breakwaters are constructed on an almost open coast line.
Fig shows artificial harbours. Ex. Madras

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Sub-divisional classification

The following are subdivisional classification of harbours.

• Ro a d s t e a d
• Ha r b o u r s o f r e f u g e
• Naval harbours and bases
• Commercial harbours associated with ports and
• Fishing harbours

(i)Roadstead: These are tracts of water. They may or may not be necessarily
enclosed.It may be adjacent to a coastline.Roadstead offer may good holding ground for
anchors and protected vessels from heavy seas.Roadstead may be either natural or
artificial. In case of natural roadstead, a deep channel exists seaward to possess the
necessary characteristics. An artificial roadstead may be created on sim ilar lines by a
break water either parallel to coast or curvilinear. Fig shows a typicalroadstead

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Roadstead

(ii)Harbour of refuge: Their principal duty is to provide a refuge during cyclones or

when vessels are under disrepair. However, they are not many such harbours in
existence. Those originally constructed for this purpose are associated with other port
and harbour facilities. The best location for their construction is at readily accessible
stations upon dangerous coast. Even in harbours provided with breakwaters, there is an
element of risk in a heavy gale. Under certain conditions at such harbours, vessels in

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good trim are advised to leave their moorings and put to sea on approach of a hurricane.
At madras, for instance, commanders are recommended by port authority to put out to
sea as soon as the “Great Danger” signal is exhibited on port flagstaff. Madras is
primarily a commercial harbour, and is not a harbour of refuge.

(iii)Naval harbours and bases: During emergency, every, type of harbour ranging from
roadsted with minimum facilities to one possessing facilities for re f uelling and repairs,
with dockyard, workshops and warehouses may be used as a naval base. The basic
features of design of naval bases are similar to the design of any other type of harbour.

(iv)Commercial harbour: They constitute great termini of highways of sea. Commercial

harbours provide accommodation for vessels for loading and unloading operations and
transaction of trade.

(a) In addition to fundamental needs of accessibility and accommodation, special

requirements are quays and sheds, inner facilities and

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mouth of rivers or on banks of rivers some distance land.
(b) They require more shelter than that is required for simple purpose of refuge. It is

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an indispensable requirements to conditions of modern trade that there should be least
possible delay in reception and dispatch of vessels.
(c ) Shelter

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afforded by a breakwater is insufficient for loading and unloading
operations. In such cases, simple moles are built out into sea with level quay and

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covered sheds for reception of vessels. It will be necessary to provide an enclosure
practically complete with an inner harbour for commercial purpose.

(v)Fishing harbours: Underlying factor in the design of f ishing harbours is f isherman

require maximum time for fishing with minimum delay in despatching f ishes in view of
perishable nature of fishes.

(a) Entrance: While not study wide, must not be made too narrow.

Fishing craft beam: 6-8 meters

Allowance should be made for atleast three or f our or even more Vessels entering
abreast.

Therefire entrance width: 50 to 100 meters

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 (b) Size: 4 to 40 hect. However, much depend upon the size and number of vessels

(c)Depth below low water level: Three to five metres

(d) E q u i p m e n t s req u i re d :

• Cold storage facilities

• Broad open quays with a large hall/market for storing, selling, packing and
dispatching.
• A mass rapid transit service and a railway sidings near quay.
• Cranes, conveyors, transporters and shoots.
• Fish processing centres
• Canning factories.

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2.Classify different types of break water. Explain any one in brief. (Apr/May 2011)
or Write a detailed note on break waters. (May/June 2014).

Breakwaters

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Breakwater is the most important as also the most prominent feature in connection
with artificially sheltered harbour. As the name itself implies, its function is to break
up and disperse heavy seas. It prevents waves from exerting their destructive
influence within enclosed area of the harbour.
(i)Methods of Reducing Wave Motion
Two methods are used in practice for destroying waves or reducing their size.
(a). If a wall of sufficient height and strength is constructed waves will be totally
reflected. If it is in shallow water, waves are partially destroyed by wave breaking.
Reversal of waves in com paratively short time and their breaking causes great
forces to be developed .Therefore, breakwater must be substantially strong.
(b). If waves are m ade to run up along sloping beach, their energy is absorbed
gravitationally.A breakwater in order to destroy waves completely in very deep
water, m ay be impracticable. Practically all breakwaters fall within limits of above
two methods of reducing wave action

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(ii)Classification of Breakwaters
The Breakwater are of three types.
(a). W all of masonry or concrete blocks or mass concrete,
(b). Mound of rubble stone, and
(c). Subsidiary classes of breakwaters
W all type mainly involves construction, in a regular and systematic manner of a
vertical wall. Mound of rubble stone is a heterogeneous assembly of natural rubble
or undressed stones. Stones may be of varying sizes and are supplemented in
many cases by artificial blocks. They are deposited in pell-mell, without bonding or
bedding.
The subsidiary classes of breakwaters form a c ombination of wall and mound in
varying proportions. Sometimes mound may be in larger proportions with a

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superstructure of regular masonry. In other cases, mound may be to minimum,
while wall may be for substantial proportions.

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Ty p e s of B r e a k w a t e r s

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 (iii)Advantages and Disadvantages of Three Types of Breakwaters
(a) Cost of construction
Cost of construction depends upon locality of breakwater and its coastal
environment. If a locality is closer to quarries, rubble mound will be chapter. In
absence of such essential conditions, wall breakwater will be found preferable.
If sea – bottom lies at a great depth , wall breakwater becomes impracticable.
On an average it is assessed composite breakwater com bining a f oundation
mound with an upper wall is half the cost of an equivalent upright wall.

(b) Comparative cost of maintenance

Wall type, if properly constructed needs no maintenance of mound
breakwaters necessitates a constant replenishment of materials. Thus

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comparative cost of maintenance of mound type is higher.
(c) Efficiency

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Efficiency of a type is of greatest importance than cost of construction and
maintenance. A wall with its exposed f ace vertical, receives wave before any

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conversion from oscillation to translation take place. The wave is def lected
upwards by the wall type and prevents its destructive influence upon

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foundation.
On rubble mound waves deliver powerful effect and also affect area
enclosed by harbour. This action will be more evident as stones or blocks are
of greater size. Composite breakwaters are irregular settlements. From the
above remarks, no absolute preference could be attached for any specific type
of breakwater from efficiency point of view.

3.Distinguish between w et docks and dry docks. Describe the operation of the
various dry docks with sketches. (Nov/Dec 2014)
D oc k s
Definition and classfication
Docks are a completely enclosed place by gates or otherwise. It is therfore not
continuously in free or open communication with an outer waterway. Principal functions

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of docks are execution if repairs, cleaning and paiting of ship’s, bottom. Hence, these
docks and docking arrangements should be such be expose ship’s exterior fully and
keep it out of water durong progress of repair of renovation.
Graving are dry dock
the graving dock is also known as dry dock.it is along excavatir chamber having side
walls, a semi circular end wall and a floor. The open end of the chamber is provided with
a gate and acts as entrance to lock. Side walls are formed with a series of steps known
as alter courses to receive end of the shores which supports vessels in a vertical
position while being dry docked. Dock is constructed of concrete or masonry and altar
courses and steps are of granite to withstand heavy wear. Suitable culverts are also
provided for filling and emtying docks.
Dock floor is finished in concrete and is very heavy. On the floor are fixed keel and

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blocks on which ship is brought to rest on emptying of block. Floor has a cross fall to tide
draining to carry away all wash water. Drains are protucted with proper gratings on top

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to exclude solids and scrapping carried by the wash while cleaning ship’s bottom. Other
accessories includes big caoacity pumps, lif ting and hoisting machines, and repair

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equipments. All these are suitably fused on top or inside of side walls.
Methods of dry docking:

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A ship enters the dock on adjusting the water level inside the to that at outside. Then,
emntrance gate is closed. Subsequently, powerful pumps and pump out water and ship
is lowered on to the keel. Fig. presents a dry dock.

Dry-dock
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Floating dry dock
Floating dry dock may be defined as a floating vessel. This can lift a ship out of
water by means of its own buoyancy. It is a hollow structure of steel or concrete
consisting of two side walls and a floor with end side open. To receive a ship, the
structure is sunk to required depth by filling its interior chambers with water. The ship by
pumping out water from chamber.

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We t d o ck
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Floating-dock (Rigid type floating dock)

W et docks are required to ensure minimum required depth of water for vessels.for
this purpose, dock system requires entance locks with massive gates. These locks are
o p e r a t e d b y ma c h i n e r y .
If rise and fall of tidal level is generally considerable raising up to 15m between
high and low water , gates have to be provided to impound water between successive
periods of high and low water. This impounding of the water to maintain level naturally
involves separation of dock from the outer water way, unless levels of outer and inner
waters coincide. Such isolation in any commercial port is difficult and is done by locking
arrangements.

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 We t D o ck
The advatages of having a wet dock for berthing are given below
•
•
•
A uniform level of water is maintained
Rubbing of ship against quay wall is avoided

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Disturbance in open sea do not have any effect on the working of the dock
system

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W hen a vessel is to be brought inside, the lock remains closed and lock L1 is
opened so that levels of water in (1) and (2) are th same and the vessels is
brought to th position2. W ater is pumped in so that the level in 2 and 3 are the
same. Gate L2 is opened and the vessels is towed to A or B or C or D as
req ui r e d.
Comparison of floating dock and dry dock
Floating dock is a dock structure, which f loats. It is generally constructed as a
series of pontoons or which can be emptied to provide necessary degree of floatation.

Comparison of floating dock and dry dock

Dry dock Floating dock
More permanent (industructible) Life limited
Larger and high construction cost immobile Moveable from one part to another

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 Floating necessitates a sound natural foundation at a reasonable depth and
disposition of site which frequently involves appropriation of a considerable area of land.
It also requires a sheltered position withn an adequate depth of water which if not
obtainable by nature will have to be arranged by gaining.

4.Define a port and bring out the differences between a port and a harbour. What
are the requirements of a good port? (Apr/May 2011, Nov/Dec 2014) (8 marks)
Ha r b o u r
Harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which sea-based
vessels can be launched, built or taken for repair. It also provides shelter in the time of
storm and as a platform for loading and unloading of cargo and passengers.
Port

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Port is a harbour where terminal facilities such as stores, landing of passengers
and cargo, etc are added to it. A port including everything on the landward side such as

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piers, ships, wharves, sheds, tracks, handling equipment, etc. A port includes a harbour
or every port is a harbour but reverse is not applicable.

Requirements of a good port

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For an efficient functioning a port should have all these facilities:
i. Hinterland is that part of land to be served by a port. Thus a port should be
located near to hinterland to serve the area with economy and efficiency.
ii. Get more tonnage of cargo
iii. Have adequate communication facilities
iv. Should be a place of defence to resist the sea-borne invasion
v. A f f o r d s h e l t e r a t a ll s e a s o n s
vi. Provide the maximum facilities to all visiting ships including the servicing of ships.
vii. Capable for easy, smooth and economic development
viii. Co m m a n d v a l u a b l e a n d e x t e n s i v e t r a d e
ix. Have advanced culture, trade and industries
x. Should be popular

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5.Write short notes on

(i) Wharves

(ii) Jetties

(iii) Quays

(iv) Spring fenders

( v ) D ol p h i ns (N o v / D e c 2 0 1 2 )

W ha r v e s
W harves are wide stone walls built along edge or out into sea or river, where
ships can be tied up to unload goods. W harf is a structure for berthing purpose, distinct
from quay. It is constructed piles and framing instead of solid masonry or concrete.
Both wharves and quays are provided with adjacent space for receiving and loading of
cargo.

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Wharf

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Jetties
The term jetties denote projecting structures built out into deep water from
shore. These are different from wharves, quays, which are built along banks.
Structures in harbours, which perf orm duties of loading and unloading perf orms with
breakwater, are also termed as jetties.
Types of jetties
• P il e d o r o p e n
 Timber
 Steel
 R.C.C ( can classif ied two types)
 Open
 Pilled cylinder

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• S o li d t y p e

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Typical timber jetty
(v)Material:
Piles may be of timber, steel or reinforced concrete. Steel jetties are supported on
screw materials. The main advantage of timber jetty is rapidity of construction and
advantage in cost. Owing to greater resilience of material , timber jetties cost of repairs
is nearly same as that of concrete structures. Repairs to timber jetties can be m ore
quickly carried out.

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(vi)Transverse beams:
Transverse deck beams are constructed and connected to top piles. Rcc decking is
constructed. In open piled type, usually 35cm*35cm or 40cm*40cm piles are used.
These piles are braced by Rcc bracings which may be pre-cast or cast in situ. In case
of underwater bracings they are invariably pre cast type. After driving , tops of piles
are either cutoff or lengthened as the case may be.
(vii) Piles and cylinder jetties:
Piles are encased in concrete cylinders. W eight of the structure is carried by piles and
RCC cylinders only act as containers. W hen cylinders have attained required depth
1.2to 1.3m below bottom, piles are driven through them. Cylinders are filled up with
concrete. This filling concrete may be plain or slightly reinforced.
(viii)Screw cylinders in jetties:

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In case of soft ground such as silky strata, screw cylinders are adopted to carry the
required load. It is found that immediately after screwing, some subsidence takes

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place. However, after leaving the beam for several months, ground gets consolidated
and settlement becomes negligible. The beams are articulated to allow for non-uniform

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initial settlement of cylinders .

Screw cylinders in jetty

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Q u ays
Platforms or landing places are necessary for ships to come close enough
to the shore, for purposes of embarkation, disembarkation etc., at the same time.
These platform locations should give sufficient depth of water for the ship to
float. Such platforms are called W harves. They are built out into or on to the water.
W harves along and parallel to the shore are generally called Quays and their protection
walls are called quay walls.

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Spring Fenders
S CQuay wall

(i)Introduction
Fenders are objects such as a mass of rope, an old tyre and lump of wood that hangs
over the side of a boat to protect it from damage by other boats or when coming to
land. At majority of jetties, piers and wharves, berth for larger vessels will usually be
well def ined. However , provision must be made for vessels of various types and
sizes. Therefore, for fending system to be one hundred per cent effective , it should be
continuous along entire length of the structures and should extend f rom deck level to
l o w wa t e r l e v e l .
In relatively still waters of a dock system or enclosed or sheltered harbours, no
great damage to structures normally occurs. However, harbour structures in open sea,

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and in open estuaries require special precautions. Therefore, fending of such
structures against damage from impact of large vessels is critical.
Many of R.C jetties and wharves are elaborately covered with timber fender work,
bolted to structure. In all such cases, such timber work is only useful in preventing
concrete from being damaged locally and is not very effective from an impact –
absorbing point of view. There are three general ways in which efficient impact fending
can be provided.
(a) By separate timber dolphin and intermediate timber work quite independent of
structure.
(b) By the same m eans with some form of resilient buffer interposed between the
tops of dolphin and structure. Such buffer may be of coil or rubber or steel
springs or hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders and pistons,

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(c) In ‘f ulcurum’ fender system, fenders are suspended in such a manner that the
force required to push them out of their original stable position is sufficient to

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bring a vessel to rest by absorbing kinetic energy of the latter.
(ii)Different ways of fending

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(a) Simple fending:
Simple fenders of separate piles are driven in front of structures , with system s

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of walling and verticals. This ensures safety of barges and lighters .however, in
many cases, timber fenders walling and verticals are bolted direct to structures.
In such cases berthing of vessels is comparatively easy. It is inefficient for
berthing of vessels of 10,000 tons and upwards. Damage are of frequent
occurrence.
(b) Spring fenders:
Spring f enders are more appropriate in open or tidal waters. It provides
for absorbtion of K.E and for limiting travel of vessels after impact.
The spring fender shown was designed for an approach speed of
46cm/sec or approximately one knot. The fenders were of pyinkado cased in
steel and hinged at the bottom to brackets on the main pile of the timber jetty.
Three sets of spring were used. Each pair requires a load of 30 tons for full

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 compression with a stroke of 18 cm, the maximum resistance of each fender
being thus 90 tons.

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S p r i n g f e n de r s
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Dolphins

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Dolphins are m arine structures which are used in connection with piers and
wharves to reduce the length of these structures. They are used for tying up ships and
also for transferring cargo from one ship to another when moved along both sides of
dolphins. Dolphins are classified as
(i) Breasting dolphins
(ii) Mooring dolphins
Breasting dolphins
This type of dolphins is designed to take the im pact of ship while docking and to
hold the ship against a broad side wind. They are provided with fenders to absorb the
impact of the ship and to protect the dolphin and the ship from damage.
Mooring dolphins: Such a type of dolphins is the additional ones which are provided to
hold the ship against a broadside wind blowing in a direction away from the dock. As
these dolphins are away from the face of the dock they are not designed for the impact
of the ship.

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6.Explain about the dredging equipment with neat sketch. (May/June 2013)
Dredging methods
In order to maintain the required level of water in a harbour the external materials
deposited in the bed has to be renewed f rom time to time. This operation of removal of
materials from the sea or river bed is called dredging and the mechanical equipment
used is called as dredgers.
Types of dredgers
 Bucket or Ladder Dredgers
 Hydraulic or Cutter Dredgers
 Grab Dredger
 Dipper Dredger
 Rock Dredger

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 Hopper Dredger
Bucket or Ladder Dredgers

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This consists of a chain of buckets fixed to a continuous elevator belting. It
comprises of (i) cable arrangement for lowering or raising the ladder

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(ii) wheel for manually or mechanically operating the chain of buckets
(iii) containers for receiving the dredged material.

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The dredged material is collected in the receivers and disposed off as required.

Bucket or Ladder Dredgers

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Hydraulic or Cutter Dredgers
A hydraulic dredger has two fold arrangement, viz, operation of dredging and
transporting the dredging material to the disposal site through discharging pipe. In case
of loose materials there is no need for dredging but the material is removed by suction.
Hard materials like stiff clay or dense sand, a rotating cutter is used at the end of the
suction pipe.

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Hydraulic or Cutter Dredgers

G r a b Dr e d g e r
This type of dredger consists of a ‘grab’ which is suspended by a cable. The grab
is extended by operating the boom of a crane. Steam diesel or electric power is used for
operating the grab cranes. The dredgers may have from one to four grab cranes
mounted on the dredger. Special cutting teeth are provided with the grabs for cutting
hard rocks. In order to remove cut rockey materials the grab attachment is replaced by
p o l y -grab .

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 Grab Dredger

Effect of waves on coastal structures

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7.Discuss the effect of waves on coastal structures. (R 2013)

The pattern of deposition or erosion depends up on the shape of coastal

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structures. The general shape of the coastal structures is straight pier, returned pier and
double pier. Deposition or erosion may destabilise coastal structures. Therefore, it is

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important to study the correlation between the form of the coastal structures and the
pattern of deposition or erosion.
Most harbours face problems of erosion and deposition due to littoral drift.
Structural improvements involve construction and extension of coastal structures such
as breakwaters and groins. While designing coastal structures following aspects have to
be considered.
(a) Functions of structures
(b) Physical environment
(c) Construction method
(d) Cooperation and maintenance
Straight pier
It is assumed that a dominant current flows parallel to coastline from right to left.
The prevailing wind makes an oblique angle so as to give a component in the same

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 Straight pier
direction. This is brought about by construction of harbour works of typical kinds.
Straight pier or breakwater at right angles to coastline induces an accum ulation along
each of its sides. It is illustrated in the figure which states the shape and orientation of
the coastal structures decide its impact on coast.

Re t u r n e d p i e r
The returned pier serves to increase leeward deposit. This is because of circular

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motion of the water round the pier-head. The slacker water inside tends to deposit
suspended material. The figure denotes present pattern of silting and erosion on coastal

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structures in the shape of returned pier.

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Returned pier
D o u bl e pi e r
Same effect as that of the returned pier is seen with double pier. The accretion is
more emphasised because of additional extent of stagnant area. Madras harbour bears
evidence to this pattern. The entrance of Madras harbour was slowly but surely silted up
and therefore a new entrance was to be provided in a different position. The f igure
indicates the tendancy of accretion and erosion in double piers.

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8.List out the activities prohibited within CRZ. (R 2013)

Ministry of Environment and Forests (Department of Environment, Forests and

W ildlife), Govt. of India, issued Coastal Regulation Zone 2011 notification in January
2011.
This notification was issued by the central government with a view to ensure
livelihood security to f isher communities and other local communities, to conserve and
protect coastal stretches, its unique environment and to promote development through
sustainable manner.
Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) refers to stretches along coasts, where certain
rules are enforced to any development on land or building. Construction activities in
these areas are governed by a set of regulations.

Activities prohibited in CRZ

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Notifications issued by Ministry of Environment and Forests imposes certain
restrictions on industrial, operations and processes in the CRZ are as follows,

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(i) Land area f rom the High Tide Line (HTL) to 500 m on the landward side along
the sea front. It refers to the line on the land up to which the highest water line

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reaches during the spring tide and shall be demarcated unif ormly in all parts of
the country.
(ii) Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries.
(iii) Manufacture or handling oil storage or disposal of hazardous substances.
(iv) Setting up and expansion of f ish processing units including warehousing except
hatchery and natural fish drying in permitted areas.
(v ) Land reclamation, bunding or disturbing the natural course of sea water.
(vi) Setting up and expansion of units or mechanism of disposal of wastes and
effluents except where it is permitted under W ater act 1974.
(vii) Dumping of solid waste for purpose of land filling or otherwise or ash or any other
waste from thermal power stations.
(viii) Reclamation for commercial purposes such as dropping and housing complexes,
hotels and entertainment activities.

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(ix) Mining of sand, rocks and other substrata materials.
(x ) Drawal of groundwater and construction related thereto, within 200 m of HTL.
(xi) Dressing or altering the sand dunes, hills, natural features including landscape
change for beautification, recreation and other such purposes.

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S C

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