7.4.1. Compound Statement «A. statement which is formed from primary statements by using logical connectives is called compound statement. eg. If p: 1am studying in SE computer class q: Lam leaming discrete structure subject +The compound statement is «1 am studying in SE computer class and 1am learning discrete structure subject 7.4.2 Truth Table +A table showing the truth value of a statement formula is called truth table. 7.4.3 Negation «Let p be any simple statement, then the negation of p is formed by writing “It is false that” before p or introducing the word “not” at the proper place. The negation of p is also obtained by writing "p is false” The negation of p is denoted by - p or - p or p If the statement p is true, then ~ p is false and if p is false then - p is true. + The truth table for negation of p is given below ° -P F ¥ T Examples : Sr. Ng, Statement p “? 1 P finer a ‘Atharva is not intelligent or 1s falbe that Atharva is intelligent boy 2p: Delhiisthe —~ p: Delhi is not the Ei Debl via gg beth i not the capita of oR Tis false that Dethi is the capital of India oR It is not the case the capa of nie OF Technical Publications Note : ~ p is the unary connective as only o, statement is required to form negation. * A compount , combining two primary statements by using , connective “and” is called conjunction ie. conjunction of two statements p and q is gy statement pag. It is read as "p and q° oF "P me q. . statement pq has the truth value T wheneye, both p and q have the truth value T, otherwise p has the truth value F + I's tabular representation is as follows P 4q paq T T T T F F F 1 F F r F Ex7.41: Sr. oP 4 Conjunction P8 135207) Sivprime (7) 3.> 2 and 5 in prime, | 2, Dells is im India 3 + 30 = 3O(F) Dethi is im India and) F (ry 3430230 3. Construct a truth table for the conjunction of n< Wand n>5,neN Sol.: When n < 20 and n > 5 are true then the conjunetion “n < 20 and n > 5° is true. ‘The truth table is as follows ; pines gas ogins mm Tine ts) Tin= 15) Tescpem Tin=2) Fin=a) Fen Fin=30) Tin =30) Feen> 20) Bit 80) F— —_F (There does not ext number a. n > 20 and 0 <5 Propositional Calculus (O58‘Pay follows © % Pp a pvq rT OT ¢ t F T P tT Of F F F 742: D If p: The data is wrong, q : There is an error in the program, Then pv q: The data is wrong or there is an error in the program. ~ The connective \" is used in the inclusive sense i.e. at least one possibility exists or even both possibilities exist. a 3 ri |. moO 4 Disjunction 889 | % 1b berg) 54304) Soler Ftopaule Fred bahee fe) ne 2 Dehiisin 53-10(F) Dehiisin TE tia (7) ine or tr) the 5.3 = 10 3 63s # ga303 Thepanty | ST) 5 prime NTS i prime ae tr) | 3) Construct a truth table for disjunction of p: nis prime, q: n> 10 for ne N. Sol. : The truth table for py qs as follows Penis puqin ts prime orn > 10 rie gi m> 10 They Tussin — Teenels> 10ers #Pm ” Times) FG <10) Tenstegee?: Fineiay Te2> 10 Tene 2? 10) 1 =6) F<) (Both p and sare Sas®) "T Teekna Publentions 7.4.6 Conditional Statement (If ..... then ..--) +I p and q are two statements, then the statement Pq which is read as "if p then q” is called as conditional staternent + The conditional statement p—»q can also be read as 8) ponly if qi) p implies q 18) q if p iv) p is sufficient for 4 The statement p is called the hypothesis or antecedent and gis called conclusion of consequent If p is true and q is false then psa is false Otherwise p 4 Is true. + The truth table of pra is as follows pa wnlea 4 T 12g e oF 7 eo Examples : 1) Let ps Atharva is a graduate qiat5-8 pq: If Atharva is a graduate then 3 +5=8 «Let N be the set of natural numbers and Q be the set of rational numbers, We know that every natural number is a rational number. Let pi nis a natural number qi nis 9 rational mamber taeN qincQ prq:ifneNthenneQ Tea=2 The Te m= 2 cational) th"). F Oonpostbe) P¢-Every narral rumble tational) afre}) 7380) etter etn F(n=v2) F(V2eQ) T (y Sumber which is L neither natural nor rational) Note: If p then q ponly if q qifp p is sufficient for 4 q is necessary for P Propositional Calculus (OSL‘Above all are equivalent to p—4 7.4.7 Biconditional (If and only if) + If p and q are two statements, then the compound statement ‘p if and only if q° is called @ bicanditional statement. It is denoted by P — or P “4 «The biconditional statement is also read as #"p if and only if q° or ‘p iff q” or “p implies and implied by q” or “p is necessary and sufficient for q If p and q have the same truth value then peg is true. In other cases pe qis false peg and (p-+q)4(q — p) are equivalent. Examples 1 Letpsx=4 qixtonld peq:x © 4 ifand only if y 5+6 11 if x+9"13 46-17 3) We know that an integer n is an even iff n is 2 7.4.8 Special Propositions If pq is a conditional statement, then i) q—>p is called its converse statement. ii) ~p+-4 is called its inverse statement. fii) -q>~p is called its contrapositive statement ‘The truth table of these propositions are as follows —— Fx7.43 : Let p denote the statement, “The mater,| is interesting’. q denote the statemen, “The exercises are challenging’, and; denote the statement, “The coume b enjoyable”. | Write the following statements symbolic form : 1) The material is interesting and exercise {ii) Either the material is interesting or th ‘exercises are not challenging but not both iv) If the material is not interesting = | exercises are not challenging then th course is not enjoyable. v) The material is uninteresting exercises are not challenging and course is not enjoyable. Sol. : i) pana i) PaQaqsp) ii) p@-q WW) (para)oer Vv) =panqa-r “6 ‘Propositional Calculu> oseitional form: Ose ran, 7 GOMMS Am the sky but fy wel a ae eo a enn Se Seep but softwares are Cec ps tt v) In small restaurants the and service is poor, vi) If I finish my submission before 5.00 in the evening and it is not very hot I will go and play a game of hockey. food is good sh |) p There are many clouds in the sky qoltrain pag Wp: Twill get first class q: 1 study well 1: Score above 80 in mathematics point) p: Computers are cheap _ q: Softwares are costly pra p It is very hot q: It is very humid 1: Ramesh is having heart problem (rgve ln small restaurant food in good q: Service is poor Pag P: [ Ginsh my submission before 520 Pm q: It is very hot 1: Twill go 5: Lwill play a game of hockey © a~q—tras) i n) ¥i) Express the cantrapositive, Convers wnt inverse forms of the following if 3-t ie. (-py~q)-r ie if3 2 bor 14102 then sing #3 conditional statement given below. If x is rational, then x ia real’, Sol. : Let p: xis rational q: is real Symbolic form : pq ¢ Contrapositive : (~q-+~p) [Ue x is not.real, then x is not gational Converse | (4p) If x is real then x is rational Inverse : (= p= q) Ix is not rational, then x is not Negation : ~(p 4) =-(pv~a) aa parnq =-pag 4 ‘Propositional Caleuus (DST)Ex7.47: Express this statement using quantifiers “every student in this class has taken some course in every department in the school of mathematical sciences. Sol. : Let P(x) © Student of class Q(y. 2) Courses fram department vx P(x) av zQty 2) Ex74S: Let A= (1, 2 3 4 5} write following statements in proper english and determine the truth value cA ede 10) A) (e310) i) (Sve Ab ee 3 <5) i (rae A) e357) Sal. @ Let P (x) According to the given condition, there exists belongs to A tor which P (x) 1s true. i) Let P (x) x = 3 < 10 According to the given condition. * For all x im AP (x) ts trae This statement is true Gi) Let Pid a 8S According to the given condition * ‘A, such that P (x) o true” there exists x in This statement is true if we put x= 1 Gv) Let Pox) 327 According to the gaven condition “Far all x in Aw(123,4.5). PO) is tue As x= 5 = 503 86746 impamible This statement is (aloe 1 The converse of # statement ib “If « steel rod is streched then it has been heated. Write the inverse of the statement, i Sol. : The orginal statement is" If steel rod has been heated then it is stretched Le p+ 4 It's inverse is = P ~*~ 9 PF retrial Pattersons ie If steel rod has been not heated then it is yy stretched Propositional or Statement Formula (Well Defined Fornmla) A statement formuld contains one or more simp, statements and some logical connectives. +A. statement formula is a string consisting variables, parentheses and logical connect, symbols, ‘It is called a well formed if it can be generated by the following rules i) A statement variable p standing alone is a wa formed formula ii) If p is well formed formula then ~ p is also wel formed formula, iit) If p and q are well formed formulas then pg, pyq. pq org —p and pe+g are well formed formulas. iv) A string of symbols is well formed formula dt it is obtained by finitely many applications of rules (), i) and iif) A statement formula is not a statement and has 1 truth values. But if put definite statements in place of variables in a given formula we get a statement: Its truth value depends upon the truth values of variables 7.6 | Tautology +A statement formula that is true for all possible values of it's propositional variables, is called + Tautalogy 6g. py pis. a tautology [7.7 | contradiction +A statement formula that is always false for all possible values of variables is called a contradiction or absurdity, Example: pn ~ pis a contradiction Propositional Calculus (DSSjn782; Prove that {a Lat ws construct truth table for the statement ~(p v ~p) ee ea | JZ a 2 * bot as pe -p is always true. Hence pv ~p is a tautology and ~(pv ~p) is always false. Hence -(pv-p) is # contradiction. Show that p» ~ pis a contradiction and ~(»» ~ p) is tautology. po-P OPANP -(A-P) T F F t T t T | As pap is always false. Hence p~ tautology, S784: Determine contingency. D (paga-(py) i) (pa ghee qv -P) Ait) (pg Mp) i pg Gomyon )aipom) Sal. : i) Consider the truth table ra (papa=tpvad oT, ' F F ror F 1 F ' por F 1 F F oF Ff F t r 78 roportioral Calais (OSA TP ectmcas pubentonsHence (pq) ~(pv 4) is a contradiction 1 Hence {(p+(q +0) + [(p 74) +(p + 1)] is a tautology. iv) Consider the truth table Hence given statement formula is a tautology. Ex785: Show that (p—9)-9-»~ ps « tautology without using truth table. Sol. : We know that p—+q is true if p is true and q is also true. ". We need only to show that pq and ~ q both are true imply - p is true. AAs the truth value of — q is T, the truth value of q is F. And as p—+q is true, this (. F + F is true) Pq is true, this means that p is false The truth value of p is T. Hence the proof. OF tecnica Publications -e omGM At aapvn ‘Propositional Caiculus (DS&TL 7a Prove by truth table P+ (Qv R)=(P — Q)v (P+ Rh + Consider the truth table Hence given statement formula is a tautology. 7.87: ‘Sol. ‘From truth table P-+(QvR) = (P>Qv(P>R) NP Tecteseal PublicationsE78 : Prove that the proposition. (ipv ~ q)) 4(- py ~ qv a is « tautology: ‘Sol. ; Consider truth table a ca T in F tee = F r T T ge Te sie > F T F = . 7 ¥ r z T Since all entries in the last column are T's. Hence the given statement is a tautology: Ex789: Wp the formula tautology? p> (PA ~ PD Sol. : Consider truth table Pp cy ap pata p) p> PA Pp» rf T ir T T } T F v T T FE T = F T F FE T F T Since all entries in the last column are true, Hence the given statement iS 2 tautology Ex7ai0 Prove by truth table that the following statement is tautology. (pm > Sol. : Consider the truth table ~ro=p) ) | par an Apetqan - - Beep AoB mes T T F F T T TTE F F T F F T | TET E F F F t fe | TRF F F T F P t FTT T F F tT t t FTF F T T t t : FET F T F ° * : RFE F T T ¢ 1 : . Since all entries ofthe las column are true Hence the given statement is a tautology. E7811 :Determine whether the following proposition is contradiction or tautology (pv gale ~ DA PY DAC PY =a) Sol. : Consider truth table OT tectvcal Puiiations 7-2 Propeblonal Cash (5+ee pres Is (py (PH Alg r= 7, tautolon oc font tautol oa sCansider truth table logy or contradiction ? foe Pq ope A 8 Praapan gave AaB AsBoP | ort T * Z T T T : TE ? 7 i gr BR T EES t z Tt T T 1 ex : F T F — Ea.) FIT Tv FIFE : : : ~~ hea T t T F F Tos EFT F i F x: F T la F v F T F r sal entries of the last column are true, Hence the given statement is tautology BIA: Gas whether the argument gven below is val or not ft ie walls ety he non? wand | will become famous or I will be a weiter. I will not be « writer, 1 will become famous Sol. : Let p : 1 will became famous, 4° | will be a writer. The argument is (pv q)A(- 4)? P Consider truth table . i a pra vaacah ovadataar : T r T & - T = ¥ T - 1 T 7 t f z F T ; F T ba F T tavement bs @ tautology. Hence itis valid. Asal Cf true, so given entries of the last column are —————__— is valid. baa, she vale of pont syn po" aor por 8 propostional Calcus (OSATL I ectaa aa ee aa | | ‘As all entries in the last column are true. Hence the given statement is valid. ‘Ex78.15: Construct truth tables for the following forms (i) (p—9)—> P+ (i) po@ya Tie: ‘Sol. : The truth table for the given compound statement is as follows (ii) The truth table for the given compound statement is as follows : 4 ni % eo. a i F e <jsthe columns P—+Q and ~Q—+—-P are same so they re quivalent. iy U the triangle is equivalent, then it is equiangular ie P4Q is contrapositive is if a triangle is no equiangular then it is not equilateral. ie~qanP So its converse is q + p 17817: Show that the following are tautology oF not D +(P2Q) = (PV. Q) A> PAQ) i) (Pv Q) @ Pv -Q Sol: @) Its truth table is and V stands Whee § stands for (Py a) 6 > (0 or PQs PvaATEAD V resections Since V is a tautology PZQ)@ PVQnaPA® (W) Its truth table is As (Pv Q) © 7 PQ isa tautology. Hence (Pv. Q) 49 “Pv 3Q Ex7.8.18: Show that premises P > Q, R +5, 3Q358,55Pand (TAU) +R imply the conclusion — Sol.: The premises are PQ and RS AQ ous aaP iv) (TAU) AR Av) ‘Using equation (iv), we have, aaP =P and using equation (i) and equation (iv) Le. P + Q and P then we get Q (vi) ‘Then the contrapositive of equation (iti) is S + Q Now using equation (li) and equation (iti) we have, R3Q _.(vii) Then taking inverse of equation (v) = (Ta) 439 Using equation (v) and equation (vii) ie. ~ (TU) > QQ gives ~ (TAU) which is required conclusion. ooo) Propesitional Calculus (DS4TL) 7-357.9 | Precedence Rule “The order of preference in which the connectives are applied in a formula of propositions that has no bracker , i) i) aii) v and & iv) + and ++ ‘Remark | 1) V' includes ‘exclusive or and ‘inclusive or | 2) Mtv and @ are present in a statement then first apply the left most one. The same rule is applicable to — ang. | 7.10 |Logical Equivalence | Jin real life, we come across several similar things with respect to different aspects. eg. Two cars are stmilar wn respect to average, two students are similar with respect to PLE. marks. Likewise in logic. we can say that two propositions are similar with respect to their truth values Definition : Two propositions A and B are logically equivalent iff they have the same truth value for all choi, ‘of the truth values of simple propositions involved in it. ‘Two propositions (formulas) are equivalent even if they have different variables. Two statement formulas P and ¢ are equivalent | If Pes Qis a tautology, IF P is equivalent to Q then it can be represented as P= Qor P#Q ‘The symbol ¢9 is not a connective Ex7.10.1 Frove by constructing the truth table p> (qv 1) = (p— lv (pr). Sol. : Consider truth table fe a Fave pay pra por Gaines | T T F T T T F T fi. * et T F T t jr or Ff F F F ¥ F fii T oh, Tt t 1 T 1 } F T F T 3 T T T Borie 7 T T t 1 pF oF FP 1 1 t ‘ In the columns of p— (qv r) and (p-+4)v (pr) truth values are same for all possible choices of truth values” p. qand r. Hence prays) = Pav (Pt) x7.10.2 :Prove that p+ = (p> Mag pale py @al-gv ph OF Tete Putco 7-16 Propositional Cakulus 154 “2 pe ; E I ap 4 t r Ames 2 x T PME B peg -pvq — -avp — Epvabat ave? ee} + t ; 7? : : ty ee ee a et : t i t yey 7 above table os ¢ a t ima al pp + | (Pea) * P>VAG PR pvaat-qvp) \, | g7ap37 Prove that the propositions po = der truth table P(g) and (pv = gly =r are equivalent. ; | P q r Gar qa py=tqad gq weng : La T z T F 7 3 T / T T F F T 7 F T 7 oF TO OF tT T T = FF F , oo 7 t i ; . T T T Fe r F F Ex T F F v £ Bet F . F T T T T Ga es Ee et i:ja0d: Prove that the following statements —amaal yaaa now Sol. : Consider truth table Gr pe WR we RE womte| TTT tT T T tn T | TF T t T T t | e F T T : eal eat F E v : : | FTT T qT r I 2 PTF t T F tv T T ¥ T T T BET t z F r T FFF + + ee, ta 4g-ViTl are identical. Hence the given statements are equivalent. | ‘Sal entries of columns V a" aan o__ ———_t .ce, the given statements are not identical, ‘As all entries of columns V and VIII are identical. Her Ex7.11.1 :De Morgan's laws 4) ~ (pv Sol. : i) ~(pvq)=~pa~q Consider the truth table De pr qi) ~(prgia~ py ~q \gro the table, truth values of ~(pv same for each choice of p ang g and ~ pg we gence “(PY A) DA~Q VD PAMA cansider the table fp & =P -9 Me ~ Wy es gif: oe ee lr Ff F T FT ie > - it 1? ee Ot (i F T T Es t A 1 z ms from the table, truth values of = (pq) and (= py ~q) ae same for each choice of p and q. Hence ~(p 4q)@(~ py ~q) 7.112 :Absorption laws D pv (pag=p i prlpy@ep Sol. : Dpy (PADEP Consider the table PT a Pag pvp oP feet ee ? + {iz F F 7 7? mT F F P F F F F e t + From the table, in last two columns truth tables of Pv (paq)and p are same for each choice of P and q. Hence pv (paa)=p i) pripv@er pya pAlpvd R713 pele Sol. : mtu meee 4 ate logically equivalent. fit 9 Beri q is reflexive, antisymmetnc and transitive Note : The symbols connective Important Connectives tesa y NOT and ‘The word NAND is a combination ofS. "AND" where "NOT stands for megaten AA" stands for the conjunction: It is denet y symbol 7 + & <9 are not same = is not TA4 ropositoral Caius (DSAT1) 1°If P and Q are two formulas then NAND connective is defined as PrQe iPAQ) ‘The connective T has the following equivalence 1) PT Pes PAP) es —Py Peek Preps -P 2) (PT Q)T(PT Qe Qler—(PAQEPAQ 3) (PT PYT (QT Qi ~ PT- Qe -(- Pa-Qher Pv Note : NAND connective is commutative but not associative MN) NOR : ‘The connective "NOR™ is a combination of “NOT” and "OR" where "NOT" stands for negation and "OR" stands for the disjunction. It is denoted by the symbol J and defined. as PLQes~(PV.Q) «PL Qu~(Pv Q) ‘The connective 4 has the following equivalences i) PLP ee~ (Py Phee-Pa~Peo~P Hi) PLOLPLOH-PLQ OPO iit) (PL PL (QL. Q) 4 PL-Qea=(- PV ~ QE PAQ iv) The connective | is commutative but not associative ARTAAL: Prove that (i) an Gv b) = AAD (i) an B VOA@V BACKER (ay wD Sol. : () LHS © an(avb) = (@5)v (@ Ad) (Distributive law) = Ov(@rb) ¢. =RHS. (Identity law) (ii) LHS. = (asb)ve) a favijac = lav grerbyaatavbjac (2 Distributive taw) av )aca(byve)a(avb) (Associative law) (Absorption law) Complement law) sanb zca(bvgalavb) = ca(avb) =RHS. SPT Techical Pabicatons Exzid2: Use laws of logic to Topic to simplify, expression pv ~ (- P+ Sol.: Consider pv - (“P+ = py-@-pya@ — Cmplication iy, =py-(pyq (Complement tr, spy pag (Demorgan’s ly =(py-p)s(py-@ =Taped (Complement lay, 2 (Ta pv (Ta —q) (Distributive tay =pvc@ = py-4 : Without using truth table prove that (pq) \- 4 >~ p isa tautology. Sol. : We have, (p +4) ©-4—>~ P 14, =-Iipo@s-aly-P =-Iepy@s-alvne = -l-ancpyady-P =-I-qs-p) Carady-p =-[Cqs-p)y ly -P = leq a-ply-P -(@yvpy-P =avpP Veep as Qt py 0 iva ttelon without using truth table. Sol. : Consider (pv q)a~(- pac qy - 1) Pv Qari pr-@ v Epa-e (Distributive Lav) Dr(ipy ol - (Complement la! =(pyqgalipy sm Propositional Calculus (DS#= PYDPrar@vy = PYM (Pn) =P OAV IPY aOn = PYPw ae = POA consider given exPression = (P v@ At) v (~ pn ~q) vepyn “EYGAPY Perv epang = Tv@vrve pa-Qg)..(.Tvp =1 -T Hence given statement is a tautology Cl —————— ExZJ4S:Show that the following implications without constructing truth tables w® P.O =f-Q Ww P-Q= PoP»Q Gi) PQ >3Q =PvQ Sol. : () We know that P+ Q = - Pv Q and PAQe~PVQ They are not equivalent. Gi) Consider RH.S. = P > (P 4 Q) =-Pv@sQ (2 P2Q-PvQ (PvP) AC PyQ) =Ta(-PvQ) PvQ RHS.sP 4Q= LHS. (itl) Consider LHS. = (P + Q)>Q =-P3QVQ -PvQva = Ps-QvQ = Pv Qaray® = Pv QarTt =PvQ=RHS Hence they are equivalent. "F technical Publications 7.45 |Normal Forms If a given statement formula involves n atomic variables, then we have 2" possible combinations of truth values of statements replacing the variables. The construction of the truth table involves finite number of steps but it may not be practical if number of variables are more. Therefore we reduce the given ‘statement formula to normal form and find whether a given statement formula is a tautology or contradiction or at least satistiable A formula which is a conjunction or product of the\, variables and their negations s called an elementary product. Lf p and q are statements then p, - p.~ pa, PA-q ~PA-q are some examples of elementary products or fundamental conjunctions. A formula which is a disjunction or sum of the variables and their negations is called an elementary sum or fundamental disjunctions. p,-p,~PYa PY ~a py py ~q are some examples of an elementary sum ‘or fundamental disjunctions. 7.15.1 Disjunctive Normal Form (dnf) ‘A statement formula which consists of a disjunction (v) of fundamental conjunctions or elementary product (1) It is abbreviated as dnt ‘A disjunctive normal form of a given formula is constructed as follows 1). Replace '—» or '¢+' by using logical connectives ay &.poqe-pya, peg at pyaat-ay P) 2) Use De Morgan's laws to eliminate before sums or products. i and eliminate 3) Apply distributive laws repeatedly product of variables to obtain the required normal form. plone: 1) (pawy yap) | ay pagany pany pray re) 3) (parv (pag) 4) Cpanv(caanven [All above examples are in disjunct we normal form. Calculus (DST. ropes7.15.2 Conjunctive Normal Form (cnf) ‘A statement formula which consists of # conjunction of the fundamental disjunctions (v) It is denoted as cnt, va 1) pave 2) (pv q)a(-pva)al-q) 3) (pv qv A (py yAlpy av) All above examples are in conjunctive normal form. .3 Principal Normal Form Let p and q be two statement variables, then pra, pA~q. pag ~pa~d are called minterms of p and 4. They are also called Boolean conjunctives of p and q. The number of minterms with n variables is 2° ‘None of the minterms should contain both a variable and it's negation. «:p » ~p is not minterm. The dual of minterm is called a maxterm, For two statement variables p and q, maxterms are PYG. PYG py ~q and ~ pv ~q. 1) Principal Disjunctive Normal Form A statement formula which consists of a disjunction of minterms only is called the principal disjunctive normal form. ee 2 (a@y pr-g) (Paqan)y (-paqan) are principal dni. 2) py (aq), (Pag) (- pag) (-4), (PAgAr)v (pvq) are not principal df. Ml) Principal Conjuctive Normal Form A statement formula which consists of a conjunction of maxterms only is called the principle conjunctive normal form. eg. 1) (pya)a(- pv) (PY -VDAC PY on. 2) (pvqya(-p) is caf but not principal cnt. -9) are principal OF tect Pubentos gsnctive normal form of the cma formulae given below ) paipa) t= Gv az pan Sol: i) pag = pacpva) ent = (pA-pv (pra = Fv @v@ = (Ma) . Definition a single conjunctiyy ii) -(pv a? (Pag = - (Pv ay (prg))> (-(@aqy ~(pyan = (pv ay (Ag AC py ~@v (-pA~a) = (py @A(~ PY ~av ~ PIA PY ~av =a) = (py @ac py “Mac py a = (py aac py -@ at Further (py Map -@) = (PY @A~ PIV (PY@A-W = (PA-@v(qa~prv (pa~qv (gaa) = Fv@a~p)v (pay F = (pa-piv(pa-q Definition Ex7.152:Find the conjunctive normal form and disjunctive normal form for the following D (pv Dg por (pv gd Sol. : | 0 vara = Gvaiva = (Paayva = @aqva Definition (Pagva = (Pva)aqva) = (-pvq)aq..which is the required crt WM px(pva) = (pv (pv q))alipvg)y p) = (by pva)a(paa)y p) = (pv g)a(Py piaiqy p) Propositional Calculus (DS«Tng = ©YAaPAqvpy og = (OPW @apacav py = EV@AP)Av p) = GAP)AC@Yp) = GPG) Gapap) = Fapy @ap) = FV@ap) = Gap) DEFAAG> PD Uprl(pagig poQaiaP) = (pv ara(-qw p) farber, using the distributive law on the above anf we have (irpvae-a)y (pv gap) = (pa~a)yv@r-a) = vir apy @ap) = pray arp) “Got (es pa-pega~@ 8 paipsay—aq = -(pa(-pv ava = -py~@pvava pypr-ova 127154; Obtain enf of each of the following D patp oq) av (pa~ av PAO Sol. : palpq) © (pate pv ay) = (pa-piv (pra) = v(pra) ow = (pa) qvipa-qy (~pa-@ = (a mae vepy a) pad = qv pate Veta rubctons = @vplvepa-a = Gy py -piaaapy-a) = Gv Talpvay-@) = Tape N=TaT = Taq =p) Which is the required enf (single disjunct) Ex7ASS:Flnd DNF of ipa ig-—+ pip (OG pvp & [pv q)al-av Ply P ( pqe--pva) = [pv pv@alpy (av pl = (ey ~ pov alaipy py ~ Pl = (Tyg) (py ~a) = Ta(py -4) = py-a which is the required DNF Ex7.156 : Obtain the anf : (~ p»qar)vipra) Sob: (paqat)y (pag) © (pagy (pagar) = (py (-pagndlalay pagan # (pv =P) (pv a) Aly DIAlay -P)AGY a AGY AT a [Ta(pva) aipy nl sliay ~P)Aa aay OL = (py galpy DAY ~PIAT which is the required on Ex7.15.7 : Find dnf by using truth table (pouvn—-p Sol. : Consider the truth table “aes prev innConsider only T from last column and choose corresponding values of T from p, q and r. For the first marked row 1 corresponding p is T, q is F and r is F. So take pa-qa~rorpaq’ar For 2™ T—+-paqar, 3 T +-paqa-t a® Ta-pagan and 5* T-pacqa-e Hence the logically equivalent df form is [pexavn]a-p = (pa -aany pAgat) vepaqah VE panqanyPpA-aa-r) [x7.158:Obtain the principal dnf of (- py ~4) ae pan Sol. : (py-@) Ee pare = py giv pan) = -Cpla-lallvG pan = (pray (pat) which is dng © (pag atey ~Ov paralgy a) = (pagan (pagqa =n) VC paragy CpAranq) ‘which ts the required principal dri. Ex.7,159 : Find the principal enf of (pag: (par) Sol. : [pray (pee = ipa qiy —plaltpaqy t] = (PV p)Aldy = p)AtpY A(qvery = (qv ~ pv (ta-Nalpy tv (qn ayia (qv ty (pa~p)) =(qv=pyna@y~py ~a(pyrvg) apyev-qg)) | Aq ry patayty=p) Bipvgy ra pvay Nai-pvay ~halpy-qv ny which is the required principle cnt. PF tense Puntications 7m £715.10; Find the principal daf of - pv 7 Sol. : =pvq = Ee pacay av aay PIL = (-pagy > pAmay (44 PY (4 ~p) = (-pagyy (> pa-ay (P49) which is the required principle dnf. which Ne Se §x7.15.11 ; Obtain principal disjunctive normal form of (pagy pany War) Sol. : We have (paghy @panv(qa) = (pagatry 1) vEapara(qy aly (a0 A(PY =p)1 = (paqany(pagy =A (para) vp arag)y (qatap)y (qararp) Which is the principal disjunctive normal form 27.1542: Find the principal conjunctive normal form (= p= rh q+ p) Sol. : We have (~ p= ¥)(q ep) = (pv Aa = P)A(P= 4) = (py At qv P)a(-pv a) # (py rv qa~@latpy ~ qvira-n)} A= pv av (ta~ a] = (py rv @ A(py Fv ~q) apy ~ av) alpy = av = Hae py qv iat pyaqy- 1) Which is the principal conjunctive normal form. 7.16 Methods of Proof We have learned statements or propositions and their truth values. Now, we will discuss ways by which statements can be linked to form a logically valid argument Whenever an assertion is made, which is claimed to be true, one has to state an argument which produces the truth of the assertion. To construct a proof we need to derive new assertions from existing ones bY Propositional Calculus (DS«TUba ee ee a » This peat aT i also done by using valid of + A valid argument is a finite Py called as ne (or assumptions or hypothesis) together Fax 2 statement C, called the conclusion such that “Pa Cis a tautology, papers js mathematical proof is a logical argument that senses we truth of the theorem. There are several Nive of proving a theorem which are based on one "nore rales of inference sere are following most commonly used rules of ference 1.16.1 Law of Detachment (or Modus Ponens) Whenever the statements p and p—»q are accepted as rn, then we must accept the statement q as true. this rue is represented in the following form pq p “4 The assertions above the horizontal line are called premises or hypothesis, And the assertion below the line is called the conclusion This rule constitutes a valid argument as lp +)Ap]q is a tautology. The truth table is as follows Poa wan tpraarina 4. 1 t ie T_. Eee | , 8 F 4 7 | T ee f et : x This form of valid argument is called the law of detachment as conclusion q is detached from premise Pq and p. Iti also called as the law of direct inference Sample \ Sushma gets a frst class with distinction in BE then she will get a good job easily. "FP Technical Publications Let in BE. P: Sushma gets a first class with distinction 1: She will get a good job easily. Poa Md @ Hence this form of argument is valid. ‘The inference rule is 7.16.2 Modus Tollen (Law of Contrapositive) Modus Tollen is a rule of denying, It can be stated as “We pq is true and q is false, then p is false. This is represented in the following form. pq Above argument is valid as (p-+q) ~~ q+ pisa tautology. In above example is b + q and ~ G Sushma will not get a good job easily then - p : She ‘has not a first class with distinction in B.E. 7.16.3 Disjunctive Syllogism This rule states that “If pq is true and p is false then q is true, It is represented in the following form as pv P q This argument is valid as (pv q)a~p 4 is a tautology. 7.16.4 Hypothetical Syllogism It is also known as the transitive rule Tt ean be stated as follows ig (p 9g) and (q 98) are true then pris tHe “This rule is presented in the following form pa ast Tpor ‘This argument is valid as (pong ots a tautology: propositional Calculus (S&Tee fix,7.16.1; Determine whether the argument is valid for not. If I try hard and I have talent then T will become a musician. If 1 become # musician, then I will be happy: Therefore if I will not be happy then | id not try hard or 1 do not have talent. Sol. : Let pT try hard q: have talent FL will become musician 5: Twill be happy It's symbolic form is as follows f ; / (paar soe yop a To check validity of this statement, one way is to use truth table or prove logically. Suppose assignment 1s invalid. This means that for some assignment of truth values 4, is T, 2 is T but 5 is Fs) will have truth vahie F if - is T and -pv-qisF ie sis F and ~ pis F and ~ qis F fe sis F, and pis T and q is T ‘As 5; 4s T, the truth values of r and s both are F. Since s, is T, r is F implies either p or q is F. This is contradiction since by assumption both p and q are true Hence given statement is valid. Ex7.162:Test the validity of the argument. If a person Is poor, he is unhappy. If a person is unhappy, he dies young, Therefore poor person dies young. Sol. : Let _p: Person is poor q: Person is unhappy 1: Person dies young In symbolic form argument is OTF Tec Publasors spa spar spor . ‘The above argument is the rule of PyPothetcy syllogism. Hence itis valid expiring Be wally of te trig \ argument. fy fT ke iserete structure then Twill study sq : Either I will study o J will fai the ee 3 rf 1 fail then I do not Uke discret, stracture : Sol. : Let p: Hike discrete structure q:] will study i: Twill fail In symbolic form sy pa We know that fon the validity of argument 5) -% should logically imply ». ‘Assign the truth values T, T, T, to p, q, F respectively Then s; is T and 52 is also T But sis T-+F is F Hence argument is invalid. Ee Ex.7.164 : Determine the validity of the argument Sol. : 4: All my friends are musicians John is my friend jone of my neighbours are musician’ $: John is not my neighbour Pp: All my friends are musicians q: John is my friend 1: My neighbours are musicians s: John is my neighbour 3'P Propositional Caiculus (OSH52 sy iv form pambolic form a “1 yall my friends are musicians and vend = John is rusician John is my pag John is musician paq*~t — John is musician and my aghbours are not musicians pag a~t — John is not my neighbour paganr—+~ sis true. ‘Therefore given argument is valid. £7165:1 am happy if my program runs. A necessary condition for the program to run is it should be error free. I am not happy. Therefore the program is not error free. Sal. let p Tam happy 4: My program runs 1: Program should be error free tn symbolic form ap qor ~P To check validity, consider the truth table Tao paar? Waa oe Par gop aoe PpAnP™ Pe T & T 1. 3s ‘ast column is not T Given argument se not tt008Y° Given argument is invalid. [7.17 | ouantisers ‘*In grammar a predicate is the word in a sentence which expresses what is said about object. ie. Properties of an object or relation among objects. For example “is a good teacher", “is a clever student’ are predicates. In logic predicate has a broaden role than in grammar. Predicate is Presented by using a variable x in place of holder. eg. x is a prime number. An assertion that contains one or more variables is called a predicate, It’s truth value is predicated after assigning truth: values to its variables. © A predicate p containing n variables x,,%3,.. Xp 15 called an n-place predicate and denoted by Pm, X2.X;,00 %_)- Bach variable x; is called as argument, The values which the variables may assume constitute a collection is called the universe of discourse ot domain of discourse. + There are two types of quantifiers. 7.17.1 Universal Quantifiers ‘+f p(x) is a predicate with x as an argument then the universal quantifier for p(x) is the statement. + "For all values of x, p(x) is true”. We denote the phrase "For all" by ¥ + ¥ means for all or for each or for every. ‘If p(x) is true for all values of x then 1 ¥ xp(x) is true, For example : p(x) : x2 where x is any posttive integer. ‘The proposition V xpix) is true. « However, if x is an integer ¥ xp(x)is false. 7.17.2 Existential Quantifier an some situations, we only require that there is at least one value for the predicate is true. Suppose for the predicate p(x), V xpix! is false, but there exists at least one value of x for which p(x) is true, then we Propositional Calculus (DS&TL)say that in this proposition, x is bound ‘existential quantification. " * The phrase “there exists an x" is called an existential quantifier. The symbol “J is used ‘to denote the logical quantifier “there exists” or "there exists an x" oF “there is x" or “for some x" or “for at least one x” 7.17.3 Negation of Quantified Statement * Consider the statement ¥ xp(x) It's negation is “It is not the case that for all x, p(x) is true’, This means that for some x = a, p(a) is not true or 3 x st. ~ P(X) is true + Hence the negation of ¥ xpix) is logically equivalent to 3x f- pix]. | 1) Equivalence involving quantifiers 1) Distributivity of 3 over v BalPEx)v OCx)] = FxPO)Y 3x) 3x[Pv Qix)] = Pv GxQeny 2) Distributivity of ¥ over YY x[PCx)A O(K)] = Y xPCX)A OCH) | VxfPA Qx)] = PAC YxQO)) 3) Ax[PA QO] = PAG xQ)] | 4) YxfPy QO] = Pal YxOG0] | 5) ~B xPQx)] = ¥x{~POO)] | 6) =[¥ xP(x)] = 3x[-POO] | ” ¥ xP(x) = 3xPOO | 8) we xPEx) v ¥XQKI=> VX(POY QO) 9) 3x{P(x)a Q(x) = 3¥PLHAI OLE) ny Rules of Inference for addition and deletion of quantifiers: 7 T ‘Technical Publications f the universe “= xp00), jg some element ee) ion 2) Rule 2 : Existential Inston ; xp ics some element for which PCR) is true = ey" lization 4 Rule 3; Universal Generaliza pe ¥ xp) 44) Rule 4 : Existential Generalization ee FaxpO) k is some element of the universe Quantitiers Eprenion | ‘There exists a value of x such tut axvygtea) for all values of y, p(x, y) ie true: | For each value of y, there exists x uch that p(x y) is true. ‘There exist value of x and vale of y such that p(x, y) is true YA Vy pO) Bor all values of x andy. pix 9) I true. wy aapony) ax3y poy Represent the arguments using quantifiers and find its correctness. All students in this class understand logic. Ganesh is + student in this class, Therefore Ganesh understands logic. * Sol : Let C(x) : x is a student in this class Ux) : x understands logic In symbolic form ¥x(Ctx) + Loo) Propositional Calculus (0S| sperofre this argument is valia pa maim Qe na integer. integers is an odd sol. iy vx poo] ii) ¥ x{pOd¥ QOO)] Rix, yi} 61.7173: Using information in example 7.17.2 write an english sentence for each of the symbolic statement given below i) ¥x(-9@)) i) 3 X~ py) ii) ~ [3 r( pe) 000)} Sol. : {) All integers are not prime numbers ii) At least one integer is not even. fi) It is not the case that there exists an integer which is even and prime MR ip gversan P Ex7.174: Determine the validity of the following argument 4 : All my friends are musician 8; :Johp,is my friend % Nabe iy neighbours are musician 8: John is not my neighbour. Suppose -N(a) has value F. N(a) is T. Since 5 is T, we must have Mi : -M(a) is T oF M(a) is F. But s; is T. Hence we must have F(a) to be false but this is contradiction. Hence if s is false sitar of or 8 should be false. Hence argument is valid, ~EE7ATS : For the universe of all integers. Let Ue Pid x>0 S00) : x is divisible by 4 Thx) : x is divisible by 7 Write the following statement in symbalic form {) At least one integer is even i) There exists a positive integer that Is even il) If x is even then x is not divisible by 7 iv) No even integer is divisible by 7 W) There exists an even integer divisible by? vi) If x is even and x is perfect square then x is divisible by 4. Sol. : i) 3x06) ii) 3x{p(x) 0. Q00)] iti) ¥ x[Q) 9~ TOO] iv) ¥x{Q) 9~ TO) v) 3x[QG0)4 TOO) £x7.17.6: Rewrite the following statements using Sol: Let the universe of discourse be the set of quantifier vasibles and predcste symbols People. 1AM bia om ii) Not can fly Let F(x) : x is my friend ii?) Some men are genius | xis a musician iv) Some numbers are not rational a aa = arrhig i) There Is a student who likes Maths but oxi i ae TENN not Hindi I No xia cea p ~T vi) Each integer is either even or odd t's symbolic form is ) x sys ¥xIFO) 9MOO] TROY mx sol: join ta) VFM iy vet Boxy sx is a bird 4 Nox | ) F(x) x can fly propositional Caius (D572 7-3‘Then the statement can be written as Vx{BX) +F¢)] 48) 3x[B 0) - FOO] si) Let M(x) 2c is a man Gtx) : x is a genius “The statement in symbolic form as 3.x[M(x) O00] iv) Let N(x): x is a number R(x) : x is rational ‘The statement in symbolic form as 3 x[N(x) «~ RO] oF =1¥ x(NG)— ROD] ‘S(x) : x is a student M(x) : x likes Maths H(x) = x likes Hindi The statement in symbolic form as v) Let 3 x{S(x)a Moe) ~ Hox} x is an integer E(x) : x is even Ox) : x is odd The statement in symbolic form as vi) Let 1G) 1 xf) + Boxy O60] Ex7.17.7 : Negate each of the following statements Divx |xiex ii) 3x, 27 =x Sol. : i) 3x, |x| #x ti) Vx, Pex Ex7.17.8 : Negate the following i) If there is a riot, then someone is killed. i) Tt is day light and all the people are arisen. Sol. i) It is not the case that if there is a riot then someone is killed. ii) It is not the case that it 15 day light and all the people are arisen op p: There is a riot 7 statement 18) —*4 Hence " vipa) EPDEDA s rare isa riot and someone isnot ky |! iy Leep : Ie is a day light q:: All the people are arisen Given statement 15 PA4 Hence ~(paa)* ~PY~4 Hence either it is not a day light or all the people ay not arisen. pasa 327179: Express this statement using quantities | every student in this class has taken some course in every department in the | school of mathematical aciences. Sol. : | Let P(x): Student of class Q Gy, 2) + Courses from department | ¥x P(x) > 3 2Q ly. 2) Ex7.17.10: Let A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) write following statements in proper english and determine the truth value. i) (3xeA) +3 = 10) i) (Vxe A) (x +3 < 10) i) (3 xe A) x + 39<5) iv) (xe A) +357) ‘Sol. : @ Let P (x): According to the given condition, there exists * belongs to A for which P (x) is true. Buit by substituting value of x we find P(x) is false Gi) Let P (x) sx +3.< 10 According to the given condition, ~ For all x in A- P (s) is true” This statement is true. GH) Let P 6) x43.<5cording 10 the given. condition « A ch that P (x) is true.” there exists x in ae Ts ‘is true if we put x = 1 yy Ut PO) X43 $7 according to the given condition “Por all x in joi 23.45), P (x) is true.” ss X75 3543=8<7 is impossible, This statement is false. ee fx7.17.11: “If the labour market is perfect then the wages of all persons in a parti employment will be equal. But it is always the case that wages for such persons are not equal therefore, the labour market is not perfect.” Test the validity of this argument using truth table. sol. Let p + The labour market is perfect 4 ‘The wages of all persons in a particular employment will be equal. Therefore =p : The labour market is not perfect. -q: The wages of all persons in a particular employment will not be equal Given problem reduces to prove the equivalence of Pqand-q—+-p. | | | | | By above table, columns of identical. P—qand~q—-pare 2 PR ASE TE? Bere equivalent mites Ex7.7.12 :Write the aymbolic form and negate the following statements. 1) Everyone who is healthy can do all Kinds of work. 4H) Some people are not admired by everyone. iii) Everyone should help his neighbours or his neighbour's will not help him Sol. : i) Let H(x) : x is healthy W(x) : x can do all kinds of work 2 The statement can be written as +x{H(x) -+ W(x)} W's negation Is 5 x [H(x) »- Wo] ii) Let P(x) : x is people A(x) : x is admired by everyone \ The statement can be writtern as 3 [p(x)s~ AGe)} It's negation is ¥ x [+P(%) v AGO) fii) Let H() : x helps his neighbour N(x) : Neighbour of x will not help him. +The statement can’ be writtem as +x [HO)v NO} It’s negation is 3 x [-H(x) « NO] ooo Propositional Cakshis (DS&TL)