BY

RAJESH K. MANTRI
M.E.(DESIGN ENGG.), PGDB

1
❑ Definition - The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and
better machines and improving the existing ones. A new or better
machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation.

❑ Process - The process of design is a long and time consuming one.

From the study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived.
The idea is then studied keeping in mind its commercial success and
given shape and form in the form of drawings. In the preparation of
these drawings, care must be taken of the availability of resources
4 M’s, ie. Men, Machine, Material & Money required for the
successful completion of the new idea into an actual reality.

❑ Prior Knowledge - In designing a machine component, it is

necessary to have a good knowledge of many subjects such as
Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory
of Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.
2
❑ CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE DESIGN (02 WAYS)
❑ FIRST WAY OF CLASSIFICATION
❑ (A) ADAPTIVE DESIGN – Ordinary Technical Training, However small
modifications are permitted in existing design.
❑ (B) DEVELOPMENT DESIGN – Scientific Training &
Design Ability, New Material or New Process is permitted.
❑ (C) NEW DESIGN – Creative Thinking, Research & Technical Ability to
convert idea into reality.
❑ SECOND WAY OF CLASSIFICATION
❑ (A) RATIONAL DESIGN
❑ (B) EMPIRICAL DESIGN
❑ (C) INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
❑ (D) OPTIMUM DESIGN
❑ (E) SYSTEM DESIGN
❑ (F) ELEMENTAL DESIGN
❑ (G) COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

3
❑ GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS IN MACHINE DESIGN
❑ (1) TYPES OF LOAD & STRESSES
❑ (2) TYPES OF MOTION
❑ (3) SELECTION OF MATERIALS
❑ (4) FORM & SIZE OF PARTS
❑ (5) FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE & LUBRICATION
❑ (6) CONVINIENT & ECONOMICAL FEATURES
❑ (7) USE OF STANDARD PARTS
❑ (8) SAFETY OF OPERAIONS
❑ (9) WORKSHOP FACILITIES
❑ (10) NUMBER OF MACHINES TO BE
MANUFACTURED
❑ (11) COST OF CONSTRUCTION
❑ (12) ASSEMBLING

4
❑ GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MACHINE DESIGN
❑ (1) RECOGNITION OF PROBLEM
❑ (2) SELECTION OF MECHANISM
❑ (3) ANALYSIS OF FORCES
❑ (4) SELECTION OF MATERIALS
❑ (5) DESIGN OF ELEMENTS (SIZE)
❑ (6) MODIFICATIONS
❑ (7) DETAILED DRAWING
❑ (8) PRODUCTION

5
ENGINEERING MATERIALS & THEIR PROPERTIES
The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great
significance for a design engineer. The machine elements should be
made of such a material which has properties suitable for the
conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design engineer must be
familiar with the effects which the manufacturing processes and heat
treatment have on the properties of the materials.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• METALS & THEIR ALLOYS eg. IRON, STEEL, ALUMINIUM, COPPER...
FERROUS METALS
NON-FERROUS METALS
• NON-METALS eg. GLASS, RUBBER, PLASTIC, WOOD...
SELECTION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
• AVAILABILITY OF THE MATERIAL
• SUITABILITY OF THE MATERIAL
• COST OF THE MATERIAL
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

▪ STRENGTH - It is the ability of a material to resist the externally

applied forces without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally applied force is called stress.
▪ STIFFNESS - It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under
stress. The modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.
▪ ELASTICITY - It is the property of a material to regain its original
shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. This
property is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
▪ PLASTICITY - It is property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the
material is necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in
ornamental work.
▪ DUCTILITY - It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn
into wire with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material
must be both strong and plastic.
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

▪ BRITTLENESS - It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It

is the property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off
without giving any sensible elongation.
▪ MALLEABILITY - It is a special case of ductility which permits
materials to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable
material should be plastic but it is not essential to be so strong.
▪ TOUGHNESS - It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to
high impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness of the material
decreases when it is heated. It is measured by the amount of energy
that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being stressed
upto the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.

8
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

▪ MACHINABILITY - It is the property of a material which refers to a

relative case with which a material can be cut. The machinability of a
material can be measured in a number of ways such as comparing
the tool life for cutting different materials or thrust required to
remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to
remove a unit volume of the material.
▪ RESILIENCE - It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to
resist shock and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of
energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit. This property is
essential for spring materials.
▪ CREEP - When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in
designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.

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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

▪ FATIGUE - When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails

at stresses below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a
material is known as *fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a
progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods,
springs, gears, etc.
▪ HARDNESS - It is a very important property of the metals and has a
wide variety of meanings. It embraces many different properties such
as resistance to wear, scratching, deformation and machinability etc.
It also means the ability of a metal to cut another metal. The
hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests :
(a) Brinell Hardness Test,
(b) Rockwell Hardness Test,
(c) Vickers Hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) Test
(d) Shore Scleroscope.
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STEEL & TYPES OF STEEL
WHAT IS A STEEL - It is an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content
up to a maximum of 1.5%. The carbon occurs in the form of iron
carbide, because of its ability to increase the hardness and strength of
the steel. Other elements e.g. silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and
manganese are also present to greateror lesser amount
to impart
certain desired
• 1. Dead Mildproperties
Steel to it. — up to 0.15% carbon
• 2. Low Carbon or Mild Steel — 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
• 3. Medium carbon steel — 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
• 4. High carbon steel — 0.8% to 1.5% carbon

I.S. DESIGNATION OF STEEL

o ON THE BASIS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
o ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

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EFFECT OF IMPURITIES ON STEEL
Silicon - The amount of silicon in the finished steel usually ranges from 0.05 to
0.30%. Silicon is added in low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming
porous. It removes the gases and oxides, prevent blow holes and thereby makes
the steel tougher and harder.
Sulphur - It occurs in steel either as iron sulphide or manganese sulphide. Iron
sulphide because of its low melting point produces red shortness, whereas
manganese sulphide does not effect so much. Therefore, manganese sulphide is
less objectionable in steel than iron sulphide.
Manganese - It serves as a valuable deoxidising and purifying agent in steel.
Manganese also combines with sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effect
of this element remaining in the steel. When used in ordinary low carbon steels,
manganese makes the metal ductile and of good bending qualities. In high speed
steels, it is used to toughen the metal and to increase its critical temperature.
Phosphorus - It makes the steel brittle. It also produces cold shortness in steel. In
low carbon steels, it raises the yield point and improves theesistance to
atmospheric corrosion.

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STEELS DESIGNATED ON THE BASIS OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
According to Indian standard IS: 1570 (Part–I)-1978 (Reaffirmed 1993), these
steels are designated by a symbol ‘Fe’ or ‘Fe E’ depending on whether the steel has
been specified on the basis of minimum tensile strength or yield strength, followed by
the figure indicating the minimum tensile strength or yield stress in N/mm^2. For
example ‘Fe 290’ means a steel having minimum tensile strength of 290 N/mm^2 and
‘Fe E 220’ means a steel having yield strength of 220 N/mm^2.
STEELS DESIGNATED ON THE BASIS OF CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
(I) CARBON STEELS
According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part II/Sec I)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1991),
the Carbon Steels are designated as :
• Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon content,
• Letter ‘C’, and
• Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese content. The
figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
Eg. 20C8
As per first rule, 20/100 = 0.20% Carbon (It is an average of 0.15 & 0.25)
As per second rule, C means Carbon Steel
As per third rule, 8/10 = 0.80 Manganese (It is an average of 0.75 & 0.85)
Material – It is a low carbon mild steel having 0.15% to 0.25% Carbon & 0.75% to
0.85% Manganese.
Eg. 20C8
As per first rule, 20/100 = 0.20% Carbon (It is an average of 0.15 & 0.25)
As per second rule, C means Carbon Steel
As per third rule, 8/10 = 0.80 Manganese (It is an average of 0.75 & 0.85)
Material – It is a low carbon mild steel having 0.15% to 0.25% Carbon & 0.75% to
0.85% Manganese.
(II) FREE CUTTING STEELS
The free cutting steels contain sulphur and phosphorus. These steels are used
where rapid machining is the prime requirement. It may be noted that the presence of
sulphur and phosphorus causes long chips in machining to be easily broken and thus
prevent clogging of machines. Now a days, lead is used from 0.05 to 0.2 per cent
instead of sulphur, because lead also greatly improves the machinability of steel
without the loss of toughness. Phosphorus is also added to 0.06%.
According to Indian standard, IS : 1570 (Part-III)-1979 (Reaffirmed 1993), the
Free Cutting Steels are designated as :
• Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon,
• Letter ‘C’,
• Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese, and
• Symbol ‘S’ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times the average content of
sulphur. If instead of sulphur, lead (Pb) is added to make the steel free cutting, then
symbol ‘Pb’ may be used.
 Eg. 10C8S10
As per first rule, 10/100 = 0.10% Carbon (It is an average of 0.05 & 0.15)
As per second rule, C means Carbon Steel
As per third rule, 8/10 = 0.80 Manganese (It is an average of 0.75 & 0.85)
As per fourth rule, 10/100 = 0.10% Sulphur (It is an average of 0.05 & 0.15)
Material – It is a Free Cutting Steel having 0.05% to 0.15% Carbon, 0.75% to 0.85%
Manganese, 0.05% to 0.15% Sulphur & 0.06% Phosphorus.
(III) ALLOY STEELS
An alloy steel may be defined as a steel to which elements other than carbon
are added in sufficient amount to produce an improvement in properties. The alloying
is done for specific purposes to increase wearing resistance, corrosion resistance and
to improve electrical and magnetic properties, which cannot be obtained in plain
carbon steels. The chief alloying elements used in steel are nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, cobalt, vanadium, manganese, silicon and tungsten.
According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), Low & Medium
Alloy Steels shall be designated in the following order :
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage carbon.
2.Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its average
percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below :

15
 Sr. Element Multiplying
No. Factor
01 Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si and W 4
02 Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and Mo 10

03 P, S & N 100

Eg. 40Cr4Mo2
As per first rule, 40/100 = 0.40% Carbon (It is an average of 0.35 & 0.45)
As per second rule, 4/4 = 1% Chromium & 0.2 % Molybdenum
Material – It is an Alloy Steel having 0.35% to 0.45%
Carbon, 1.00% average Chromium & 0.2% average Molybdenum.
(IV) HIGH ALLOY STEELS
A) STAINLESS STEEL It is defined as that steel which when correctly heat treated and
finished, resists oxidation and corrosive attack from most corrosive media.
(B) HEAT RESISTING STEEL It is defined as the steel which can resist creep and
oxidation at high temperatures and retain sufficient strength.

16
 According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), HIGH
ALLOY STEELS (i.e. stainless steel and heat resisting steel) are designated in the
following order :
• Letter ‘X’.
• Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
• Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a figure for its average
percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer.

Eg X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9
Material – It is high alloy steel with average carbon 0.10 per cent, chromium 18 per
cent and nickel 9 per cent.
(V) HIGH SPEED TOOL STEELS (HSTS) These steels are used for cutting metals at a
much higher cutting speed than ordinary carbon tool steels. The carbon steel cutting
tools do not retain their sharp cutting edges under heavier loads and higher speeds.
This is due to the fact that at high speeds, sufficient heat may be developed during the
cutting operation and causes the temperature of the cutting edge of the tool to reach
a red heat. This temperature would soften the carbon tool steel and thus the tool will
not work efficiently for a longer period. The high speed steels have the valuable
property of retaining their hardness even when heated to red heat. Most of the high
speed steels contain tungsten as the chief alloying element, but other elements like
cobalt, chromium, vanadium, etc. mR.K.aMyANbTeRI, pG.rP.e, 17
s e n t i n some proportion.
1.18-4-1 High Speed Steel - This steel, on an average, contains 18 per cent tungsten, 4
per cent chromium and 1 per cent vanadium. It is considered to be one of the best of
all purpose tool steels. It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper tools, milling
cutters, reamers, broaches, threading dies, punches, etc.
2.Molybdenum High Speed Steel - This steel, on an average, contains 6 per cent
tungsten, 6 percent molybdenum, 4 per cent chromium and 2 per cent vanadium. It
has excellent toughness and cutting ability. The molybdenum high speed steels are
better and cheaper than other types of steels. It is particularly used for drilling and
tapping operations. 6-4-2-6
3.Super High Speed Steel - This steel is also called cobalt high speed steel because
cobalt is added from 2 to 15 per cent, in order to increase the cutting efficiency
especially at high temperatures. This steel, on an average, contains 20 per cent
tungsten, 4 per cent chromium, 2 per cent vanadium and 12 per cent cobalt. Since the
cost of this steel is more, therefore, it is principally used for heavy cutting operations
which impose high pressure and temperatures on the tool. 20-4-2-12
According to Indian standard, IS : 1762 (Part I)-1974 (Reaffirmed 1993), HIGH SPEED
TOOL STEELS are designated in the following order :
• Letter ‘XT’.
• Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
• Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a figure for its average
percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer.
18
Eg XT75W18Cr4V1
Material – It is HIGH SPEED TOOL STEEL with average carbon content 0.75 per cent,
tungsten 18 per cent, chromium 4 per cent and vanadium 1 per cent.

19
 NON-METALLIC MATERIALS
The non-metallic materials are used in engineering practice due to their low density,
low cost, flexibility, resistant to heat and electricity.
1. PLASTICS - The plastics are synthetic materials which are moulded into shape under
pressure with or without the application of heat. These can also be cast, rolled,
extruded, laminated and machined. Following are the two types of plastics :
(a) Thermosetting plastics, and
(b) Thermoplastic.
The Thermosetting Plastics are those which are formed into shape under heat and
pressure and results in a permanently hard product. The heat first softens the
material, but as additional heat and pressure is applied, it becomes hard by a chemical
change known as phenolformaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), urea-
formaldehyde (Plaskon), etc.
The Thermoplastic materials do not become hard with the application of heat and
pressure and no chemical change occurs. They remain soft at elevated temperatures
until they are hardened by cooling. These can be remelted repeatedly by successive
application of heat. Some of the common thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate
(Celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.), etc.
The plastics are extremely resistant to corrosion and have a high dimensional stability.
They are mostly used in the manufacture of aeroplane and automobile parts. They are
also used for making safety glasses, laminated gears, pulleys, self-lubricating bearing,
20
etc. due to their resilience and streRn.K.gMtAhN.TRI, G.P.,
2.RUBBER - It is one of the most important natural plastics. It resists abrasion, heat,
strong alkalis and fairly strong acids. Soft rubber is used for electrical insulations. It is
also used for power transmission belting, being applied to woven cotton or cotton
cords as a base. The hard rubber is used for piping and as lining for pickling tanks.
3.LEATHER - It is very flexible and can withstand considerable wear under suitable
conditions. It is extensively used for power transmission belting and as a packing or as
washers.
4.FERRADO - It is a trade name given to asbestos lined with lead oxide. It is generally
used as a friction lining for clutches and brakes.
5.GLASS – Glass is a non-crystalline, often transparent amorphous solid, that has
widespread practical, technological, and decorative use in, for example, window
panes, tableware and optics. Glass is most often formed by rapid cooling of the molten
form; some glasses such as volcanic glass are naturally occurring. The most familiar,
and historically the oldest, types of manufactured glass are "silicate glasses" based on
the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of
sand.

VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF GLASS

• Packaging (jarsfor food, for drinks, flacon for cosmetics
pharmaceuticals)
bottles and
• Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)
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• Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement
structures)
• Interior design and furnitures (mirrors,partitions, balustrades, tables,
shelves, lighting)
• Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smart-
phones)
• Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced
structural components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)
• Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass
• Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)
• Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)
• Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, windturbines)

6. WOOD – ood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots
of trees and otherwoody plants. It is an organic material – a natural composite of
cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and resists compression.

22
VARIOUS APPLICATIONS OF WOOD
• Wood is used in interiors as a surface material for walls,
ceilings and floors, furniture, stairs, windows and doors, in features and
decorations, etc.
• The use of wood extends from small private facilities to large public social and
official premises.
• If desired, wood can be carved, milled or lathed into veryintricate
interior elements.
• Making Toys & Sports Equipments.
• Ship Building
• Fuel
• Making Utensils
• Making Musical Instruments
• Creating Art Material
• Home Construction

23
 SIMPLE STRESSES IN MACHINE PARTS
In engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to various forces which may
be due to either one or more of the following:
1. Energy transmitted,
2. Weight of machine,
3. Frictional resistances,
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts,
5. Change of temperature, and
6. Lack of balance of moving parts.
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to
know how the material will function in service. For this, certain characteristics or
properties of the material should be known. The mechanical properties mostly used in
mechanical engineering practice are commonly determined from a standard tensile
test. This test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material and
noting the corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures.
The load is applied and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by
dividing the load values by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen. The
elongation is measured by determining the amounts that two reference points on the
specimen are moved apart by the action of the machine. The original distance
between the two reference points is known as gauge length. The strain is determined
by dividing the elongation values by the gauge length.
24
1. Proportional Limit We see
from the diagram that from
point O to A is a straight line,
which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain.
Beyond point the curve
A, slightly from
straight
deviatesline. It is thus obvious,
the
that Hooke's law holds good up
to point A and it is known as
proportional limit. It is defined
as that stress at which
stress-strain curve the
deviate
begins from the straight line.to
2. Elastic Limit It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto
the point B, the material will regain its shape and size when the load is removed. This
means that the material has elastic properties up to the point B. This point is known as
elastic limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the material without any
permanent set.

25
3.Yield Point If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach i.e. on
the removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover its original size and
shape. A little consideration will show that beyond point B, the strain increases at a
faster rate with any increase in the stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the
material yields before the load and there is an appreciable strain without any increase
in stress. In case of mild steel, it will be seen that a small load drops to D, immediately
after yielding commences. Hence there are two yield points C and D. The points C and
D are called the upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress corresponding to
yield point is known as yield point stress.
4.Ultimate Stress At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of
stresses are required for higher strains, than those between A and D. The stress (or
load) goes on increasing till thepoint E is reached. The gradual increase in the strain (or
length) of the specimen is followed with the uniform reduction of its cross-sectional
area. The work done, during stretching the specimen, is transformed largely into heat
and the specimen becomes hot. At E, the stress, which attains its maximum value is
known as ultimate stress. It is defined as the largest stress obtained by dividing the
largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-sectional area of the
test piece.

26
5. Breaking Stress After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is
formed, which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen, as shown in Fig. A
little consideration will show that the stress (or load) necessary to break away the
specimen, is less than the maximum stress. The stress is, therefore, reduced until the
specimen breaks away at point F. The stress corresponding to point F is known as
breaking stress.

27
Mis-leading Concept of Stress Strain
Diagram : The breaking stress (i.e.
stress at F which is less than at E)
appears to be somewhat misleading.
As the formation of a neck takes place
at E which reduces the cross-sectional
area, it causes the specimen suddenly
to fail at F. If for each value of the
strain between E and F, the tensile
load is divided by the reduced cross
sectional area at the narrowest part
of the neck, then the true stress-strain
curve will follow the dotted line EG.
However, it is an established practice,
to calculate strains on the basis of
original cross-sectional area of the
specimen.

28
FACTOR OF SAFETY
WORKING STRESS
When designing machine parts, it is desirable to keep the stress lower than the
maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes place. This stress is
known as the Working Stress or Design Stress. It is also known as Safe or Allowable
Stress.
Note : By failure it is not meant actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts
are said to fail when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more
perform their function satisfactory.
FACTOR OF SAFETY
It is defined, in general, as the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.
Mathematically,
Maximum stress
Factor of Safety =
Working or Design Stress

In case of Ductile Materials e.g. mild steel, where the yield point is clearly defined, the
factor of safety is based upon the Yield Point Stress. In such cases,
Yield point stress
Factor of Safety =
Work i n g o r D 29
R . K.M A NT R I,
In case of Brittle Materials e.g. cast iron, where the yield point is not clearly defined,
the factor of safety is based upon the Ultimate Stress. In such cases,
Ultimate Stress
Factor of Safety =
Working or design stress

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF FACTOR OF SAFETY

1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties
during service conditions.
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to actual
machine parts
3. The reliability of applied load
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions
6. The extent of localised stresses
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs and
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs.

30
 THEORIES OF FAILURE
Strength of machine members is based upon the mechanical properties of the
materials used. Since these properties are usually determined from simple tension or
compression tests, therefore, predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial
stress is both simple and straight-forward. But the problem of predicting the failure
stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses is much more
complicated. In fact, the problem is so complicated that a large number of different
theories have been formulated. The principal theories of failure for a member
subjected to bi-axial stress are as follows:
1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s Theory)
3. Maximum Principal (Or Normal) Strain Theory (Saint Venant’s Theory)
4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)
5. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky & Von Mises Theory)

For this, we have to study Principal Stresses first.

31
PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND PRINCIPAL PLANES
It has been observed that at any point in a strained material, there are three planes,
mutually perpendicular to each other which carry direct stresses only and no shear
stress. It may be noted that out of these three direct stresses, one will be maximum
and the other will be minimum. These perpendicular planes which have no shear
stress are known as principal planes and the direct stresses along these planes are
known as principal stresses. The planes on which the maximum shear stress act are
known as planes of maximum shear.

R.K.MANTRI, G.P., KHAMGAON 32

VARIABLE STRESSES
Consider a rotating beam of circular cross-section and carrying a load W, as shown in
Fig. This load induces stresses in the beam which are cyclic in nature. A little
consideration will show that the upper fibres of the beam (i.e. at point A) are under
compressive stress and the lower fibres (i.e. at point B) are under tensile stress. After
half a revolution, the point B occupies the position of point A and the point A occupies
the position of point B. Thus the point B is now under compressive stress and
the point A under tensile stress. The speed of variation of these stresses depends upon
the speed of the beam. From above we see that for each revolution of the beam, the
stresses are reversed from compressive to tensile.
W

33
CYCLIC STRESSES

FLUCTUATING STRESS REPEATED STRESS

ALTERNATING STRESS 34
FATIGUE & ENDURANCE LIMIT
It has been found experimentally that when a material is
subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point stresses.
Such type of failure of a material is known as Fatigue. The failure is caused by means
of a progressive crack formation which are usually fine and of microscopic size. The
failure may occur even without any prior indication. The fatigue of material is effected
by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and fluctuating loads and
the number of load reversals. A little consideration will show that if the stress is kept
below a certain value as shown by dotted line in Fig., the material will not fail
whatever may be the number of cycles. This stress, as represented by dotted line, is
known as endurance or fatigue limit (σe). It is defined as maximum value of the
completely reversed bending stress which a polished standard specimen can
withstand without failure, for infinite number of cycles.

R.K.MANTRI, G.P., KHAMGAON 35

Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the
criterion for faliure. Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance
limit. Mathematically,
Endurance Limit Stress
Factor of Safety (F.S.) =
Design or working stress

36
STRESS
CONCENTRATION

37
Stress Concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the
simple stress distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the
discontinuity is different. This irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt
changes of form is called stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the
p re s e n c e o f f il le t s ,
T h e o r o t ica l o r F o r m
n o t ch es , h o le s , k e y w a y s , sp lines, surface roughness or
S tr e ss C o n ce n t ra t i o n F a c to r
th e b o u n d a r y aThe
scratches t t h a t p at oeinr iat l. ne a r
d is co n t in uetc. i t y i s d i ff Wemr hen e tn .e vTer
th e e dg stress
his airregularity
m a chin inthe
e co m
e s
distribution
is st r e caused
ss e d bycabrupt
o n si changes
d e ra bof lform
y hi is called
g he rstress concentration. It occurs
p
for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets,f notches,
on e n t c h an g e s t h e s h a pe o it s holes, keyways, splines,
th a n roughness
surface t h e a or v e ra g v a lu e . Th e near m axi m edges
u m isststressed
re s s
c ro s s- s e cti o n scratches
, th e s etc. i m Thep lematerial
st re ss thed is tr ibu ti on
considerably
o c cu r s ahigher t s om thanethep average
oin t ovalue.
n The maximum stress occurs at some point
n o l o n g e r ho ld s g oo d
on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point. The theoretical or
tform
h e fill e concentration
t an d i s d ir e cis t defined
e d p ar a lleratio l t o
a n stress
d t h e n ei g h factor b o u r h o o d asothe f t h e of the maximum stress in a
member (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based upon
net area.
Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration factor,
Kt =
Maximum stress
The value of Kt depends upon the mR.K.aMtAeNrTiRaI,lGa.P.n, 38
KNominal
HA M G stress
AO N
Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration
factor, Maximum stress
Kt =
Nominal stress
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
Effect of Stress Concentration on Materials
1. In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as
in brittle materials, because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding
takes place which reduces the concentration. In brittle materials, cracks may
appear at these local concentrations of stress which will increase the stress
over the rest of the section. It is, therefore, necessary that in designing parts
of brittle materials such as castings, care should be taken. In order to avoid
failure due to stress concentration, fillets at the changes of section must be
provided.
2. In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious
because the ductility of the material is not effective in relieving the
concentration of stress caused by cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or any
sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the member. If the stress at
any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the material, a crack
may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to
failure of the member. 39
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration (Mitigation)

40
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration (Mitigation)

41
Fatigue of Stress Concentration Factor
When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value
of fatigue stress concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress
concentration factor. Since the determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is
not an easy task, therefore from experimental tests it is defined as,
Fatigue stress concentration factor,
Endurance limit without stress concentration
Kf =
Endurance limit with stress concentration
Notch Sensitivity
In cyclic loading, the effect of the notch or the fillet is usually less than
predicted by the use of the theoretical factors as discussed before. The difference
depends upon the stress gradient in the region of the stress concentration and on the
hardness of the material. The term notch sensitivity is applied to this behaviour. It may
be defined as the degree to which the theoretical effect of stress concentration is
actually reached. The stress gradient depends mainly on the radius of the notch, hole
or fillet and on the grain size of the material. Since the extensive data for estimating
the notch sensitivity factor (q) is not available, therefore the curves, as shown in Fig.
on next page, may be used for determining the values of q for two steels.

42
When the notch sensitivity factor q is used in cyclic loading, then fatigue stress
concentration factor may be obtained from the following relations:
Kf - 1
q=
Kt – 1
So, Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)
43
 AESTHETIC & ERGONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS IN
DESIGN
44
 Parameters Considered By A Customer While Selecting A Product

❑ FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE
❑ DURABILITY
❑ INITIAL AND RUNNING COSTS
❑ ABILITY TO WITHSTAND ADVERSE CONDITIONS
❑ SERVICE SUPPORT AVAILABLE
❑ COMFORT TO USER
❑ APPEARANCE

• Aesthetics is defined as a set of principles of appreciation of beauty. It deals

with the appearance of the product.
• Appearance is an outward expression of quality of the product and is the
first communication of the product with the user.
• At any stage in the product life, the aesthetic quality cannot be separated
from the product quality.
• The growing importance of the aesthetic considerations in product design
has given rise to a separate discipline, known as ‘industrial design’. The job
of an industrial designer is to create new shapes and forms for the product
which are aesthetically appealing.

45
 GUIDELINES IN AESTHETIC DESIGN
The aesthetic quality contributes to the performance of the product, though the
extent of contribution varies from the product to product. For example, the
chromium plating of the automobile components improves the corrosion resistance
along with the appearance. Similarly, the aerodynamic shape of the car improves the
performance as well as gives the pleasing appearance.

The following guidelines are used in aesthetic design.

✔ The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product. For
example, the aerodynamic shape of the car will have a lesser air resistance,
resulting in the lesser fuel consumption.
✔ The appearance should reflect the function of the product. For example, the
aerodynamic shape of the car indicates the speed.
✔ The appearance should reflect the quality of the product. For example, the robust
and heavy appearance of the hydraulic press reflects its strength and rigidity.
✔ The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is a prime
requirement.
✔ The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of
materials.
✔ The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product is
used.
46
ASPECTS OF AESTHETIC DESIGN

1. FORM (SHAPE)
2. SYMMETRY & BALANCE
3. COLOUR
4. CONTINUITY
5. VARIETY
6. PROPORTION
7. CONTRAST
8. IMPRESSION & PURPOSE
9. STYLE
0. MATERIAL & SURFACE FINISH
1. TOLERANCE
2. NOISE

47
1. FORMS (SHAPE)

Basic Types of Product Forms

• Step form : The step form is a stepped structure having vertical accent. It is similar
to the shape of a multistory building.
• Taper form : The taper form consists of tapered blocks or tapered cylinders.
• Shear form : The shear form has a square outlook.
• Streamline form : The streamline form has a streamlined shape having a smooth
flow as seen in automobile and airplane structures.
• Sculptureform : The sculpture form consists of ellipsoids,
paraboloids and
hyperboloids.

48
2. SYMMETRY & BALANCE
See the various arrangements of Control Panel.

49
3. COLOUR

COLOUR MEANING
RED DANGER
ORANGE POSSIBLY DANGER
MORGAN COLOUR CODE
YELLOW CAUTION
GREEN SAFE
BLUE COLD
4. CONTINUITY GREY DULL

50
5. VARIETY
Variety is particularly useful while marketing the range of products. The
variety relieves the user of the boredom. For example, in consumer appliances,
the functionally identical products are manufactured in a number of varieties by
a single manufacturer.

6. PROPORTION
Proportion is concerned with the relationship, in size, between connected
items or elements of items.
The spanner,satisfies the functional requirement and is also easy to
manufacture.
But it is out of proportion, and hence poor in appearance.
The spanner as shown is in proportion and aesthetically pleasing.

POOR IN APPEARANCE
BETTER IN APPEARANCE
51
7. CONTRAST
Contrast is a distinction between the adjacent elements of the product
which have clearly different characteristics and functions.
The contrast improves the aesthetic appeal of the product.

8. IMPRESSION & PURPOSE

The product should give the impression of the satisfactory performance or
purpose.
Eg. Consider the first shape given in diagram.
In 2nd shape, the taper shape gives the impression of strength and stability as
shown in figure.

52
The streamline shape gives the impression of speed.

9. STYLE
Style is a visual quality of the product which sets it apart from the rest of the
functionally identical products.
Good style will skillfully reflect a current public mood, which may be influenced
by the technological developments, or by a prevailing social or environmental
climate.

53
10. MATERIAL & SURFACE FINISH
The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the
appearance.
The material like, stainless steel gives better appearance than the cast irons,
plain carbon steels or low alloy steels.
The brass or bronze give richness to the appearance of the product.
The products with better surface finish are always aesthetically pleasing.
The surface coating processes like : spray painting, anodizing, electroplating, etc.
greatly enhances the aesthetic appeal of the product.

11. TOLERANCE
Proper tolerance of the mating parts improves the aesthetic appeal of the
product.
Unwanted clearance or interference hampers the aesthetic appeal.

12. NOISE
Unwanted noise is disturbing and is suggestive of some malfunction within
the product, and hence it greatly reduces the aesthetic appeal.

54
ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATONS IN DESIGN

• Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the Man-Machine-Working

environment relationship and the Application of anatomical, Physiological
and Psychological principles to solve the problems arising from this
relationship.
• The word ‘Ergonomics’ is formed from two Greek words : ‘Ergon’ (work) and
‘Nomos’ (Natural Laws).
• The final objective of the ergonomics is to make the machine fit for user
rather than to make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine. It aims
at decreasing the physical and mental stresses to the user.

AREAS COVERED UNDER ERGONOMICS

• COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MAN & MACHINE

• WORKING ENVIRONMENT
• HUMAN ANATOMY & POSTURE WHILE WORKING
• ENERGY EXPENDITURE IN HAND & FOOT OPERATIONS

55
I. COMMUNICATION BETWEEN MAN & MACHINE

an-Machine Closed Loop System

MAN-MACHINE CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

Figure shows the man-machine closed loop system. The machine has a display
unit and a control unit. A man (user) receives the information from the machine
display through the sense organs. He (or she) then takes the corrective action on
the machine controls using the hands or feet. This man-machine closed loop
system in influenced by the working environmental factors such as : lighting,
noise, temperature, humidity, air circulation, etc.
56
 UNITS OF MAN-MACHINE SYSTEM

DISPLAYS CONTROLS

DESIGN OF DISPLAYS
✔ Displays are the devices through which the man (user) receives the information
from the machine.
✔ A good display device is one which allows the proper combination of speed,
accuracy and sensitivity of display.
✔ The display devices can be broadly classified into two categories :
A. Qualitative Displays
B. Quantitative Displays.

57
QUALITATIVE
DISPLAYS

STRAIGHT DIAL

CIRCULAR DIAL
SIGNAL LIGHTS
QUANTITATIVE measurements or
DISPLAYS
The displays which give the quantitative
information are known as quantitative displays. numerical are voltmeters,
The examples of the quantitative displays
speedometers, energy meters, watches, etc. ammeters,

The quantitative displays are of the following types :

Moving pointer - fixed scale type displays
Fixed pointer - moving scale type displays &
Digital Displays
58
MOVING POINTER - FIXED SCALE TYPE
DISPLAYS

SEMI-CIRCULAR SCALE
CIRCULAR SCALE

HORIZONTAL SCALE

VERTICAL SCALE
59
FIXED POINTER - MOVING SCALE TYPE
DISPLAYS

OPEN WINDOW HORIZONTAL SCALE

FIXED POINTER CIRCULAR SCALE OPEN WINDOW

VERTICAL SCALE

DIGITAL
DISPLAYS

60
 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF DISPLAYS
The basic objective in the design of the displays is to minimize the fatigue to the
user. The ergonomic considerations in the design of the displays are as follows :
1. The scale should be clear and legible.
2. The size of the numbers or letters on the scale should be taken such that,
Height of the number or letter ≥ Reading Distance / 200
3. The scale should be divided in a linear progression such as 0 – 10 – 20 – 30… and
not as 0 – 5 – 25 – 45…
4.The number of subdivisions between the numbered divisions should be as minimum
as possible.
5.The vertical numbers should be used for the moving pointer type displays with
circular scales as shown, while the radially oriented numbers should be used for the
fixed pointer type displays with circular scales as shown.

61
6.The vertical numbers should be used for the vertical and horizontal scales as shown.
7.The numbering should be in clockwise direction on a circular scale, from left to right
on a horizontal scale and from bottom to top on a vertical scale.
8.The pointer should have a knife-edge with a mirror in a dial to minimize the parallax
error while taking the readings.
9.When a display and its associated control are to be placed near each other, the
control device should be placed either below or to the right of the display, as shown
so that the user's hand, operating the control is less likely to interfere while reading
the display.
0.Whenever straight scales are to be used, the horizontal scales are preferred over the
vertical scales because the vertical scales are more prone to the reading errors.

DESIGN OF CONTROLS
Controls are the devices through which the man (user) conveys his instructions
to the machine.

62
 SELECTION OF CONTROL DEVICES
The type and size of the control device selected for a given application depends upon
the following factors :
1. The required speed of operation;
2. The required accuracy of the control;
3. The required operating force;
4. The required range of the control;
5. The required direction of the control; and
6. The convenience of the user.

TYPES OF CONTROLS
The various types of controls used in machines are : Crank, hand-wheel, star-wheel
hand-lever, foot pedal, knob, push-button, toggle switch, joystick, etc.

63
64
 ERGONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN OF CONTROLS
The ergonomic considerations in the design of the controls are as follows :
1. The control devices should be logically positioned and easily accessible.

2. The control operation should involve minimum and smooth moments.

3. The control operation should consume minimum energy.

4.The portion of the control device which comes in contact with user's hand should be
in conformity with the anatomy of human hands.

5.The proper colours should be used for control devices and backgrounds so as to give
the required psychological effect.

6.The shape and size of the control device should be such that the user is encouraged
to handle it in such a way as to exert the required force, but not excessive force,
damaging the control or the machine.

65
II. WORKING ENVIRONMENT
The working environment affects significantly the man-machine relationship. It
affects the efficiency and possibly the health of the operator. The major working
environmental factors are :
1. Lighting,
2. Noise,
3. Temperature,
4. Humidity and Air Circulation.

66
1. LIGHTING

• The amount of light that is required to enable a task to be performed

effectively depends upon the nature of the task, the cycle time, the reflective
characteristics of the equipment involved and the vision of the operator.
• Codes of practice are available that recommend the amount of light necessary
for a certain task.
• The intensity of light in the surrounding area should be less than that at the
task area. This makes the task area the focus of attention.
• Operators will become less tired if the lighting and colour schemes are
arranged so that there is a gradual change in brightness and colour from the
task area to the surroundings.
• The task area should be located such that the operator can occasionally relax
by looking away from the task area towards a distinct object or surface.
• The distinct object or surface should not be so bright that the operator's eyes
take time to adjust to the change when he or she again looks at the task.
• Glare often causes discomfort and also reduces visibility, and hence it should
be minimised or if possible eliminated by careful design of the lighting
67
sources and their positionsR..K.MANTRI, G.P.,
2. NOISE

• The noise at the work place causes annoyance, damage to hearing and
reduction of work efficiency. The high pitched noises are more annoying than
the low pitched noises.
• Noise caused by equipment that a person is using is less annoying than that
caused by the equipment, being used by another person, because the person
has the option of stopping the noise caused by his own equipment, at least
intermittently.
• The industrial safety rules specify the acceptable noise levels for different
work places.
• If the noise level is too high, it should be reduced at the source by
maintenance, by the use of silencers and by placing vibrating equipment on
isolating mounts.
• Further protection can be obtained by placing the sound-insulating walls
around the equipment.
• If required, ear plugs should be provided to the operators to reduce the
effect of noise.
68
3. TEMPERATURE
• For an operator to perform the task efficiently, he should neither feel hot nor
cold.
• When the heavy work is done, the temperature should be relatively lower
and when the light work is done, the temperature should be relatively
higher.
• The optimum required temperature is decided by the nature of the work. The
deviation of the temperature from the optimum required reduces the
efficiency of the operator.

4. HUMIDITY & AIR-CIRCULATION

• Humidity has little effect on the efficiency of the operator at ordinary
temperatures. However, at high temperatures, it affects significantly the
efficiency of the operator.
• At high temperatures, the low humidity may cause discomfort due to drying
of throat and nose and high humidity may cause discomfort due to sensation
of stuffiness and over sweating in an ill-ventilated or crowded room.
• The proper air circulation is necessary to minimize the effect of high
temperature and humidity.
69