1

UNIT
Introduction

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Introduction-Definition 1-2A to 1-5A

Part-2: Future of Artificial Intelligence ......... 1-5A to 1-6A

Part-3 : Characteristics of Intelligent 1-6A to 1-12A
Agents, Typical Intelligent Agents
Part-4 : Problem Solving Approach to ... 1-12A to 1-15A
Typical AI Problems

1-1A (CSIT-Sem-7)
1-2 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Introduction

PART- 1
Introduction-definition.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. What do you mean by artificial intelligence? Define its

goals.

Answer
1 Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an area of computerscience that emphasizes
the creation of intelligent machines that work and reacts like humans.
2. Alhas become an essential part of the technology industry.
3. Research associated with artificial intelligence is highly technical and
specialized. The core problems of artificial intelligence include
programming computers for certain traits such as:
1. Knowledge
Reasoning
üi. Problem solving
iv. Perception
V. Learning
vi. Planning
vü. Ability to manipulate and move objects
Goals of AI :
1. To create expert systems : The systems which exhibit intelligent
behaviour, learn, demonstrate, explain, and advice its users.
2 To implement human intelligence in machines : Creating systems
that understand, think, learn, and behave like humans.
Que 1.2. What are the different branches of artificialI
intelligence ? Discuss some of the branches and progress made in
their fields.

Answer
Different branches of AI and progress made in these fields :
1. Machine Learning (ML) :
ML is a method where the target is defined and the steps to reach
that target are learned by the machine itself by training.
Artificial lntelligence 1-3A (CSTT-Sem-7)

For example, to identify a simple object such as an apple or orange.

The target is achieved by showing multiple pictures of object and thereby
allowing the machine to define the steps to identify it like an apple or an
orange.
2. Natural Language Processing (NLP) :
NLP is defined as the automatic manipulation of natural language,
like speech and text, by software.
i. For example, e-mail spam detection which has improved the mail
system.
3. Vision: Machine vision captures and analyses visual information using
a camera, analog-to-digital conversion, and digital signal processing.
4. Robotics:
i. Robotics is a field of engineering focused on the design and
manufacturing of robots.
Robots are used where the tasks are difficult for humans to perform.
ii. For example, car assembly lines, in hospitals, office cleaner, serving
foods and preparing foods in hotels etc.

Que 1.3. Define the role of the machine intelligence in the human

life.
AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
1
Machine intelligence is the intelligence provided to the particular
machine to achieve the goals of the problems in AI.
2 It is defined as the embedding of intelligence in the machine so that the
machine can behave like a human.
3
In human life, machine learning solves many problems of daily purpose
of the human.
4 There aremany problems which require intelligence such as complex
arithmetic which is done by machine very easily.
5 Machine learning plays an important role in following areas:
Learning:
a.
Learning means to acquire new things from the set of given
knowledge or experiences.
b. It refers to the change in subject's behaviour to a given
situation brought by repeated experiences in that situation.
ii. Reasoning :
Reasoning means to infer facts from given facts.
b. Inferences are classified as either deductive or inductive and
the reasoning is to draw inferences appropriate to the situation.
 Introduction
14A (CSIT-Sem-7)

iüi. Problem solving :

To solve problem means to
move towards the goal.
this, set ofrules are defined and a goal is also defined which
b In
rules.
is to be achieved by using these
iv. Language understanding :
language meaning.
It means to understand natural meaning-by-convention.
b Alanguage is a system of signs having
C
is distinctive of language and is
The meaning-by-conventionmeaning.
very different from natural
which AI is classified
Que 14. Describe the four categories under
AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
with examples.

Answer
Distinct categories of AI namely:
basic type of AI and are
1. Reactive machines : These are the most memories nor can use past
purely reactive. They neither can form
experiences to form decisions.
For example: IBMs Deep Blue chess-playingbeat is supercomputer which
the opponent. Apart
choose most optimal of the chess moves and
repeating the same move
from a rarely used chess-specific rule against the present moment,
three times, Deep Blue ignores everything before
AIjust perceives the world,
thus not storing any memories. This type of
and acts on it.
the chess game in the case of Deep Blue,
the past. Not the
2 Limited memory: These machines can look into
usage of memories
ability to predict what happened in the past, but the
to form decisions.
other cars' speed and
For example: Self-driving cars. They observe ofhow a car is
directions and act accordingly. This requires monitoring observe and
humans
driven for a specificamount of time. Just like how
are not stored in the
learn the specifics. These pieces of information humans. We humans
library of experiences of the machines, unlike experiences and can
automatically save everything in the library of our
learn from it, but limited memory machines can't.
understand
3 Theory of mind : These are types of machines that can
some of
that people have beliefs, emotions, expectations, etc. and have
their own.
Atheory of mind" machine can think emotionally and can respond with
emotions.
For example : AI like Sophia, the research is not complete yet, these
machines have a notion of not just the world, but also the existing
entities of the world, like human beings, animals, etc.
 1-5 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Artificial Intelligence
4. Self-Awareness: These types of machines can be called human
equivalents.
For example : The difference between "theory of mind" and self
awareness" AI. The feeling of Iwant to play is different from the feeling
of I know I want toplay. In the latter, there is a sense of consciousness
and is a characteristic of a self-aware machine, while the former feeling
is a characteristic of a theory-of-mind machine. Self-aware machines
will have the ability to predict others' feelings.

PART-2

Future ofArtificial Intelligence.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.5. Describe briefly the evolution of artificial intelligence.

AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Evolution of AI :
1. Beginning of AI (1943): The concept of AI began around 1943. AI is
not limited to the computer sciences disciplines, but can be seen in
various other areas.
2 AIknowledge-based expert system (1970): An Al system often uses
a rule-based system to capture knowledge in the îorm of if-then
statements or as decision trees.

3 Machine learning (1998) :There are two types of machine learning :

i. Formal:The formal type of machine learning is a computer
program that learns from experience in respect to some task and
increases performance based on that experience.
ii. Informal : The informal involves giving computers the ability to
learn without explicitly programming the capability.
4 Supervised learning (2004) : The supervised learning is based on
giving the correct answers and having the computer mapping inputs to
outputs. For example,
Spam filters: Software is trained to learn and distinguish between
spam and non-spam messages (For example, e-mail filters).
ii. Facial recognition : It is used by cameras to focus and via photo
editing software to tag persons (For example, Facebook).
1-6A (CSIT-Sem-7) Introduction
5. Unsupervised learning (2010): Unsupervised learning is the reverse
of supervised learning where the correct answers are unknown. For
example,
i. Clustering algorithm : Used to find patterns in datasets and
then group that data into different coherent clusters.
ii. Market segmentation:Targeting customers based on regions,
likes, dislikes, when the consumer makes purchases, etc. This is
considered targeted marketing.
6. Genetic programming (2010) :Genetic programming is an idea that
uses evolutionary process to improve algorithms.
7. Future of AI (2019 onwards): There are many challenges in mimicking
human intelligence. Humans acquire common senses that are intuitive
but hard to reason rationally. For example, the colour of a blue car is
blue.

PART-3
Characteristics of Intelligent Agents, Typical Intelligent Agents.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.6. What do you mean by agent and agent program ? How
do you ensure that an agent program is an intelligent agent
program ? AKTU2014-15, Marks 05

Answer
1. An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors
and act upon that environment through actuators. An agent runs in the
cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting.
2 To understand the structure of intelligent agents, we should be familiar
with architecture and agent program.
Agent = Architecture + Agent Program
3. Architecture is the machinery that the agent executes on. It is a device
with sensors and actuators, for example : a robotic car, a camera, a PC.
4. Agent program is an implementation of an agent function.
5 An agent function is a map from the percept sequence to an action.
6 An agent program is an intelligent agent program if it follows the weak
notion (i.e., flexibility, interactivity and autonomy) and strong notion
(i.e., information-related states, connotative states and affective states).
Artificial lntelligence 1-7A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Que 1.7. What is intelligent agent ? Deseribe basic kinds of agent

programs. AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
OR
Define intelligent agent. Explain various types of agent program
with suitable example. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Intelligent agent : An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which acts
upon an environment using sensors and actuators for achieving goals. An
intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve their goals.

Percepts
Sensors
Environment
Effectors
Actions
Fig. 1.7.1.
Basic kinds of agent programs are :
1. Simple reflex agent:
i The simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents
take decisions on the basis of the current percepts and ignore the
E:
F rest of the percept history.
ii.
These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.
iüi. The simple reflex agent works on condition-action rule, which
means it maps the current state to action.
Sensors
Agent
Environment
What the world is
like now

What action I should

Condition-action rules do now

Actuators

Fig. 1.7.2. Simple reflex agent.

iv. It acts according to a rule whose condition matehes the current
state, as defined byy the percept.
2. Model-based reflex agent:
1. The model-based agent can work in a partially observable
environment, and track the situation.
 Introduction
1-8 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

ii. Amodel-based agent has two important factors :

a. Model : It is knowledge about "how things happen in the
world," so it is called model-based agent.
b. Internal state : It is a representation of the current state
based on percept history.
ii. These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world"
and based on the model they perform actions.
Sensors
State
Environment
How the world What the world is
evolves Jike now
What my actions do

What action I should

Condition-action rules do now

Agent Actuators

Fig. 1.7.3. Model-based agent.

iv. It keeps track of the current state of the world using an internal
model and then chooses an action.
3. Goal-based agents:
i. The knowledge of the current state environment is not always
sufficient to decide for an agent to what to do.
The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable
situations. They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
iüü. These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible
actions before deciding whether the goal is achieved or not.
Sensors
State

How the world What the world is

evolves like now Environment

What it will be
What my actions do like if Ido action A

What action I should

Goals do now

Agent Actuators

Fig. 1.7.4. Goal-based agent.

Artificial Intelligence 1-9A (CS/IT-Sem-7)
iv. It keeps track of the world state as well as a set of goals it is trying
to achieve, and ch0oses an action that will (eventually) lead to the
achievement of its goals.
4. Utility-based agents:
i. Utility-based agent is the best way toachieve the goal.
The utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible
alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to perform the
best action.

ii. The utility function maps each state toa real number to check how
efficiently each action achieves the goals.

Sensors
State

How the world What the world is

evolves like now
Environment
What it will be
What my action do like ifi do action A

Goals
How happy i will
be in such a state

What action i should

do now

Agent Actuators

Fig. 1.7.5. Utility-based agent.

iv. It uses a model of the world, along with a utility function that
measures its preferences among states of the world. Then it chooses
the action that leads to the best expected utility, where expected
utility.
Que 1.8.Deseribe the characteristics of intelligent system ?
Answer

Characteristics of intelligent agent (IA) :

1. The IA must learn and improve through interaction with the
environment.
2. The IA must adapt online and in the real time situation.
3. The IA must learn quickly from large amounts of data.
1-10 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Introduction

4. The IA must accommodate new problem solving rules incremently.

5. The IA must have memory which must exhibit storageand retrieval
capacities.
6. The LA should be able to analyze self in terms of behaviour, error and
success.

Que 1.9. State the various properties of environment.

AKTU2018-19, Marks 10

Answer
Properties of environments:
1. Discrete / Continuous : If there are a limited number of distinct,
clearly defined, states of the environment, the environment is discrete
otherwise it is continuous.
2. Observable / Partially observable : If it is possible to determine the
complete state of the environment at each time point from the percepts
it is observable; otherwise it is only partially observable.
3. Dynamic/ Static : If theenvironment is changing for agents action
then the environment is dynamic for that agent, otherwise it is static.
4. Single agent / Multiple agents : An agent operating by itself in an
environment is single agent. Multiple agent is when other agents are
present. Other agent is anything that changes from step to step.
5. Accessible / Inaccessible : If the agent's sensory apparatus can have
access to the complete state of the environment, then the environment
is accessible to that agent; otherwise it is inaccessible.
6. Deterministic /Non-deterministic : If the next state of the
environment is completely determined by the current state and the
actions of the agent, then the environment is deterministic; otherwise it
is non-deterministic.

7. Episodic /Non-episodic :If the agent's experience is divided into

atomic episodes and in each episodes the agent receives a percept and
then performs a single action, then the environment is episodic; otherwise
it is non-episodic.
Que 1.10. Explain learning agent with its architecture.
Answer

1 Alearning agent is a tool in Al that is capable of learning from its

experiences.
2. Learning agents are able to perform tasks, analyze performance and
look for new ways to improve on those tasks.
Artificial lntelligence 1-11 A
(CSIT-Sem-7)
Architecture of learning agent :
1 Alearning agent can be divided into four components as shown in the
Fig. 1.10.1.
Performance standard

Critic Sensors
Feedback
Changes
Learning Performance
element element
Learning
Knowledge
goals
Problem
generator
Actuators
Agent
Fig. 1.10.1.
2. Four component of learning agent are:
a. Learning element :
The learning element responsible for making improvements.
It uses feedback from the critic on how the agent is doing and
determines how the performance elements should be modified
in the future.
ü. The design of learning element depends on the design of
performance element.
b. Performance element :It is responsible for selecting external
action.
C. Critic :
i. It tells the learning elements how wellthe agent is doing with
respect to a fixed performance standard.
It is necessary because the percepts themselves provide no
indication of the agent's success.
d. Problem generator :
i. Problem generator is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead tonew and informative experiences.
It also suggests exploratory actions.
applications
Que 1.11. Explain in detail on the characteristics and
AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
of learning agents.
1-12 A (CAIT-Sem-7) Introduction

Answer
Characteristics of learning agent:
1 Situatedness :When an agent receives some form of sensory input
from its environment, it then performs some actions that change its
environment in some way.
2. Autonomy: This agent characteristic means that an agent is able to
act without direct intervention from humans or other agents. This
type of agent has almost complete control over its own actions and
internal state.
3. Adaptivity : This agent characteristic means that it is capable of
reacting flexibly to changes within its environment. It is able to accept
goal directed initiatives when appropriate and is also capable of learning
from its own experiences, environment and interaction with others.
4. Sociability : This type of characteristic means that the agent is capable
of interacting in a peer-to-peer manner with other agents or humans.
Applications of learning agent :
1. Clustering
2. Classification
3. Prediction
4. Search engines
5. Computer vision
6. Self-driving car
7. Recognition of gestures
PART-4
Problem Solving Approach to Typical Al Problems.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.12. What are the AI components that are required to solve
problem?
Answer
AI components that are required to solve problem are: There are
six
major components of an artificial intelligence system. They are solely
responsible for generating desired results for particular problem. These
components are as follows,
Artificial Intelligence 1-13 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
1. Knowledge Representation : It is used for representing necessary
knowledge so as to generate knowledge base with the help of which AI
system can perform tasks and generate results.
2. Heuristic Searching Techniques: While dealing with the problems
the knowledge base keeps on growing and growing making it difficult to
search in that knowledge base. To tackle this challenge, heuristic
searching techniques can be used which can provide results efficiently
in terms of time andmemory usage.
3. Artificial Intelligence Hardware : Hardware must be efficient to
accommodate and produce desire results. Hardware components include
each and every machinery required spanning from memory to processor
to communicating devices.
4. Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition : AIprograms capture
the inputs on their own by generating a real world scenario with the
help of this component. Sufficient and compatible hardware enables
better patterns gathering that makes a useful knowledgebase.
5. Natural Language Processing: This component processes or analysis
written or spoken languages. Acquiring the word sequence and parsing
sentence into computer is no just sufficient to gain knowledge about
environment for AI systems. Natural Language processing plays vital
role in understanding of domain of text to Al systems.
6. Artificial Intelligence Language and Support Tools : Artificial
intelligence languages are almost similar to traditional software
development programming languages with additional feature to capture
human brain processes and logic as much as possible.

Que 1.13. Describe the formal description of the problem ?

Answer
Formal description of the problem is as follows:
1. Explicit goal of the problem : Goals help to organize behaviour of
systems by limiting the objectives that the agent is trying to achieve.
Goal formulation is based on the current situation and the agent's
performance measure. It is first step towards problem solving.
2. Implicit criteria for success:That is how success is defined. That
will be the ultimate thing system needs to achieve, which is the problem
solution's output.
3. Initial situation : It means that what is going to be the start state of
problem being solved.
4. Ability to perform : It tells how agents transform from one situation
to another, how operations and rules are specified which change the
states of the problem during solution process.
1-14 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Introduction

Que 1.14. Explain the two main kinds of problemformulation ?

Answer
Two main kinds of problem formulation :
1. Incremental formulation :
i. It involves operators that augment the state description, starting
with an empty state.
i. It generates many sequences.
ii. Menmory requirements is less as all states are not explored
(exploration will be done till the goal is found).
2. Complete state formulation :
In this initially we will have some basic configuration represented
in initial state.
. Here while doing any action first the conditions on the actions will
be checked so that the configuration state after the action will be
same legal state.
ii. It takes up large memory as complete state space is generated. This
formulation reduces number of sequences generated.
Que 1.15. What are the steps involved in problem solving agent ?
Answer
Problem solving agent achieves success by taking following approach to
problem solution:
Step 1: Goal setting
Agent set the goal by considering the environment.
Step 2: Goal formulation
The goals set in step 1are formalized in the frame work. The key activity in
goal formulation is :
i. To observe current state.
ii. To tabulate agent's performance measures.
Step 3:Problem formulation
After formulating goal, it is required to find out what will be the sequence
of actions which generate goal state.
i. Problem formulation is a way of looking at actions and states generated
because of actions, which leads to success.
Step 4: Search in unknown environment
i. If the task environment is unknown then agent first tries different
sequence of actions and gathers knowledge (i.e., learning). Then agent
Artificial Intelligence 1-15 A (CIT-Sem-7)

gets known set of actions which leads to goal state. Thus agent search
for describable sequence of actions this process is called as searching
process.
With knowledge of environment and goal state we can design a search
algorithm. A search algorithm is a procedure which takes problem as
input and returns its solution which is represented in the form of action
sequence.
Step 5: Execution phase
i. Once the solution is given by the search algorithm then the actions
suggested by the algorithm are executed.
ii. This is the execution phase. Solution guides agent for doing the actions.
After executing the actions, agent again formulate new goal.
Problem

(Set of goals)

Goal information

Performace measure

Problem and search,

formulation

Action, states

Execution

Goal satisfied

Fig. 1.15.1. Problem solving agent.

VERY MPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. What do you mean by artificial intelligence? Define its goals.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.1.
 2
UNIT
Problem Solving
Methods

CONTENTS
Part-1: Problem Solving Methods .2-2A to 2-4A

Part-2 : Search Strategies, Uninformed, .2-4A to 2-11A

Informed, Heuristic

Part-3 : Local Search Algorithm and .2-11A to 2-14A

Optimization Problems,
Searching with Partial
Observation

Part-4 : Constraint Satisfaction .2-14A to 2-17A

Problem, Constraint
Propagation
Part-5: Backtracking Search .2-17A to 2-18A

Part-6 Game Playing, Optimal. .2-19A to 2-23A

Decisions in Games

Part-7: Alpha Beta Pruning, .2-23A to 2-27A

Stochastic games

2-1 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
2-2 A (CSTT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

PART-1

Problem Solving Methods.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. What are the two categories of problem ?

Answer
We can distinguish problems in two categories:
1. Toy problem :
i. Atoy problem is a problem which illustrates various problem solving
methods.
For the toy problem exact and precised description can be given.
ii. These problems provide basis for solving some real-life problems.
iv. They can be used by researchers to compare performance of
algorithms.
V For example :8-queen puzzle, vacuum world, bali picker robot.
2 Real world problem:
i. Areal-world problem is a problem which needs to be solved so that
its solution can be utilized in practical life.
They do not have well described, single specification.
ii. People do care about the solutions of real-world problem as they
are benefited from it.
iv. For example : Route finding for a trip, travelling salesman problem,
robot navigation, car reversing guide.
Que 2.2.Explain construction of state space.
Answer
Construction of state space :
1 The root of search tree is a search node corresponding to initial state. In
this state only we can check if goal is reached.
2 If goal is not reached we need to consider another state. Such a process
can be done by expanding from the current state by applying successor
function which generates new state. From this we may get multiple
states.
Artificial ntelligence 2-3 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

3. For each one of these, again we need to check goal test or else repeat
expansion of each state.
4. The choice of which state to expand is determined by the search strategy.
5. Itis possible that some state, surely,can never lead to goal state. Such a
state we need not to expand. This decision is based on various conditions
of the problem.
Que 2.3. What are various terminologies used in search tree ?

Answer
Terminologies used in search trees are :
1. Node in a tree : It is a book keeping data structure to represent the
structure configuration of a state in a search tree.
2, State : It reflects world configuration. It is mapping of state and action
to another new state.
3. Fringe:It is acollection of nodesthat have been generated but not yet
expanded.
4. Leaf node: Each node in fringe is leaf node (as it does not have further
successor node).

Que 2.4. How performance of problem solving algorithm is

evaluated ?

Answer
Problem solving algorithm's performance can be evaluated on the following
four basic factors:
1. Completeness: Does the algorithm surely find asolution, if really the
solution exists.
2. Optimality : Sometimes it happens that there are multiple solutions to
a single problem. But the algorithm is expected to produce best solution
among all feasible solution, which is called as optimal solution.
3. Time complexity : How much time the algorithm takes to find the
solution.
4. Space complexity : How much memory is required to perform the
search algorithm.
Que 2.5. Explain state space approach for solving any Al problem.
|AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
2-4 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

Answer
1. Astate is a representation of problem elements at a given moment.
2 AState space is the set of all states reachable from the initial state.
3 Astate space forms a graph in which the nodes are states and the arcs
between nodes are actions.
4. In the state space, a path is a sequence of states connected by a sequence
of actions.
5 The solution of a problem is part of the graph formed by the state space.
6 The state space representation forms the basis of most ofthe AI methods.
7. Its structure corresponds to the structure of problem solving in two
important ways :
It allows for a formal definition of a problem as per the need to
convert some given situation into some desired situation using a
set of permissible operations.
b. It permits the problem to be solved with the help of known
techniques and control strategies to move through the problem
space until goal state is found.
8. To solve a particular problem, we need to build a system or a method
which can generate required solution. Following four things are required
for building such system.
Define the problem precisely. This definition must precisely specify
the initial situation (input).
b. Analyse the problem. To identify those important features which
can have an immense impact on the appropriateness.
C. Isolate and represent the task knowledge that is necessary to solve
the problem.
d Choose the best problem solving technique and apply it to the
particular problem.

PART-2
Search Strategies, Uninformed, Informed, Heuristic.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.6. Define searching process.

Artificial Intelligence 2-5 A (CS/IT-Sem-7)
OR
What are the different parameters used to evaluate a search
technique ? AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
OR
List the criteria to measure the performance of different search
strategies. AKTU 2018-19, Marks 05

Answer

Searching:
1. Searching is the sequence of steps that transforms the initial state to
the goal state.
2. The process of search includes :
Initial state description of the problem.
b. A set of legal operators that change the state.
The final or goal state.
Following are the parameters used to evaluate a search technique :
1. Completeness : By completeness, the algorithm finds an answer in
some finite time. So, the algorithm is said to be complete if it is guaranteed
to find a solution, if there is one.
2. Space and time complexity :With space and time complexity, we
address the memory required and the time factor in terms of operations
carried out.
3. Optimality :Optimality tells us how good the solution is. So, an algorithm
or a search process is said to be optimal, if it gives the best solution.
Que 2.7. Describe the types of search strategies.

Answer
Types of search strategies :
Uninformed search:
1 Uninformed search means that they have no additional information
about states beyond that provided in the problem definition.
2. An uninformed search should proceed in a systematic way by exploring
nodes in some predetermined order or simply by selecting nodes at
random.
Uninformed search is also called Brute Force Search or Blind Search or
3.
Exhaustive Search.
4. It is of following types :
i. Breadth First Search
i. Depth First Search
iii. Uniform Cost search
2-6 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Problem Solving Methods
Informed search:
1. Informed search algorithm contains an array of knowledge such as how
far we are from the goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node, etc. This
knowledge helps agents to explore less to the search space and find
more efficiently the goal node.
2. Informed search methods often depend on the use of heuristic
information.
3. Informed search is aiso known as heuristic search.
4. Types of informed search are:
i Hill climbing
ii. Best First Search
i. A* algorithm
Que 2.8. Differentiate between informed search and uninformed
search.
Answer

S. No. Informed Uninformed

search search
1. It uses knowledge to find the No use of knowledge.
steps to the solution.
2. It is highly efficient as Efficiency is mediatory.
consumes less time and cost.
3 Cost is low. Cost is comparatively high.
4. It finds solution more quickly. Its speed is slow.
5. For example : Best first For example : Breadth First
search, A* algorithm Search, Depth First Search

Que 2.9. Write a short note on

Breadth First Search (BFS)
ii. Depth First Search (DFS)
OR
Explain DFS algorithm with suitable example.
AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
Answer
i. Breadth First Search (BFES):
1. Breadth First Search (BFS) is an
algorithm for traversing or
searching tree.
Artificial Intelligence 2-7A (CSIT-Sem-7)
2, It starts at the tree root (or some arbitrary node of a graph,
sometimes referred to as a 'search key'), and explores all of the
neighbour nodes at the present depth prior to moving on to the
nodes at the next depth level.
Algorithm:
1 Create a variable called NODE-LIST and set it to the initial state.
2 Until a goal state is found or NODE-LIST is empty:
Remove the first element from NODE-LIST and call it E. IfNODE
LIST was empty, quit.
b For each way that each rule can match the state described in E do :
1.
Apply the rule to generate a new state.
If the new state is a goal state, quit and return this state.
ii. Otherwise, add the new state to the end of NODE-LIST.
ii. Depth First Search (DFS):
1. Depth First Search (DFS) is an algorithm for traversing or searching
tree.
The algorithm starts at the root node (selecting some arbitrary
node as the root node in the case of a graph) and explores as far as
possible along each branch before backtracking.
Algorithm :
1. If the initial state is agoal state, quit and return success.
2. Otherwise, do the following until success or failure is signaled:
a.
Generate a successor, E, of the initial state. If there are no more
successors, signal failure.
b Call Depth First Search with E as the initial state.
C.
If success is returned, signal success. Otherwise continue in this
loop.
Que 2.10. Write the advantages and disadvantages of BFS and
DES.

Answer
Breadth First Search (BFS) :

Advantages :
1. If there is more than one solution for a given problem, then BFS provides
the minimal solution which requires the least number of steps.
Disadvantages :
saved into
1. It requires lots of memory since each level of the tree must be
memory to expand the next level.
2 BFS needs lots of time if the solution is far away from the root node.
2-8A (CSTT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods
Depth First Search (DFS):
Advantages :
1 DFS requires very less memory as it only needs to store a stack of the
nodes on the path from root node to the current node.
2 It takes less time to reach to the goal node.
Disadvantages :
1. There is the possibility that many states keep re-occurring, and there is
noguarantee of finding the solution.
2 DFS algorithm goes for deep down searching and sometime it may go to
the infinite loop.
Que 2.11. Differentiate between Breadth First Search (BFS) and
Depth First Search (DFS).
Answer

S. No. Breadth First Search Depth First Search

(BFS) (DFS)
1. BFS uses queue data DFS uses stack data structure for
structure for finding the finding the shortest path.
shortest path.
2. BFS is more suitable for DFS is more suitable when there
searching vertices which are are solutions away from source.
closer to the given source.
3. BFS consider allneighbours DFS is more suitable for game or
first and therefore not puzzle problems.
suitable for decision making
trees used in games or
puzzles.
4 The time complexity of BFS The time complexity of DESis also
is O(V + E), where Vstands 0(V + E), where V stands for
for vertices and Estands forvertices and E stands for edges.
edges.

Que 2.12. Write a short note on generate and test

algorithm.
Answer
Generate-and-test is a search algorithm which uses depth first search
technique. It assures to find solution in systematic way.
Algorithm for Generate-and-Test :
1. Generate apossible solution which
can either be a point in the problem
space ora path from the initial state.
Artificial Intelligence 2-9 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

2 Test to see if this possible solution is a real (actual) solution by comparing

the state reached with the set of goal states.
3. If it is real solution then return the solution otherwise repeat from
state 1.

Que 2.13. Write down the algorithm for best first search.
Answer
Algorithm for best first search:
1 Use two ordered lists OPEN and CLOSED.
2. Start with the initial node 'n,' and put it on the ordered list OPEN.
3 Create a list CLOSED. This is initially an empty list.
4. If OPEN is empty then exit with failure.
5. Select first node on OPEN. Remove it from OPEN and put it on
CLOSED. Call this node n.
6 Ifn' is the goal node exit. The solution is obtained by tracing a path
backward along the arcs in the tree from 'n' to n,'.
7. Expand node 'n,. This will generate successors. Let the set ofsuccessors
generated, be S. Create arcs from 'n' to each member of S.
8. Reorder the list OPEN, according to the heuristic and go back to step 4.
Que 2.14. Prove that breadth first search and depth first search
are the special cases of best first search.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
1
Best first search is a combination of depthfirst and breadth first searches.
2 Depth first is good because a solution can be found without computing
all nodes and breadth first is good because it does not get trapped in dead
ends.
3. The best first search allows us to switch between paths thus gaining the
benefit of both approaches. At each step the most promising node is
chosen.
4. If one of the nodes chosen generates nodes that are less promising it is
possible to choose another at the same level and in effect the search
changes from depth to breadth.
5. If on analysis these are no better than the search method reverts to the
descendants of the first choice and proceeds the backtracking as it were.
2-10 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Problem Solving Methods

Que 2.15.What is heuristic function ? Differentiate between blind

search and heuristic search strategies. AKTU2018-19, Marks 05
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Heuristic function :
1 A heuristic function is a function that ranks
alternatives in search
algorithms at each branching step based on available information to
decide which branch to follow.
2 It takes the current state of the agent as its
input and produces the
estimation of how close agent is from the goal.
3 The heuristic method might not always give the best
guarantees to find a good solution in reasonable time. solution, but it
4 Heuristic function estimates how close a state is to the goal.
5 It calculates the cost of an optimal path
between the
value of the heuristic function is always positive. pair of states. The
Difference:
S. No. Blind search strategies Heuristic search strategies
1. Blind search technique has Heuristic search
technique has
access only to the problem access to heuristic
definition. function as
well as problem definition.
2. Blind search is less efficient. Heuristic search is more efficient.
3 Every action is equally good in Every action is not
blind search. equally good
in heuristic search.
4. Many problems are not solved Most of the
by blind search. problems are solved
by heuristic search.
5. Blind search is known as
uninformed search. Heuristic search is known as
informed search.
6. Blind search use more Heuristic search use less
computation.
computation.
7. Blind se arch techniques Heuristic search techniques
include Breadth-first, Depth- include Best-first., A*, etc.
first search, etc.

Que 2.16. Describe A0* search technique.

AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
Artificial Intelligence 2-11 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Answer
A0* algorithm :
1 Initialise the graph to start node.
2. Traverse the graph following the current path accumulating nodes that
have not yet been expanded or solved.
3. Pick any of these nodes and expand it and ifit has no successors call this
value FUTILITY otherwise calculate only f' for each of the successors.
4. Iff' is 0 then mark the node as SOLVED.
5. Change the value off' for the newly created node to reflect its successors
by back propagation.
6 Wherever possible use the most promising routes and if a node is marked
as SOLVED then mark the parent node as SOLVED.
7. If starting node is SOLVED or value greater than FUTILITY, stop, else
repeat from 2.

PART-3

Local Search Algorithm and Optimization Problems, Searching

with PartialObservation.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.17. Explain about the hill climbing algorithm with its
drawback and how it can be overcome ?
AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
OR
Discuss the problems of hill climbing algorithm.
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
OR
Explain about the Hill climbing algorithm with its drawback and
how it can be overcome ? AKTU 2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
1 The hillclimbingsearch algorithm is simply a loop that continually moves
in the direction ofincreasingvalues, that is, uphill (the goal).
 2-12 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods
2 It terminates when it reaches a "peak' where no neighbour has a higher
value.
3. The algorithm does not maintain a search tree, so the current node data
structure only records the state and its objective function value.
Hill climbing algorithm :
1. Evaluate the initial state. If it is also a goal state, then return it and quit.
Otherwise, continue with the initial state as the current state.
2. Loop until a solution is found or until there are no new operators left to
be applied in the current state.
Select an operator that has not yet been applied to the current state
and apply it to produce a new state.
b Evaluate the new state.
i. If it is goal state, then return it and quit.
Ifit is not a goal state but it is better than the current state,
then make it the current state.
ii. If it is not better than the current state, then continue in the
loop.
Drawbacks of hill climbing algorithm :
1. Local maxima :
i. Alocal maximum is apeak that is higher than each of its neighobouring
states, but lower that the global maximum.
Hill climbing algorithms that reach the vicinity of a local maximum
will be drawn upwards towards the peak, but will then be stuck
with nowhere else to go.
2. Plateau:
i. Aplateau is a flat area of the search space in which a whole set of
neighbouring states has the same value.
Ahill climbing search might be unable to find its way off the plateau.
3. Ridges: Ridges result in a sequence of local maxima that is very difficult
for greedy algorithms to navigate.
To overcome the drawbacks of hill climbing algorithm:
1. Local maxima :
Backtrack to some earlier node and try going in a diferent direction.
iü. To implement this strategy, maintain a list of paths almost taken
and go back to one of them if the path that was taken leads to a
dead end.
2. Plateau:
Make a big jump in some direction to try to get to a new section of
the search space.
Artificial Intelligence 2-13 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
If the only rules available describe single small steps, apply them
several times in the same direction.
3. Ridges:
Apply two or more rules before doing the test.
ii. This corresponds to moving in several directions at once.

Que 2.18. Discuss the problem of water jugwith heuristic search

techniques. |AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
Water jugproblem:
1 You are given two jugs, a 4 litres one and a 3 litres one. Neither has any
measuring marker on it. There is a pump that can be use to fill the jugs with
water. How can you get exactly 2 litres of water into the 4 litres jug?
2, The state space for this problem can be represented by ordered pairs of
integers (x,y) such that x =0, represents the quantity of water in the 3
litres jug.
3. The start state is (0, 0)
4 The goal state is (2, n)for any value of n.
Production rules :
1 (x, y) ’ (4, y) Fill the 4 litres jug.
Ifx <4

2. (x, y) ’ (x, 3) Fill the 3 litres jug.

Ify <3
3. (x,y) ’ (x-d, y) Pour some water out of the
If x > 0 4 litres jug.
4. (x, y) -’ (x, y -d) Pour some water out of the
Ify > 0 3 litres jug.
5. (x, y) ’ (0, y) Empty the 4 litres jug on the
Ifx > 0 ground.

6. (x,y) ’ (x, 0) Empty the 3 litres jug on the

Ify > 0 ground.
7. (x, y) ’ (4, y- (4- x)) Pour water from the 3 litres
If x- y>0 jug into the 4 litres jug until
and y > 0 the 4 litres jug is full.
8 (x, y) ’ (x-(3-y), 3) Pour water from the 4 litres jug
Ifx + y >3 into the 3 litres jug until the
and x > 0 3 litres jug is full.
 Problem Solving Methods
2-14 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Pour all the water

9. (x, y) ’(x-y, 0)
If x+ y4 into the 4 litres jug.
and y > 0
(x, y) ’ (0, x + y) Pour all the water from the
10.
Ifx +y <3 4 litres jug into the 3 litres jug.
and x>0

11. (0, 2) ’ (2, 0) Pour the 2 litres from the

3 litres jug into the 4 litres jug.

12. (2, y) -’ (0, y) Empty the 2 litres in the

4 litres jug on the ground.

PART-4
Constraint Satisfaction Problems, Constraint Propagation.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.19. Explain the constraint satisfaction procedure to solve

the cryptarithmetic problem.
CROSS+ ROADS = DANGER. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
Constraint satisfaction is a search procedure that operates in a space of
constraint sets. The initial state contains the constraints that are origirally
given in the problem description.
The general form of the constraint satisfaction procedure is :
1. Select an unexpected node of the search graph.
2. To generate all possible new constraints, apply the constraint inference
rule to the selected node.
3. If the set of constraints contain a contradiction, then report that this
path is a dead end.
4. To report success, if the set of constraints, a contradiction describes a
complete solution.
5. If neither a contradiction nor a complete solution has been found then
apply the problem space rules to generate new partial solutions that are
consistent with the current set of constraints. Insert these partial
solutions into the search graph.
Artificial Intelligence 2-15 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Numerical :
Constraints :
1 D=1
2. 2S = R
3 C+R>9 or 8
4 S+1= E->S=E-1
Hence, after guessing
CROSS 96233
+ ROADS + 62513

DAN GER 158746

Que 2.20. Discuss constraint satisfacti on problem with an

algorithm for solving a cryptarithmetic problem
BASE
+ BASE
|AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
GAMES

Answer
1. Initial guess G =1because the sum of twodigit can generate at most a
carry 1.
2. IfG = 1then B should be either 8or 9.G +B gives a two digit number this
also considers the carry digit.
3. Let us consider two equation
If no carry E +L= S ...(2.19.1)
If carry E+L=S+ 10 ..(2.19.2)
E =S-L+ 10
4. Now, S+L= E ...2.19.3)
Put value of Ein eq. (2.19.3)
S+L=S-L+ 10
2L = 10
L=5

5. From eq. (2.19.1)

S-E- L
S-E= 5

6.
Now, we can try all the combination ofS and E whose difference will be
2-16 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Problem Solving Methods
(5, 0), (7, 2), (8, 3), (6, 1), (9, 4)
S, cannot be 5 because L =5. E cannot be 1
because G= 1,
6 Now B + B=A + carry, possible value of Bwill be 5, 6, 7, 8,
be 5, because 5 is assigned to L. 9, B cannot
Let (S, E) = (7, 2) and B = 6.
B + B= 12 ’A= 2 which
contradicts with E discard (7, 2).
Let (S, E) = (8, 3) and B=7.
B+ B = 14 ’ A=4, B =7, S = 8, E =3, G= 1
BASE 7483
+ BASE +7455
GAMES 14938
Que 2.21. Solve the following CSP problem of erypt
Problenm:
arithmetic.
SEND
+ MORE

MONEY AKTU2017-18, Marks 05

AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
1. Initial guess, M= l because the sum of two single digits can
most a carry of 1.
generate at
2 IfM = 1, then S should be either 8 or 9 because S+ M gives a
number. This also considers the carry digit. two-digit
3 When M= land S = 8/9, the two digit result of M+S can either be 10 or
11. That is, O will be either 0 or 1. But, l is already
assigned to Mso it can
not be assigned to any other digit. Thus, O= 0, (M + S) = 10. S can be 8/
9 depending on the carry.
4. Now, E +0 = N, which is only possible if
there's a
otherwise, E +0 =E. Thus, N=E + land C2 = 1. carry of 1 because
5 So far, we have M=1,S= 8/9, O= 0,
C2 = 1. We are struck here because
we do not know the value of E. Thus, we
values ofE.
will try different possible
6. For E =5, N =6, (N+R) = 15, R = 8/9, (D + 2) = Y.
the value of C1. So, we will assume it. Again, we do not know
7 For C1=1, R = 8, S=9, (D + 5) = 10 + Y.
IfD =7,Y= 2.
Maximum value of Dcan be 7.
8. So, M =1, S = 9, O = 0, E = 5, N = 6, R= 8, D =7, E - 5,
Y= 2.
Artificial Intelligence 2-17 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Thus,we have our probable solution as follows :
SEND 9567
+ MORE + 1085

MONEY 10652
Que 2.22. Explain constraint propagation. What is constraint
propagation with arc consistency ?
Answer
Constraint propagation :
1 Acombined approach of heuristic plus forward checking gives more
reliable, accurate and efficient results than a singular approach.
2. The forward checking propagates information from designed to
unassigned variable but cannot avoid or detect all failure.
3. Constraint propagation repeatedly enforces constraints locally.
4 The sides of arc consistency provide a fast method of constraint
propagation that is substantially stronger than forward checking. Here
"arc" refers to a directed arc in the constraint graph.
Constraint propagation using arc consistency :
1. It is fast method of constraint propagation.
2. X’Yis consistent if (for every value of Xthere is source allowed value
Y. For example |V, > V, is consistent iff V, =Red, V, =Bluel (ie., for
every value ofx in X there is some allowed valuey in ). This is directed
property example -(V,= V
V, = V, is consistent if
V, = Red and V, =Blue
3. As directed arcs between variables represent the domains of specified
variables, they are consistent with each other.
4. Constraint propagation can be applied as preprocessing or propagation
step:
i Before search-preprocessing.
After search-propagation.
5. The procedure for maintaining arc consistency can be applied repeatedly.

PART-5
Backtracking Search.
2-18 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.23. Write a short note on backtracking.

AKTU2015-16, Marks 05
Answer
1. The backtracking is an algorithmic method tosolve a problem with an
additional way.
2. It uses a recursive approach to explain the problems. The backtracking
is needed to find all possible combination to solve an optimization problem.
3 It is a systematic way of trying out different sequences of decisions until
we find one that works.
4 It is considered an important technique to solve constraint satisfaction
issues and puzzles. It is also considered a great technique for parsing
and also forms the basis of many logic programming languages.

Que 2.24. Write down backtracking search algorithm.

Answer
1 Considera CSP problem.
2. Apply backtracking search. If backtracking search successful returns a
solution else, a failure state which return a procedure recursive
backtracking.
3 Procedure recursive-backtracking starts with empty set and takes input
as CSP problem.
If complete assignment possible or assignment done then return actual
assignment.
4. Variable is assigned a specific value.
5. The relative constraint is a set which is taken as input.
6 If value is complete and consistent aceording to constraints then assign
value to variable, add that to list.
7. Callthe recursive backtracking until result or failure is reached.
8. Every time recursive-backtracking sustains result (i.e., assignment).
9 If result is failure then remove variable with specific value from
assignment. It will return failure status.
Artificial Intelligence 2-19 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

PART-6
Game Playing, Optimal Decisions in Games.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.25. Why is game playing good candidate of AI ? Explain.

AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
Answer
1 Agood candidate for Al has following characteristics:
It contains a large amount of domain-specific knowledge.
It contains computationally complex problems.
i. It can be developed as a repository for the knowledge of several
experts.
2 Let us consider an example of game playing, an intelligent system that
plays chess.
The rules of chess are easy to learn, but to play this game at an
expert level is not easy because it has 10120 possible games. This
10120 possible games of chess satisfy the frst characteristics of good
candidate for Al ie., large amount of domain-specific knowledge.
i. These 10120 possible games ofchess have equally large and complex
moves by various chess pieces (i.e., pawns, rooks, king etc). These
are computationally complex problems which cannot be solved by
straightforward algorithms. This satisfies the second characteristics
of good candidate for AI.
iii. The chess program is build based on the inputs from several expert
chess players. It has enormous amount of knowledge about chess
(domain-specific knowledge) that it uses as part of its decision
making process. This satisfies the third characteristics of good
candidate for AI.
Hence we can say that game playing is good candidate for AI.
Que 2.26. Give an example of game tree. What is the purpose of
minimax procedure in a game tree ? |AKTU2014-15, Marks 05
2-20 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

Answer
1. Agame tree is a directed graph whose nodes are positions in agame and
whose edges are moves.
2. The complete game tree for a game is the game tree starting at the
initial position and containing all possible moves from each position.
3. Fig. 2.26.1 shows the first two levels in the game tree for tic-tac-toe.

Fig. 2.26.1. The first two levels of the game tree for tic-tac-toe.
4. The rotations and reflections of positions are equivalent, so the first
player has three choices of move : in the center, at the edge, or in the
corner.

5. The second player has two choices for the reply if the first player played
in the center, otherwise five choices. And so on.
6. The number of leaf nodes in the complete game tree is the number of
possible different ways the game can be played.
7. For example, the game tree for tic-tac-toe has 255,168 leaf nodes.
Purpose of minimax procedure :
1. For many complex games such as chess, search to termination is
impossible, i.e., a win or draw cannot be obtained.
2. Our goal in searching such a game tree might be to find a good first
move.

3. This good first move can be extracted by minimax procedure. This is the
purpose of minimax procedure in a game tree.
Que 2.27. Explain various strategies of game playing.

Answer
Game playing strategies :
1. Apure strategy provides acomplete definition of how a player will play
a game. In particular, it determines the move a player willmake for any
Artificial Intelligence 2-21 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

situation they could face. A player's strategy set, is the set of pure
strategies available to that player.
2. Amixed strategy is an assignment of aprobability to each pure strategy.
This allows for a player to randomly select a pure strategy. Since
probabilities are continuous, there are infinitely many mixed strategies
available to a player, even if their strategy set is finite.
Que 2.28. Explain Min-Max algorithm with example.

AKTU2016-17, Marks 05
Answer
Min-Max algorithm :
Step 1: Set FINAL_VALUE to be minimum as possible.
Step 2 : If limit of search has been reached, then FINAL_VALUE =
GOOD_VALUE of the current position.
Step 3: Else do.
Step 3.1 :Generate the successors of the position.
Step 3.2: Recursively call MIN-MAX again with the present position with
depth incremented by unity.
Step 4: Evaluate the GOOD_VALUE.
Step 5 : If GOOD_VALUE > FINAL_VALUE then FINAL_VALUE =
GOOD_VALUE.
For example :
1. Consider a game which has four final states and paths to reach final
state are from root to four leaves of a perfect binary tree as shown
Fig. 2.28.1.
Max

L R

Min

5 2

Fig. 2.28.1.
2. Assume that maximizing player get the first chance to move, i.e.,
maximizer at the root and opponent at next level.
3. As this is a backtracking based algorithm, it tries all possible moves,
then backtracks and makes a decision:
2-22 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Problem Solving Methods
Maximizer goes LEFT: It is now the minimizers turn. The
minimizer now has a choice between 3 and 5. Being the minimizer
it will definitely choose the least among both, that is 3.
ii Maximizer goes RIGHT: It is now the minimizers turn. The
minimizer now has a choice between 2 and 9. He will choose 2 as
it is the least among the two values.
4. Being the maximizer he would choose the larger value that is 3. Hence
the optimal move for the maximizer is to go LEFT and the optimal
value is 3.
5. Fig. 2.28.2 shows two possible scores when maximizer makes left and
right moves.
Max
L R

Min 3 2

5 2 9

Fig. 2.28.2.

Que 2.29. What is adversarial search ? Write the steps for game
problem formulation. State and explain minimax algorithm with
tic-tac-toe game. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer
Adversarial search:
1. Adversarial search is a search, where we examine the problem which
arises when we try to plan ahead of the world and other agents are
planning against us.
The environment with more than one agent is termed as multi-agent
environment, in which each agent is an opponent of other agent and
playing against each other. Each agent needs to consider the action of
other agent and effect of that action on their performance.
3 So, searches in which two or more players with conflicting goals are
trying to explore the same search space for the solution are called
adversarial searches, often known as Games.
Steps for game problem formulation : Problem formulation involves
deciding what actions and states to consider for the given goal. Aproblem can
be defined formally by five components:
Artificial Intelligence 2-23 A (CSTT-Sem-7)

1 The initial state of the agent.

2. The possible actions available to the agent, corresponding to each of the
state the agent resides in.
3 The transition model deseribing what each action does.
4.The goal test, determining whether the current state is a goal state.
5 The path cost function, which determines the cost of each path, which is
reflecting in the performance measure.
Minimax algorithm: Refer Q. 2.26, Page 2-19A, Unit-2.
PART-7
Alpha Beta Pruning, Stochastic Games.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.30. How branch and bound techniques could be used to

find the shortest path solution to the travelling salesman problem.
Discuss.
AKTU2017-18, Marks 05

Answer
The branch and bound strategy is a system for solving a sequence of
subproblems each of which may have multiple possible solutions and where
the solution chosen for one sub-problem may affect the possible solutions
of later sub-problems.
Principle :
1 Suppose it is required to minimize an objective function.
2. Suppose that we have a method for getting a lower bound on the cost of
some
any solution among those in the set of solutions represented by
subset.
bound for this
3. If the best solution found so far costs less than the lower
subset:
Let S be some subset for solution. Let
L(S) = a lower bound on the cost of any solution belonging to S
C= cost of the best solution found so far
IfC<L(S), there is noneed to explore S because it does not contain any
better solution.
2-24 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

If C> LS), then we need to explore S because it may contain a better

solution.
A lower bound for a TSP:

Cost of any tour = X(Sum of the costs of the two tour edges adjacent to
veV
V)
Now,
The sum of the two tour edges adjacent to a given vertex v >sum of the two
edges of least cost adjacent to u.
Therefore,

Cost of any tour (Sum of the costs ofthe two least cost edges adjacent
to v).
Example of complete graph with five vertices :

4 3
4
7

6
5

Fig. 2.30.1.

Node Least Cost Edges Total Cost

(a, d), (a,b) 5

b (a, b), (b, e) 6

C
(c, b), (c, a)
d (d, a), (d, c) 7
e (e, b), (e, d)

Thus, a lower bound on the cost of any tour

=(5 +6 +8+7+9) =17.5
Artificial Intelligence 2-25 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Que 2.31. Explain Min-Max procedure. Describe alpha-beta

pruning and give the other modifications to the Min-Max procedure
to improve its performance. AKTU2015-16, Marks 15
Answer
Min-Max procedure :
1 The min-max algorithm removes unwanted nodes and selects the optimal
node for progressing further.
2 The min-max algorithm computes the min-max decision from the current
state.
3 It uses a simple recursive computation of the min-max values of each
Successor state.

Min-Max algorithm : Refer Q. 2.28, Page 2-21A, Unit-2.

Alpha-beta pruning:
1. Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the min-max algorithm. It is
an optimization technique for the min-max algorithm.
2. In min-max search algorithm, the number of nodes (game states) that it
has to examine is exponential in depth of the tree. Now we cannot
eliminate the exponent completely, but we can cut it to half.
3 There is atechnique by which without checking each node of the game
tree we can compute the correct min-max decision, and this technique is
called pruning. This involves two threshold parameter alpha and beta
for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning.
4. Alpha-beta pruning can be applied at any depth of a tree, and sometime
it not only prunes the tree leaves but also entire sub-tree.
5. The two parameters can be defined as:
a.
far at
Alpha: The best (highest-value) choice we have found soalpha
value of is
any point along the path of Maximizer. The initial
- 0.

b. Beta : The best (lowest-value) choice we have found so far at any

is + o,
point along the path of Minimizer. The initial value of beta
Modifications to min-max: There are some heuristic search methods
used to improve the
other than alpha-beta pruning method which are
performance of min-max procedure. They are:
1 Greedy hillclimbing method
2 Artificial immune algorithm
the following
Que 2.32. Explain alpha-beta pruning ? Solve
question.
2-26 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Problem Solving Methods

B
D

E (F) H) J) (K) L M N
-4 3 3 -1 1 - 4 1 3

AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
Answer
a. Alpha beta pruning: Refer Q. 2.31, Page 2-25A, Unit-2.
b. Numerical:

MAX

MIN

E (F) H I K M)
-2 -4 3 -3 -1 -4 1 -3

Let, . = nmax =- 0

B = min = 0
At A,A is maximizer, a =-o, B= o. We use Depth First Search and go to B.
At B, B is minimizer, initially a = - oo, B = 0. Value of B will change.
B= min (-2, 4, 3) =4.
At B, a =-0, ß =-4
Now at A, value of a will change
a= max (- 0, oo, 4) = - 4, B = + o
Initially at C, a = -4, B= 0
Now, C is minimizer, so value of ß willchange
B= min(-3, -1, 1) =-3, oa =-4
Now again at A value of a will change
a = max(-3, 4, -4) =-3, B= o
Initially at D, a = -4,B=o0
Now, D is minimizer, so value ofß will change
B= min (-4, 1, 3)=4, a=-4
Artificial Intelligence 2-27 A (CSTT-Sem-7)

Que 2.33. Write a short note on stochastic game.

Answer
1. Astochastic game is a collection of normal-form games that the agents
play repeatedly.
2 The particular game played at any time depends probabilistically on the
previous game played and the actions of the agents in that game.
3. Like a probabilistic finite state machines in which the states are the
games and the transition labels are joint action-payoff pairs.
4 Astochastic game also called as Markov game is defined by :
i A finite set Q of states (games).
ii. A set of strategies Si(x) for each player for each statex e X.
ii. Aset N = (1, .., n) of agents.
iv. For each agent i, a finite set AI of possible actions.
V. Atransition probability function P:QxA, x ... xA, x Q’ [0, 1]
Plg,a,,..., a,, q) =Probability of transitioning to state g
if the action profle (a,, .., a,) is used in state q
vi. A set of rewards dependant on the state and the actions of the
other players : u,x, S, S,).
v. For each agent i, areal-valued payoff function.
vi. ri :QxA, x, ., A, -> R(set of real numbers).
ix. Each stage game is played of a set of discrete times t.
Que 2.34. What are the strategies for solving stochastic games ?

Answer
Strategies for solving stochastic games :
1 For agent i, a deterministic strategy specifies a choice of action for i at
every stage of every possible history.
2 Amixed strategy is a probability distribution over deterministic strategies.
3. Several restricted classes of strategies :
i As in extensive-form games, a behavioral strategy is a mixed
strategy in which the mixing take place at each history
independently.
i. A Markov strategy is a behavioral strategy such that for each time
t, the distribution over actions depends only on the current state.
But the distribution may be different at time t than at timet.
ii. A stationary strategy is a Markov strategy in which the distribution
time t).
over actions depends only on the current state (not on the
 3
UNIT
Knowledge
Representation

CONTENTS
Part-1 : First Order Predicate Logic .3-2A to 3-9A

Part-2 : Prolog Programming .3-9Ato 3-11A

Part-3: Unification .3-11A to 3-13A

Part-4: Forward Chaining, Backward........ 3-13A to 3-15A

Chaining
Part-5 : Resolution .3-15A to 3-17A

Part-6: Knowledge Representation .3-18Ato 3-20A

Part-7: Ontological Engineering, .3-21A to 3-22A

Categories and Objects
Events, Mental Events and .3-22A to 3-22A
Part-8 :
Mental Objects
Part-9: Reasoning Systems for .3-22A to 3-25A
Categories, Reasoning with
Default Information

3-1A (CSIT-Sem-7)
3-2 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

PART-1
First Order Predicate Logic.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.1. Describe first order logic in artificial intelligence.

Answer
1 First order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First order predicate
logic. First order logic is a powerful language that develops information
about the objects ina more easy way and can also expressthe relationship
between those objects.
2 First order logic is an extension to propositional logic.
3. First order logic is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural
language statements in a concise way.
4 First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the
world contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes objects,
relations, function.
5 As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts syntax
and semantics.

Que 3.2. Explain inference rules in first order logic.

OR
Describe the rules of inference in first order predicate logic with
suitable example. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07
Answer

Inference rules for first order logic:

1. Universal generalization :
i Universal generalization is a valid inference rule which states that
if premise Pc) is true for any arbitrary element c in the universe of
discourse, then we can have a conclusion as V x Pr).
iü. It can be represented as:
Plc)
Artificial Intelligence 33A (CSTT-Sem-7)
iü. This rule can be used if we want to show that every element has a
similar property.
2. Universal instantiation :
i. Universal instantiation is also called as universal elimination or UI
is avalid inference rule. It can be applied multiple times to add new
sentences.
ii As per UI, we can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a
ground term for the variable.
The UI rule state that we can infer any sentence P(c) by substituting
a ground term c (a constant within domain z) from VxAx) for any
object in the universe of discourse.
iv. It can be represented as :

Yx P(x)
P(c)
3. Existential instantiation :
i. Existential instantiation is also called as Existential elimination,
E:F: which is a valid inference rule in first order logie.
It can be applied only once to replace the existential sentence.
This rule states that one can infer Pc) from the formula given in
the form of 3xP(x) for a new constant symbol c.
iv. The restriction with this rule is that c used in the rule must be a
new term for which Pc) is true.
V. It can be represented as:
x P(x)
Pc)
4 Existential introduction :
i An existential introduction is also known as an existential
generalization, which is a valid inference rule in first order logic.
This rule states that if there is some element c in the universe of
discourse which has a property P, then we can infer that there
exists something in the universe which has the property P.
ii. It can be represented as :
Plc)
Bx P(x)

Que 3.3. What are the properties of first order logic ?

Answer
Properties of first order logic:
1. It has ability to represent facts about some or all of the objects in the
universe.
34A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation
2 It enables to represent law and rules extracted from real world.
3 It is useful language representation in mathematics, philosophy and AI
related fields.
4 It represents facts in more realistic manner rather than just the true or
false statement.

Que 3.4. Translate the following senten ces into formulas in

predicate logic and clausal form:
i John likes all kind of food.
ii. Apples are food.
iii. Chicken is food.
iv. Anything any one eats and is not killed by is food.
V. Bill eats peanuts and is still alive.

vi. Sue eats everything Bill eats. AKTU2019-20, Marks 07

Answer
Predicate logic:
i. Vxfood (x)’ likes (John, x)
food (apples)
ii. food (chicken)
iv. Vxy Eats (x, y) a-¬ killed(y) ’food (x)
V. Eats (Peanuts, Bil) Aalive (Bill)
vi. V, Eats (x, Bill) ’ Eats (x, sue)
Clause form:
i. ¬ food (x) v likes (John, x)
i. food (apple)
iü. food (chicken)
iv. ¬Eats (x, y) v killed (y) v food (x)
V.

Eats (Peanut, Bill)

b Alive (Bill)
vi. Eats (x, Bill) v Eats (x, sue)
Que 3.5. |Translate following sentences in formulas in
predicate
logic and casual form:
a. Mutton is food.
b. Anything one eats and it does not kill is a food.
C. Rajiv eats everything that Sue eats.
d. Kin eats peanuts and is still alive.
e John will marry Mary if Mary loves John.
|AKTU 2015-16, Marks 10
Artificial Intelligence 3-5A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Answer
Predicate logic:
a. Food (Mutton)
b txy Eats (x, y) A¬ killed (y) ’ food (x)
C. Eats (sue, x) ’ eats (Rajiv, x)
d. Eats (peanuts, kin) ’ alive (kin)
e Vx y Marry (x, y)’loves (y, x)
Casual form :
a. Food (Mutton)
b. ¬ (Eats (x, y) a killed (y) v food (x)
C ¬ Eats (x, Sue) v Eats (x, Rajiv)
d. 1. Eats (Peanut, kin)
ii. Alive (kin)
e. Marry (John, Mary) ’ loves (Mary,John)
Que 3.6. Define a well-formed formula (WFF) and list some of the

rules of inference. AKTU 2020-21, Marks 07

Answer
1. Well formed formula - Propositional logic uses a symbolic language to
represent the logical structure, or form, of acompound proposition.
2. The symbolic language has rules of syntax, grammatical rules for putting
symbols together in the right way.
3. Any expression that obeys the syntactic rules of propositional logic is
called a well-formed formula or WFF.
Rules of inference :
1.
Modus Ponens : The Modus Ponens rule states that if P and
P’Qis true, then we can infer that Q will be true.
Example:
Statement-1:"IfIam sleepy then I go to bed". (P ’ )
Statement-2:"Iam sleepy". (P)
Conclusion: Igo to bed". (Q)
Hence, we can say that, ifP ’Qis true and P is true then Q will be true.
Proof bytruth table:
P P’Q
0
0 1
0
1 1
3-6A (CSTT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

2. Modus Tollens : The Modus Tollens rule state that ifP - Qis true and
Qis true, then P will also true.
Example:
Statement-1 :"IfI am sleepy then I go to bed". (P ’ Q)
Statement-2: "Ido not go to the bed". (- Q)
Statement-3 : Which infers that "I am not sleepy". (- P)
Proof by truth table :
P - P P’Q
0 0 1 1 1+

0 1 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0 1 1

3. Hypothetical Syllogism : The Hypothetical Syllogism rule state that

if P’R is true whenever P’ Qis true and Q’Ris true.
Example :
Statement-1 :If you have my home key then you can unlock my home.
(P ’ Q)
Statement-2 : If you can unlock my home then you can take my money.
(Q’R)
Conclusion : If you have my home key then you can take my money.
(P’R)
Proof by truth table :
P R P’Q Q’ R P’R
0 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1+
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

4. Disjunctive Syllogism : The Disjunctive Syllogism rule state that if

PvQis true, and ¬Pis true, then Q will be true.
Example :
Statement-1: Today is Sunday or Monday. (PAQ)
Statement-2 : Today is not Sunday. (P)
Artificial Intelligence 3-7A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Conclusion : Today is Monday. (Q)

Proof by truth-table :
P ¬P PyQ
0 0 1

1 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 1
5. Addition: The Addition rule states that IfP is true, then P v Qwill be
true.
Example:
Statement-l:I have avanilla ice-cream. (P)
Statement-2 :I have Chocolate ice-cream. (Q)
Conclusion : I have vanilla or chocolate ice-cream. (PvQ)
Proof by truth-table:
P PvQ
0 0
1 1
1 1
1 1 1

6. Simplification:The simplification rule state that if PaQis true, then

Qor Pwill also be true.
Proof by truth-table:
P PAQ
0 0
1
1

1 1 1

7. Resolution: The resolution rule state that ifP vQand ¬PARis true,
then Q v R will also be true.
Proof by truth-table :
P -P R PyQPAR QvR
0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0

1 1

1 1 1 0 1

0 1 1 1 1
3-8A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

Que 3.7. Explain the conversion procedure of given formula into

normal form. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10

Answer
The steps used to convert a given formula into its normal form are as follows :
Step 1: Eliminate implications and biconditionals. For this, use the laws :
(A ’ B) = ~A y B
(A >B) = (A’ B)A(B’ A)
= (-A v B) A(-B yA)
Step 2: Reduce the NOT symbol by the formula (-(-A) =Aand apply De
Morgan's theorem to bring negations before the atoms.
-(A v B)= ~Aa ~B
-(AA B) = -A v -B
Step 3: Use distributive laws to obtain the normal form.
An (B C) =(A AB) V (AaC)
Av (BA C) =(A v B) A(A y C)
Que 3.8. Prove that following sentence is valid:
"If prices fall then sell increases. If sell increases then John makes
the whole money. But John doesn't make the whole money.
Therefore, prices do not fall." AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1 If prices fall then sell increases.
The logical form of the sentence is : IfP then Q.
2. If sell increases then John makes the whole money.
The logical form of the sentence is : If Q then R.
3. We have to check the validity of the sentence.
John doesn't make the whole money. Therefore, Prices do not fall.
¬R’ ¬P
Hence, from (1) and (2) and by using Modus Ponens rule we get:
P’Q (Price falls ’ Sell increases)
Q’R (Sell increases -> John makes whole money)
P’R (Price falls ’ John makes whole money)
From transposition rule,
 Artificial Intelligence 3-9 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

P’Rinfer R ’¬P
We conclude that John does not malke the whole money,
prices do not fall. therefore
Hence, the given argument is valid.

PART-2
Prolog Programming.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.9. Define Prolog programming. What are the features of

Prolog programming ?
Answer
1. Prolog is known for its in-built depth first search engine and for quick
prototyping.
2. A Prolog program consists of a database of facts and rules. There is no
structure imposed on a Prolog program, there is no main procedure and
there is no nesting of de finitions.
3. All facts and rules are global in scope and the scope of a variable is the
fact or rule in which it appears.
4. The readability of a Prolog program is left up to the programmer.
The main features of Prolog are :
1. Rule-based programming: The rule-based programming allows the
program code to be written in the form which is more declarative than
procedural.
2. Built-in pattern matehing : It has an important feature of built-in
pattern matching.
3. Backtracking execution : Backtracking provides the means for the
flow of control in the program.

Que 3.10. Explain the following terms with reference to Prolog

programming :
i. Clauses
ii. Predicates
iii. Domains
3-10 A (CSTT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

Answer
Clauses :
1 Clauses are the structural elements of a program. A Prolog programmer
develops a program by writing a collection of clauses in a text file.
2 The programmer then uses the consult command, specifying the name
of the text file, to load the clauses into the Prolog environment.
3. Following are two types of clauses :
a. Facts : Afact is an atom or structure followed by a full stop. Examples
of valid Prolog syntax for defining facts are : cold., male(amit)., and
father(amit, mohan).
b. Rules : A rule consists of a head and a body. The head and body are
separated by a:- and followed by full stop. If the body of aclause is true
then the head of the clause is true. Examples of valid Prolog syntax for
defining rules are: bigger(X,Y) :-X>Y. and parents(F,M,C):- father(F,C),
mother( M,C).
ii. Predicates:
1. Each predicate has a name, and zero or more arguments. The predicate
name is a Prolog atom.
2. Each argument is an arbitrary Prolog term.
3. A predicate with name Pred and N arguments is denoted by Pred/N,
which is called a predicate indicator. N is called the arity of the predicate.
4. Apredicate is defined by a collection of clauses.
5 Aclause is either a rule or a fact. The clauses that
constitute a predicate
denote logical alternatives: Ifany clause is true, then the whole predicate
is true.
iüi. Domains : The arguments to the predicates must belong to
known
Prolog domains. A domain can be a standard domain, or it can be one
you declare in the domains section.
Examples:
If you declare a predicate
section, like this:
my_predicate(symbol, integer) in the predicates
PREDICATES
my_predicate(symbol, integer)
you don't need todeclare its argument's domains in a
because symbol and integer are standard domains. Butdomains section,
if you declare a
predicate my_predicate(name, number) in the predicates section, like
this:
PREDICATES
my_predicate(name, number)
Artificial Intelligence 3-11 A
(CSIT-Sem-7)
you will need to declare suitable domains for
name and number.
Assuming you want these to be symbol and integer respectively, the
domain declaration looks like this:
DOMAINS
name = Symbol
number = integer
PREDICATES
my_predicate(namne, number)

PART-3
Unification.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.11. What do you mean by unification ?

Answer
1. Unification is the process of finding substitutions for lifted inference
rules,which can make different logical expression to look similar
(identical).
2. Unification is a procedure for determining substitutions needed to make
two first order logic expressions match.
3. Unification is important component of all first order logic inference
algorithms.
4. The unification algorithm takes two sentences and returnsa unifier for
them, if one exists.

Que 3.12. Explain unification algorithm used for reasoning under

predicate logic with an example. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10

Answer
1. In order to do resolution for expressions in the predicate logic, we use
unification algorithm to locate pairs of literals that cancel out.
2. We need to use the unifier produced by the unification algorithm to
generate the resolvent clause.
3-12 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation
For example, we want to resolve following two clauses :
a. man (Marcus)
b. - Man (x) v mortal («)
3. The literal man (Marcus) can be unified with the literal man (*)with
the substitution Marcus / , telling us that for x = Marcus,
¬ man (Marcus) is false.
4 Now we cannot simply cancel out the two man literals as in case of
propositionallogic and generate logic wenow conclude only that mortal
(Marcus) must be true which we get by applying the result of the
unification process to the resolvent.
5 The resolution process can then proceed to discover whether mortal
(Marcus) leads to a contradiction with other available clauses.
Unification algorithm: Verify (U, )
1. If U and V are both variables or constants then
a. If U and V are identical, then return null.
b. If U is a variable then if U occurs in V, then return (FAIL) else
return (UIV)
C. If V is a variable then if V occurs in U, return (FAIL} else return
(U).
d. Return (FAIL).
2. If the initial predicate symbols in U and V are not identical, return
(FAIL).
3. IfUandV have a different number of arguments, then return (FAIL).
4. Set SUBSET to NULL.
5. For i -lto the number of arguments of U.
Call unify with the /th argument of U and the ith argument of V
putting the result in S.
b. IfS contains (FAIL), return (FAIL).
C.
IfS is not equal to NULL
i. Apply step 5 to be the remainder of both Uand V.
Set subset equal to APPENDS (S, SUBSET).
6. Return SUBSET.

Que 3.13. Trace the operation of theunification algorithm on each

of the following pairs of literals :
i. f(Marcus) and f(Caesar)
i. f(x) and f(g(y))
Artificial Intelligence 3-13 A (CSTT-Sem-7)

iüi. f(Marcus, g(x, y)) and f(x, g(Caesar, Marcus)

AKTU2020-21, Marks 07
Answer
a Here unification attempt is between
f(Marcus) and f(Caesar)
This returns FAIL.
b
We want to unify the expression f(x) and fg(y).
The two instances off' natch fine.
iii. Next we compare x and g(y), and decide that if we substitute g(y)
for x, they could match.
iv. Wewill write that substitution as (g(y)/x).
C Unifying the first pair of arguments produces : (Marcus/x). If we make
that substitution, then the next unification attempt is between
g(Marcus. y) and gCaesar. Marcus)
This returns FAIL.

PART-4

Forward Chaining, Backward Chaining.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.14. Elaborate forward and backward chaining.

|AKTU2016-17, Marks 05

Answer
Forward chaining :
1. Forward chaining is a method of reasoning when using inference rules
in artificial intelligence.
2 Forward chaining starts with the available data and uses inference
rules to extract more data (from an end user) until an optimal goal is
reached.
3.
An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference
rules until it finds one where the If clause is known to be true.
3-14 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

4. When found it can conclude, or infer, the Then clause, resulting in the
addition of new information to its dataset.
5. Inference engines will often cycle through this process until an optimal
goal is reached.
6 For example, suppose that the goal is to conclude the colour of my pet
Bruno given that he croaks and eats flies, and that the rule base contains
the following two rules :
a. IfX croaks and eats flies - Then X is a frog.
b. IfX is a frog - Then X is red.
Backwardchaining:
1 Backward chaining starts with a list of goals (or a hypothesis) and works
backwards to see if there is data available that will support any of these
goals.
2 An inference engine use backward chaining would search the inference
rules until it finds one which has a Then clause that matches a desired
goal.
3. If the If clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is
added to the list of goals.
4 For example, suppose that the goal is to conclude the colour of my pet
Bruno given that he croaks and eats flies, and that the rulebase contains
the following two rules :
a. IfX croaks and eats flies - Then X is a frog.
b IfX is a frog - ThenXis red.
Que 3.15. Write down the properties of forward chaining and
backward chaining.
Answer
Properties of forward chaining:
1. It is a down-up approach, as it moves from
bottom to top.
2 It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data, by
starting from the initial state and reaches the goal state.
3. Forward chaining approach is also called as data-driven as we reach to
the goal using available data.
4. Forward chaining approach is commonly used in the expert system,
such as business, and production rule systems.
Properties of backward chaining :
1. It is known as a top-down approach.
2 Backward chaining is based on
Modus Ponens inference rule.
3 In backward chaining, the goal is
prove the facts true.
broken into sub-goal or sub-goals to
Artificial Intelligence 3-15 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

4. It is called a goal-driven approach, as a list of goals decides which rules

are selected and used.
5. Backward chaining algorithm is used in game theory, automated theorem
proving tools, inference engines, proof assistants, and various AI
applications.
6. The backward chaining method mostly used adepth-frst search strategy
for proof.

Que 3.16. Differentiate between forward and backward chaining

of inference with the help of an example.
AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
AKTU2019-20, Marks 07

Answer

S. No. Forward chaining Backward chaining

1. Forward chaining is a data Backward chaining is a goal
driven method. driven method.

2. It uses planning, monitoring It uses diagnosis method.

and controlling method.
3. It uses bottom-up It uses top-down processing.
processing.
4. Forward chaining finds Backward chaining finds facts
possible conclusions that support a given hypothesis.
supported by given facts.
5. Forward chaining is similar Backward chaining is similar to
to breadth-first search. depth-first search.
6. For example : CLIPS. For example: PROLOG.

PART-5

Resolution.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

3-16 A (CSIT-Senm-7) Knowledge Representation

Que 3.17. Write a short note on resolution.

OR
What is resolution ? Discuss the role of resolution in predicate
logie. AKTU2016-17, Marks 10
Answer
1 Resolution is a proof, procedure that carries out a single operation, the
variety or processes involved in reasoning with statements in predicate
logic.
2 Resolution operates on statements that have not been converted into a
very convenient form.
3. Resolution procedure is proved by reputation, in other words, to prove a
statement resolution attempts to show that negation of statement
produces a contradiction with the known fact, i.e., it is unsatisfiable.
Role of resolution in predicate logic :
1. Resolution is an inference step required to build a complete inference
system for predicate logic in clause form.
2. Applying the rule of resolution to the clauses makes the resolution
inference highly suitable for computer implementation.
Que 3.18.Discuss resolution in propositional and predicate logic.
Answer
Resolution of propositional logic : In resolution of propositional logic,
the procedure for producing a proof by resolution of propositional S with
respect to a set of axioms Fis as follows:
1. Convert all the propositions of F to clause form.
2. Negate S and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of
clauses obtained in step 1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found or no progress can be made:
Select two clauses, call these parent clauses.
Resolve them together. The resulting clause called the
will be the disjunction of all of the literals resolvent
of both of the parent
clauses with the following exception : If there are any
literals L and - L, such that one of the parent clause pairs of
other - L,then select one such pair and contains L and
from the resolvent. eliminate both L and ~ L
iüi. If the resolvent is the empty
clause,
found. Ifit is not, then add it to the then
a contradiction has been
set of clauses available to the
procedure.
Artificial Intelligence 3-17A (CSTT-Sem-7)

Resolution in predicate logic :

1 Convert all the statements of F toclause form.
2 Negate S and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of
clauses obtained in step 1.
3 Repeat untileither a contradiction is found, no progress can be made or
a predetermined amount of effort has been expended :
i Select two clauses, call these parent clauses.
i. Resolve them together. The resolvent will be disjunction of all literals
of both of parent clause with appropriate substitutions performed
and with the foilowing exception: If there is one pair of literals T,
and - T, such that one of the parent clauses contains T, and the
other contains T, and if T, and T, are unifiable, then neither T, nor
T, should appear in the resolvent.
i. If the resolvent is the empty clause, then a contradiction has been
found. Ifit is not, then add it to the set of clauses available to the
procedure.
Que 3.19. Explain resolution in predicate logic with suitable

example. AKTU2020-21, Marks 07

Answer
Resolution in predicate logic:
1. Convert all the statements of F to clause form.
2. Negate S and convert the result to clause form. Add it to the set of
clauses obtained in step 1.
3. Repeat until either a contradiction is found, no progress can be made or
a predetermined amount of effort has been expended:
Select two clauses, call these parent clauses.
Resolve them together. The resolvent will be disjunction of all literals
of both of parent clause with appropriate substitutions performed
and with the following exception : If there is one pair of literals T,
and -T, such that one of the parent clauses contains T, and the
other contains T, and if T, and T, are unifiable, then neither T, nor
T, should appear in the resolvent.
ii. Ifthe resolvent is the empty clause, then a contradiction has been
found. Ifit is not, then add it to the set of clauses available to the
procedure.
3-18 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

PART-6

Knowledge Representation.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.20. Briefly describe the meaning of knowledge

representation and knowledge acquisition. What procedure is
followed for knowledge acquisition ? Explain.
Answer
Knowledge representation :
1. Knowledge representation is the study of ways of picturization of
knowledge and how effectively it resembles the representation of
knowledge in human brain.
2 Knowledge representation has two entities :
a. Facts: Facts are the truth in some relevant world.
b. Representation : Representation is the presentation of facts in
some chosen formalism.
3. For example:
Fact :Charlie is a dog.
Representation of fact using mathematical logic : Dog (Charlie)
4. Knowledge representation should possess following characteristics :
a. Representation scheme should have a set of well defined syntax
and semantic.
b It should have good expressive capacity.
C. It must be effective.

Knowledge acquisition :
1. Knowledge acquisition is the process of acquiring knowledge from a
human expert for an expert system, which must be carefully organized
into IF-THEN rules or some other form of knowledge representation.
2. Knowledge acquisition is the process of absorbing and storing new
information in memory, the success of which is determined by how well
the information can later be retrieved from memory.
Artificial Intelligence 3-19 A
(CSTT-Sem-7)

3. The process of storing and retrieving information depends heavily on

the representation and organization of the information.
Procedure for knowledge acquisition :
1. Identification : Break the problems into parts.
2. Conceptualisation : Identify the concepts.
3. Formalisation : Represent the knowledge.
4. Implementation : Programming.
5. Testing : Validate of knowledge.
Reformulations

Redesigns
Refinements

Find Design a Formulate Validate

ldentify rules that
problem concepts to structure to rules to
characteri represent organize embody organise
stics knowledge knowledge knowledge knowledge

Identification Formalisation Testing

Conceptualisation Implementation
Fig. 3.20.1. Stages of knowledge acquisition.

Que 3.21. Deseribe the techniques of knowledge representation.

Answer
Techniques of knowledge representation :
1. Logical representation :
Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which
deals with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.
ii. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions.
i. It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports
the sound inference.
iv. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and
semantics.
2. Semantic network representation :
i. Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge
representation.
 3-20 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Knowledge Representation
i. In semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the
form of graphical networks.
ii. This network consists ofnodes representing objects and arcs which
deseribe the relationship between those objects.
iv. Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and
can also link those objects.
3. Frame representation :
i A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of
attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world.
i. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations.
ii. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be
of any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called
facets.
4. Production rules :
Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which
mean, "If condition then action".
i. In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition
exists then production rule and corresponding action is carried out.
iüi. The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be applied
to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated problem
solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
Que 3.22. What are the desirable properties of good knowledge
representation schemes ? AKTU2015-16, Marks 10
Answer
A good system for the representation of knowledge in a particular domain
should p0ssess the following four properties :
1. Representational adequacy : The ability to represent all kinds of
knowledge that are needed in that domain.
2 Inferential adequacy: The ability to manipulate the representational
structures in such a way as to derive new structures corresponding to
new knowledge inferred from old.
3. Inferential efficiency:The ability to incorporate into the knowledge
structure, additional information that can be used to focus the attention
of the inference mechanisms in the most promising directions.
4. Acquisitional efficiency :The ability to acquire new infor.aation easily.
The simplest case involves direct insertion, by a person, of new knowledge
into the database. Ideally, the program itself would be able to control
knowledge acquisition.
Artificial Intelligence 3-21 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

PART-7
Ontological Engineering, Categories and Objects.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.23. What is ontological engineering ? Explain the concept

of categories and objects.
Answer
A Ontological engineering:
1. The process of representing the abstract concepts like actions, time
which are related to real world domains is defined as Ontological
Engineering.
2. This process is tough and lengthy because in real world, objects have
many different characteristics with various values.
3. These values differ over time.
B. The concept of categories and objects:
1 The classification of objects can be done in to several categories.
2 Doing categorization helps in knowledge representation.
3 In real world interaction is with the individual object but it really helps to
deal with the object at the level of categories.
4 Due to categorization searching would be fast because objects are well
organized.
5. For example :A boy wants to buy a special football such as FB7.
6 Categories help to make predictions about objects once they are classified.
7. Agent can infer presence of certain objects from perceptual input, and
then decide category on the basis of perceived properties of the objects.
Que 3.24. How do we represent categories in first order logie ?
Answer
We can represent categories in first order logic using either of the two
ways:
1. Predicates : We can use predicate to categorize object.
For example: Member (f, football)
Here Member is predicate and f is a object, categorization under
'Member'.
 3-22 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

2. Objects: We can use object itself to categorized the set of objects.

For example: Football (f)
Here f is object categorized as Football.

PART-8
Events, Mental Events and Mental Objects.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.25.Explain mental events and mental objects.

Answer
Mental Events and Mental Objects :
1. Al agent should be able to deduce beliefs (facts which are true) from
current knowledge it has. Agent should possess knowledge about beliefs
or about deducing the beliefs.
2 For single-agent environment, knowledge about one's own knowledge
and the reasoning process is useful for controlling inference.
For example :
Agent wants to buy a pencil. As per agent's knowledge agent will reach
toa stationary shop to purchase pencil.
3. In mlti-agent environment, the knowledge and reasoning process
becomes important to reason about mental state of the other agent. To
buy a 'pencil' of certain brand (where the pencil is ?) agent should enguire
it to shop owner (another agent). This process will happen only if agent
has the knowledge that "for various unknown brands I should ask the
shopkeeper (because he has knowledge about it)."
4. One's own knowledge help to construct future plans that helps to take
relevant action.
5 To make belief, knowledge and reasoning theory to work, we need to
model the mental objects that are in someone's head (that is something's
knowledge base) and the mental processes that manipulate them.
PART-9
Reasoning Systems for Categories, Reasoning with
Default Information.
 3-23 A (CS/IT-Sem-7)
Artificial Intelligence

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 3.26. What are various reasoning systems for organizing

categories ?
Answer
For organizing categories there are two types of reasoningsystems:
A. Semantic networks :
1. It provides graphical aids for visualizing a knowledgebase and efficient
algorithms for inferring properties of an object on the basis ofits category
membership.
2 Semantic network is a graph which has nodes representing objects and
their categories, and arc representing relationships between objects.
3. Atypical graphical notation displays object or category names in oval or
boxes and connects them with the labeled arcs.

Has a part
Bird Wings

is_a
Has colour
Parrot Green

is_a Loves Sita

Owns
Mithu Ram

Brother of
(Lakshmana
Fig. 3.26.1. Semantic network.
4. Semantic network provide direct indexing for objects, categories and
the links between them.
5. Semantic network can represent default values for categories.
B. Description logic :
1. These are the notations that are designed to describe definitions and
properties of categories.
2. Description logic system formalize information represented by the
semantic network.
3. The inference techniques used in description logic are:
3-24 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Knowledge Representation

i. Subsumption : Checking if one category is a subset of another by

comparing their definitions.
ii. Classification : Checking whether an object belongs to a category.
iii. Consistency : It is used for category definition to check if
membership criteria are logically satisfiable.
4. Generally a problem instance is solved by describing it and then asking
ifit is subsumed by one of several possible solution categories.
5. The statements in description logic do not contain CLASSIC language
saying.

Que 3.27.Explain default reasoning.

Answer
Default reasoning:
1. There are two approaches (both are logic type) to Default reasoning.
2. One is Non-monotonic logicand the other is Default logic.
A Non-Monotonic logic :
1. Non-monotonic logic says, "the truth of aproposition may change when
new information (axioms) are added and a logic may be build to allow
the statement to be retracted."
2. Non-monotonic logic is predicate logic with one extension called Modal
operator, Mwhich means "consistent with everything we know". The
purpose of Mis to allow consistency.
3. Away to define consistency with PROLOG notation is:
To show that fact Pis true, we attempt to prove ¬P.
If we fail we may say that Pis consistent since
¬Pis false.
For example:
Vx plays_instrument (x) ^ Manage (x) ’ jazz_musician (x).
States that for all x, the x plays an instrument and if the fact that x can
manage is consistent with all other knowledge then we can conclude
that x is a jazz musician.
B. Default logic :
1 Default logic initiates a new inference rule:
A:B
where

A is known as the prerequisite.

Bis the justification, and
C as the
consequent.
 3-25 A (CIT-Sem-7)
Artificial Intelligence
2 The above inference rule is read as :
what is known to assume that
"IfA, and ifit is consistent with the rest of
B. Then conclude that C."
consequent can be inferred,
3. The rule says that given the prerequisite, the
the data.
provided it is consistent with the rest of
to reason with first order
4 The idea behind non-monotonic reasoning is
then use the set of default
logic, and if an inference can not be obtained
formulation.
rules available within the first order

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

questions
Following questions are very important. These
well as
maybe asked in your SESSIONALS as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

logic.
Q.1. Explain inference rules in first order
Ans. Refer Q. 3.2.
(WFF) and list some of the
Q.2. Define a well-formed formula
rules of inference.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.6.
ofprolog
Q.3. Define prolog programming. What are the features
programming ?
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7.
reasoning under
Q.4. Explain unification algorithm used for
predicate logic with an example.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.10.
backward chaining of
Q. 5. Differentiate between forward and
inference with the help of an example.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.14.
role of resolution in
Q.6. What is resolution ? Discuss the
predicate logic.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.15.
Explain the concept of
Q.7. What is ontological engineering ?
categories and objects.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.21.
 UNIT

Software Agents

CONTENTS
Part-1: Architecture for 4-2A to 4-6A
Intelligent Agents
Part-2 : Agent Communication 4-6A to 4-7A
Part-3 : Negotiation and Bargaining .4-7A to 4-8A

Part-4 : Argumentation Among Agents. .4-8A to 4-10A

Part-5 : Trust and Reputation in 4-10A to 4-11A
Multiagent Systems

4-1 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
4-2 A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Software Agents

PART- 1
Architecture for Intelligent Agents.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions
Que 4.1. What is an intelligent agent ?
Answer
1 An intelligent agent is an Al agent that is capable of
action in order to meet its design objectives, where flexible autonomous
of three aspects namely, flexibility comprises
i. Reactivity : Intelligent agents are able to perceive their
environment, and respond in a timely fashion to changes that occur
in it in order to satisfy their prior designed objectives.
ii. Pro-activeness : Intelligent agents are able to exhibit goal-directed
behavior by taking the initiative in order to satisfy their prior
designed objectives.
iii. Social ability:Intelligent agents are capable of interacting with
other agents in order to satisfy their prior design objectives.
2, All above 3properties are highly demarnding and are critical and complex
to implement.
3. This complexity arises from several factors like intelligent agent's
interaction with environment, its prior knowledge, its hardware
capabilities, ete.
Que 4.2. What are the categories of agents on the basis of
architecture ?

Answer
Categories of agents on the basis of architecture are as follows :
1. Logic based agents: These agents carries out decision making through
logical deductions.
2. Reactive agents : These agents carries out decision making through
procedure implementation in some form of direct mapping from situation
to action.
Artificial Intelligence 43A (CSTT-Sem-7)
3. Belief-desire-intention agents : These agents carries out decision
making that depends upon the manipulation of data structures which
are used to represent the agent's beliefs, agent's desires, and agent's
intentions.
4. Layered architectures : Here the decision making is done through
various software layers, each of which explicitly reasons about the
environment at different levels of abstraction as per the requirement of
problem under consideration.
Que 4.3. Explain logic based agent architecture with their
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer

Sensors
Percepts
AGENT

What is the
world like now Environment

Condition-action Action to be
(if then) rules done

Actions
Actuators
Fig. 4.3.1.
1. It is the traditional approach to buildingartificially intelligent system,
(knows as symbolic AI) suggest that intelligent
in a system by providing that system a behavior can be generated
symbolic representation of its
environment and its desired behavior, and syntactically
this representation. manipulating
2. In these systems,the symbolic
representations are logical formulae, and
the syntactic manipulation corresponds to logical deduction, or theorem
proving.
3. The idea of agents as theorem proven is
highly attractive.
4 The traditional approach for the
this specification would involve implementation of a system that satisfy
of progressively more concrete refining the specification through a series
completely done. stages, until finally an implementation is
44A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Software Agents
Logic based approach advantages :
1. In logic-based approaches to building agents, decision making is viewed
as deduction.
2. Logic-based approaches are good to work with and have aclean (logical)
semantic due to which they can be used over long period of time.
Logic based approach disadvantages :
1. The inbuilt computational complexity of theorem proving makes it
questionable whether agents as theorem provers can operate effectively
in time-constrained environments.
2 Decision making in such agents is predicated on the assumption of
calculative rationality.
3 The issues associated with representing and reasoning about complex,
dynamic, possibly physical environments are also essentially unsolved
that makes developing logic agent a tedious task.
Que 4.4. Explain reactive agent architecture with their
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
1. The reactive agent approaches are sometime referred to as behavioral.
situated, and reactive.
2 It is referred to as behavioral because a common theme is that of
developing and combining individual behaviors.
3 It is referred to as situated because a common theme is that of agents
actually situated in some environment, rather than being disembodied
from it.
4. It is referred to as reactive because such systems are 100% understood
to be just reacting to an environment, without reasoning about it.
5. The reactive agent architecture is subsumption architecture, which is
comparatively the best-known reactive agent architecture
Reactive agent approach advantages :
1. The overall time complexity of the subsumption action function is not
worse than O(n²), where n is the larger of the number of behaviors or
number of percepts.
2. The major advantages of reactive approaches are simplicity, economy,
computational tractability, robustness against failure.
Reactive agent approach disadvantages :
1. In reactive agent, if the agents do not employ models of their
environment, then they must have sufficient information available in
their local environment for them to determine an acceptable action.
Artificial Intelligence 45A (CSIT-Sem-7)

2. It is difficult model, for purely reactive agents that can be designed to

learn from experience so as to improve their performance over time.
Que 4.5. Explain belief desire intention agent architecture with
advantages and disadvantages.
Answer
Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) Agent Architecture :
1. This architecture has thought of from philosophical tradition of
understanding practical reasoning, the process of deciding, moment by
moment, which action to perform in the furtherance of one's goals.
2. The terms beliefs, desires and intentions can be defined as follows :
i. Beliefs: Beliefs represent the informational state of the agent,
that is agent's beliefs about the world (including itself and other
agents).
ii. Desires : Desires represent the motivational state of the agent.
iüi. Goals: A goal is an ultimate desire that has been adopted for active
pursuit by the agent.
iv. Intentions : Intentions represent the deliberative state of the
agent, indicating what the agent has chosen to do.
V.
Plans :The sequences of action (recipes or knowledge areas) that
an agent can perform to achieve one or more of its intentions are
termed as plans.
vi. Events : Events are triggers for reactive activity to be carried out
by the agent. An event may update beliefs, trigger plans or modify
goals.
3. In this architecture practical reasoning involves two crucial processes,
namely to decide what goals are to achieve and how these goals are
going to get achieved.
BDIapproach - advantages :
1. As this model uses a standard human reasoning process to reach to goal
it is easy tounderstand.
2. It has clear functional decomposition, which indicates what sorts of
subsystems might be required to build an agent.
BDI approach - disadvantages:
1. Main difficulty lies in knowing how to efficiently implement all BDI
model functions.

Que 4.6.Explain layered architecture.

46A (CSIT-Sem-7) Software Agents

Answer
Layered architecture :
Action
output

Layer n Layer n Layer n

Action
Perceptual Layer 2 output Layer 2 Layer 2
input
Layer 1 Layer 1 Layer 1

Perceptual Perceptional Action

input input output
(a) Horizontal layering (b) Vertical layering (e) Vertical layering
(one pass control) (two pass control)

Fig. 4.6.1. Layered agent architecture types.

1 In layered architecture various subsystems are arranged into ahierarchy
of interacting layers.
2 Formally, there are following two types of control flow within layered
architectures :
Horizontal layering: In horizontally layered architectures, the
software layers are each directly connected to the sensory input
and action output. In effect, each layer itself acts like an agent,
generates what action to perform.
b. Vertical layering : In vertically layered architectures, sensory
input and action output are each dealt with by at most one layer
each.

PART-2

Agent Communication.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.7. Explain multiagent system and agent communication.

Answer
Multiagent Systems and Agent's Communication :
1. While acting in real world, an agent may not be always in a singleton
mode.
 Artificial Intelligence 4-7A (CSIT-Sem-7)
2. It has to deal with the situation wherein other agents and related factors
are affecting the agent's environment and in turn agent's behavior.
3. Such systems wherein multiple agent work together, communicate,
co-operate and deal with the situation are termed as multi-agent system.
4. Multi-agent system are essentially distributed systems which more
efficient in the sense that they can be optimized and are mostly easier to
understand and easier to develop, especially when the oroblem being
solved is itself distributed.
5. Distribution can lead to computational algorithms that might not have
been discovered with a centralized approach.
6. The data and information itself is distributed spanning at different
geographical locations and needs to be handled through multiple agents.
7. Data can come from various domains and multiple devices or components
are involved in data generation.
8 The system itself is too big and complex that needs to be separated in
multiple components so as to reduce its complexity and size that can be
handled easily.
Que 4.8. Write down the characteristics of multiagent system.

Answer
Characteristics of Multi-Agent Systems:
1 Each agent has just incomplete information and is restricted in its
capabilities.
2 The system control is distributed.
3. Data is decentralized.
4. Computation is asynchronous.
5. Multi-agent environments are typically open and have no centralized
design
6. Multi-agent environments have agents that are autonomous and
distributed, and may be self-interested or cooperative.

PART-3
Negotiation and Bargaining.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type
Questions
4-8A (CSIT-Sem-7) Software Agents

Que 4.9. Explain negotiation and bargaining.

Answer
1 In a multi-agent system negotiation is form of interaction that occurs
among agents with different goals.
2 Major challenge of negotiation and bargaining is to allocate scarce
resources among agents representing self-interested parties. The
resources can be bandwidth, commodities, money, processing power
etc. The resource becomes scarce as competing claims for it can't be
simultaneously satisfied.
3. Negotiation and bargaining is a process by which a joint decision is
reached by two or more agents, each trying to reach an individual goal
or objective.
4. The major features of negotiation and bargaining are :
i. The language used by the participating agents,
The protocol followed by the agents as they negotiate, and
i. The decision process that each agent uses to determine its positions,
concessions and criteria for agreement.
5. Any negotiation and bargaining mechanism should have the following
attributes:
i. Efficiency:The agents should not waste resources in coming to
an agreement.
ii. Stability : No agent should have an incentive to deviate from
agreed-upon strategies.
i. Simplicity : The negotiation mechanism should impose low
computational and bandwidth demands on the agents.
iv. Distribution:The mechanism should not require a central decision
maker.
v. Symmetry : The mechanism should not be biased against any
agent for arbitrary or inappropriate reasons.

PART-4
Argumentation Among Agents.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
 4-9A (CSTT-Sem-7)
Artifcial Intelligence

Que 4.10. Describe arguments in multiagent systems and its types.

Answer
Arguments in multi-agent systems :
Argumentation is defined as an activity aimed at convincing of the
acceptability of a standpoint by putting forward propositions justifying
or refuting the standpoint.
2 There are below factors involved in argumentation:
Dialectic implies the structure of argumentation (that is acceptable
arguments vs. fallacies).
i. Social psychology indicates agent attitude change and persuasion.
3. Artificial Intelligence formalize those approaches so as to provide formal
theoretical results about particular mnodels. This will automate agent or
multi-agent argumentation capabilities.
4.
For Arguments one needs to reason or provide justifications supporting
a conclusion. It is represented as support ’ conclusion format.
5. Following are various types of arguments :
a. Informational arguments: (Beliefs ’ Belief format)
e.g. Ifit is cloudy, it might rain.
b. Motivational argument :(Beliefs, Desires ’ Desire format),
e.g. If it is cloudy and you want to get out then you don't want to get
wet,
C. Practical argument:(Belief, sub goals goal format)
e.g. If it iscloudy and you own a raincoat then put the raincoat,
d. Social arguments: (Social commitment ’ Goal, Desire format)
e.g. I will stop at the corner because the law say so.
e.g. I can't do that, Ipromise to my mother that I won't.
e. Interactions (binary or collective) between arguments:
1. Conflict (defeat) format
e.g. attacks
The conflict (defeat) format can be categories further as below :
1. Rebut (symmetrical) :
-support1 ’ condusion1 (e.g. Tweety is a bird -> tweety
flies)
-support2’ (not) conclusion1 (e.g. Tweety is a small bird
-> tweety does not fly)
ii. Undercut (asymmetrical): defeat the assumptions or their
link to the conclusion
support2 ’ (not)support1
4-10 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Software Agents

e.g. noTweety is not a bird, it is just a cartoon

2 There are interactions of support-type that are vsed for
collective binary arguments in multi-agent system.

PART-5

Trust and Reputation in Multiagent Systems.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 4.11. What do you understand by trust and reputation in

multiagent systems ?
Answer
Trust and reputation in multi-agent systems and their societies :
Belief maintenance in multi-agent system :
1. In a multi-agent system, a truth maintenance system (TMS) is designed
to ensure the integrity of an agent's knowledge, which should be stable,
wellfounded and logically consistent.
2. Depending on how beliefs, justifications, and data are represented, a
stable state of aknowledge base is defined in which:
i each datum that has a valid justification is believed, and
i. each datum that lacks a valid justification is disbelieved.
3. Awell-founded knowledge base permits no set of itc beliefs to be mutually
dependent.
time
4. A logically consistent knowledge base is one that is stable at the
that consistency is determined and in which no logical contradiction
exists.
5. Aconsistent knowledge base is one in which no datum is both believed
and disbelieved or in which no datum and its negation are both believed.
6. A knowledge base should be always complete, concise, accurate, and
efficient.
Societies of agents in multi-agent system :
1. In a multi-agent system, a group of agents can form a small society in
which they play different kinds of roles. The group defines the roles,
and the roles define the commitments associated with them.
Artificial Intelligence 4-11A (CSIT-Sem-7)

2. When an agent joins a group, he joins in one or more roles, and acquires
the commitments of that role.
3 Social commitments are the commitments of an agent to another agent
that in turn define social dependence.
4. Cooperation is a form of such mutual dependence.
5. Socialexchange is a form of such reciprocal dependence.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q. 1. What is an intelligent agent ?

Ans. Refer Q. 4.1.

Q.2. Explain logic based agent architecture with advantages

and disadvantages.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.3.

Q.3. Explain belief desire intention agent architecture with

advantages and disadvantages.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.5.

Q.4. Write down the characteristics of multiagent system.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.8.
 5 UNIT
Applications

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Al applications, .5-2A to 5-3A
Language Models

Part-2: Information Retrieval, .5-3A to 5-5A

Information Extraction

Part-3 : Natural Language Processing. 5-5A to 5-10A

Part-4: Machine Translation ..5-10A to 5-12A

Part-5 : Speech Recognition .5-12A to 5-15A

Part-6 : Robot .. .5-15A to 5-18A

Part-7: Hardware, Perception,... ..... 5-18A to 5-20A

Planning, Moving

5-1 A (CS/IT-Sem-7)
5-2A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Applications

PART-1
Al applications, Language Models.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.1. Describe the applications of artificial intelligence.

Answer
Applications of artificial intelligence :
1. Gaming: Al plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker,
tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number of possible
positions based on heuristic knowledge.
2 Natural language processing : It is possible to interact with the
computer that understands natural language spoken by humans.
3. Expert systems:There are some applications which integrate
machine,
software, and special information to impart reasoning and advising.
They provide explanation and advice to the users.
4. Vision systems: These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend
visual input on the computer.
5. Speech recognition : Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing
and comprehending the language in terms of sentences and their
meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents,
slang words, noise in the background, change in human's noise due to
cold, etc.
6. Handwriting recognition : The handwriting recognition software
reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a stylus. It can
recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.
7. Intelligent robots : Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a
human. They have sensors to detect physical data from the real world.
They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory, to
exhibit intelligence.
Que 5.2. What are various types of language models ?

Answer
Various kind of knowledge can be captured through the use of a small
number of formal models or theories. Models and theories are all drawn
for the standard tool-kit of computer science,
mathematics and linguistics.
Artificial Intelligence 53A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Types of Models :
1. State machines :It is based on simplest formulation of state, transition
among states, input representation. Examples of state machines are
finite-state automata (Deterministic, Non deterministic), finite-state
transducers.
2. Rule systems :
i. Rule system can be define using regular grammars, context-free
grammars, feature augmented grammars.
State machines and formal rule systems are the main tols used
when dealing with knowledge of phonology, morphology and syntax.
3. Logic:
The logical representations have traditionally been used for
modeling semantics and pragmatics, although more recent work
has tended to focus on potentially more robust techniques drawn
from non-logical lexical semantics.
ii. First order logic / predicate calculus, lambda-calculus, feature
structures, semantic primitives are used for logical representation.
4. Probabilistic models:
These are crucial for capturing every kind of linguistic knowledge.
Each of the other models can be augmented with probabilities.
The state machine augmented with probabilities can become :
Weighted automaton, or Markov model.
b. Hidden Markov Models (HMMs).
5. Vector-space models are based on linear algebra and information
retrieval. It has good use in Word meanings.

PART-2

Information Retrieval, InformationExtraction.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.3. Explain information retrieval with its characteristics.

Answer
Information retrieval is concept associated with subjects like database
management system, artificial intelligence, because, in both stream we have
54A(CSIT-Sem-7) Applications
huge collection of data (DBMS with database or datawarehouses, AI with
knowledge base).
Definition:
Information retrieval is process of sendingdocuments/ text / data in which
the user is interested.
For example, information retrieval is widely used in popular search engine
like Google, Yahoo, Bing etc.
Characteristics of Information Retrieval :
1. A huge dataldocument collection : In many systems, we need to
decide boundaries such as document, paragraph or a page or a multi
page text, from huge data collection.
2. Aformat of query with standard query language : It is imposed by
user but if standard language is used then user need to follow syntax.
3. The generated result model : Appropriate text/data/document are
generated by the information retrieval system with specific query.
4. Displaying results model:The display of the result can be very
simple as that of title of document or highly graphical and complex
representation (i.e., 3-D information).
Que 5.4. What is information extraction ?

Answer
Information extraction :
1. Information extraction is the technique of creating database entries.
2. The database entries are done by overlooking the text andits occurrences
for specific class of object or event and for relationship among those
objects and events.
3. The field such as street, city, state, pin-code are extracted from instances
of addresses from web pages.
4. The instance of weather report with temperature, wind, speed, humidity
are extracted.
5. Information retrieval systems and full text parser can be mapped by mid
system called information extraction.
Que 5.5. Discuss the component of a typical relational based
extraction-FASTUS.

Answer
The component of typicalsystem FASTUS are:
1. Tokenization:
i. It is first stage of FASTUs which converts the stream of
into tokens (words, numbers and punctuation).
character
Artificial Intelligence 5-5 A (CSIT-Senm-7)

The white space, a punctuation separate the tokens.

ii. Itis easy toprocess English. But in Japanese language, we need to
perform segmentation using Viterbi segmentation algorithm.
iv. Using the markup language such as HTML and XML tokenization
process is performed.
2. Complex words handling :
i. The difficult complex words are processed using "set up" joint
venture and name system such as "Primne Minister Narendra Modi"
"President Ram Nath Kovind" and "Quantum Page Pvt. Ltd".
The naming system can be developed using finite-state grammar
rules.
3. Basic group handling :
i. The grouping of form head such as noun group and verb group
handling is called basic group handling.
ii The grouping into units can be utilized in further stages. Noun
phrase is having head noun.
4. Complex phrase handling :
i. The grouping of basic group into complex phrases is handled in
complex phase.
The aim of this component is to design finite-state rule.
5. Structure merging: It is a phase which merges the complex phrases.

PART-3

Natural Language Processing.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.6. What do you mean by natural language processing ?

Why it is needed?
Answer

1. Natural Language Processing (NLP) studies the problems inherent in

make
the processing and manipulation of natural language and to
computer understand statements written in human language.
2.
NLP can be defined as the automatic processing of human language.
 Applications
5-6A (CSTT-Sem-7)
which deals with the
3. Natural language processing is a subfield of AI own natural
methods of communicating with a computer in one's
language.
texts at
4. It is used for analyzing and representing naturally occurringachieving
one or more levels of linguistic analysis for the purpose of
human-like language processing for a range of tasks or applications.
5. It is needed to bridge the gap between human and machine.
6 The goal of natural language is to enable people and computers to
communicate in a natural language, such as English.
7. The field ofNLP is divided into subfields :
a NLU (Natural Language Understanding) : This investigates
methods of allowing the computer to comprehend instructions given
in English.
b. NLG(Natural Language Generation) : This strive that computer
produce ordinary English language so that people can understand
computers more easily.
8. The study of language generation falls into following three areas :
Determination of content.
b. Formulating and developing a text utterance plan.
C. Achieving a realization of the desired utterances.
9. Afull NLU system would be able to :
Paraphrase an input text.
b Translate the text into another language.
C.
Answer questions about the contents of the text.
d. Draw inferences from the text.
10. Applications of NLP:
a. Natural language interfaces to databases.
b. Machine translation.
C. Advanced word-processing tools.
d. Explanation generation for expert systems.
Que 5.7. What are the applications of natural language
processing ?
Answer
Following are the applications of natural language
i. Machine Translation : processing:
1. As the
amount of information available online is
to access it becomes growing, the need
increasingly important.
Artificial Intelligence 5-7A (CSTT-Sem-7)

2. Due to this the value of natural language processing applications

becomes clear.
3 Machine translation helps us in translating technical manuals,
support content cr catalogs at a significantly reduced cost.
4 The challenge with machine translation technologies is not in
translating words, but in understanding the meaning of sentences
to provide a true translation.
ii. Automatic summarization :
1 When we access a specific, important piece of information from a
huge knowledge base;information overload can become a problem.
2 Automatic summarization is relevant for summarizing the meaning
of documents and information.

3 Automatic summarization is helpful in understanding the enotional

meanings inside the information, such as in collecting data from
social media.
4. Automatic summarization is especially relevant when used to
avoiding
provide an overview of a news item or blog posts, while of
redundancy from multiple sources and maximizing the diversity
content obtained.

iüi. Sentiment analysis :

sentiment among several
1. The goal ofsentiment analysis is to identify expressed.
posts where emotion is not always explicitly
opinions and
2. Companies use sentiment analysis, to identify
what customers think
sentiment online to help them understand
about their products and services.
context to help you
3. Sentiment analysis understands sentiments in opinion, which can
expressed
better understand what's behind an
be extremely relevant in
understanding and driving purchasing
decisions.

iv. Text classification :

Text classification makes it possible to assign predefined categories
1.
toa document and organize it to
help you find the information you
need.
text categorization is spam filtering
2. For example, an application of
in email.
Question Answering:
V.
due to applications
Question-Answering (QA) is becoming popular
1.
Siri, OK Google,chat boxes and virtual assistants.
such as
5-8A (CSIT-Sem-7) Applications
2 A QA application is a system capable of coherently answering a
human request.
3 It may be used as atext-only interface or as a spoken dialog system.
4 While they offer great promise, they still have a long way to go.
5 Using natural language processing for creating a seamless and
interactive interface between humans with machines willcontinue
to be a top priority for various cognitive applications.
Que 5.8. What are the various steps in natural language
processing ?
Answer

Steps in natural language processing :

1 Morphological analysis : It is concern with the way the words are
built up from smaller, meaning bearing units; (come(s), co(mes)).
Individual words are analyzed into their components and non-word
tokens such as punctuation are separated from the words.
2 Syntactic analysis:It is concern with how the words are put together
to form correct sentences and what structural role each word has. Line ar
sequences of words are transformed into structures that show how the
words relate to each other.
3. Semantic analysis : It is concern with what words mean and how
these meanings combine in sentences to form sentence meanings. That
is the structures created by the syntactic analyzer are assigned meanings.
4. Pragmatie analysis : It is concern with how sentences are used in
different situations and how use affects the interpretation of the
sentence. The structure representing what was said is reinterpreted to
determine what was actually meant.
5 Discourse integration : It is concern with how immediately preceding
sentences affect the interpretation of the next sentence. The meaning
of an individual sentence may depend on the sentences that precede it
and may influence the meanings of the sentences that follow it.
Que 5.9. Describe the role of artificial intelligence in natural
language processing. AKTU2017-18, Marks 10
Answer
1. Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of
communicating with an intelligent system using a natural language
such as English.
Artificial Intelligence 5-9 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

2 Al provides computer the ability to accept spoken words as dictation or

to follow voice commands by using software.
3 Alprograms are able to communicate with humans in anatural way
because natural language is one of the most important medium for the
communication.
4 To understand the natural language, a program needs a considerable
knowledge about the structure of the language including what the words
are and how they combine into phrases and sentences.
5. There are three different approaches for the development of natural
language understanding programs :
i. The use of keyword and pattern matching.
ii. The use of combined syntactic (structural) and semantic directed
analysis.
ii. Comparing and matching the input to real world situation.

Que 5.10. What is the role of NLP in AI ? Illustrate the various

phases in NLP. AKTU2018-19, Marks 10
Answer
Role of NLP: Refer Q. 5.9, Page 5-9A, Unit-5.
There are five phases involved in NLP:
1. Lexical analysis : It involves identifying and analyzing the structure
of words. Lexical analysis is dividing the whole chunk of text into
paragraphs, sentences, and words.
2. Syntactie analysis (Parsing) :It involves analysis of words in the
sentence for grammar and arranging words in a manner that shows the
relationship among the words.
3. Semantic analysis : It draws the exact meaning or the dictionary
meaning from the text. The text is checked for meaningfulness. It is
done by mapping syntactic structures and objects in the task domain.
4. Discourse integration : The meaning of any sentencedepends upon
the meaning of the sentence just before it. In addition, it also brings
about the meaning of the sentence that follows it.
5. Pragmatic analysis :During pragmatic analysis, what was said is re
interpreted on what it actually meant. It involves deriving those aspects
of languagewhich require real world knowledge.
5-10 A (CSTT-Sem-7) Applications

Lexical analysis

Syntactic analysis

Semantic analysis

Disclosure integration

Pragmaticanalysis

PART-4
Machine Translation.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.11. What do you understand by machine translation ? What

are various types of machine translation systems ?
Answer
Machine translation :
1. Machine translation is the task of
automatically converting source text
in one language to text in another language.
2. In amachine translation task, the input already
of symbols in some language, and the computer consists a sequence
of
program
this into a sequence of symbols in another language. must convert
Types of Machine Translation Systems:
1. Bilingual MT System : Bilingual MT systems
produce translations
between two particular languages.
2. Multilingual MT System :
Multilingual MT systems produce
translations between any pair of languages. They may be either uni
directional or bi-directional in nature.
Artificial Intelligence 5-11 A
(CSIT-Sem-7)

Que 5.12. What are the three major approaches of machine

translation ?

Answer

Three major approaches are:

1. Direct MTApproach :It is less popular but the oldest approach of MT.
The systems that use this approach are capable of translating SL (source
language)directly to TL (target language). Such systems are bi-lingual
and uni-directional in nature.

Interlingua

Analysis Generation

Source Target
Fig. 3.12.1.

2. Interlingua Approach: The systems that use Interlingua approach

translate SL to an intermediate language called Interlingua (IL) and
then translate IL to TL. The Interlingua approach can be understood
with the help of the following MT pyramid.
3. Transfer Approach: Three stages are involved with this approach :
a
In the first stage, source language (SL) texts are converted to
abstract SL-oriented representations.
b In the second stage, SL-oriented representations are converted
into equivalent target language (TL)-oriented representations.
C. In the third stage, the final text is generated.
4. Empirical MT Approach : This is an emerging approach for MT.
Basically, it uses large amount of raw data in the form of parallel corpora.
The raw data consists of the text and their translations. Analogy-based,
5-12 A (CS/TT-Senm-7) Appications
example-based, memory-based machine translation techniques use
empirical MT approach.

Que 5.13. Design the process of machinetranslation with the help

of flowchart.

Answer
Process of machine translation with the help of the following flowchart:

Source text

De-formatting

Pre-editing

Morphological, syntactic,
semantic and contextual
analysis

Internal representation
of source language

Contextual, semantic
and syntactic generation

Re-formatting

Post editing

Target text

PART-5
Speech Recognition.

Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Artificial Intelligence 5-13 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Que 5.14. Discuss the term speech recognition.

Answer
1. Speech recognition is the process that enables a computer to recognize
and respond to spoken words and then convert them in a format that
the machine understands. The machine may then convert it into
another form of data depending on the end-goal.
2. Speech recognition is widely used in digital assistants, smart speakers,
smart homes, and automation for a variety of services, products, and
solutions.

Que 5.15. What are the most commonly used algorithms for
speech recognition ?
Answer
1. Natural language processing (NLP) :
NLP is not a specific algorithm used in speech recognition; it is the
area of artificial intelligence which focuses on the interaction
between humans and machines through speech and text.
ii. Many mobile devices incorporate speech recognition into their
systems to conduct voice search (example : Siri) or provide more
accessibility around texting.
2. Hidden Markov models (HMM) :
i. Hidden Markov Models build on the Markov chain model, which
stipulates that the probability of a given state hinges on the current
state, not its prior states.
ii While a Markov chain model is useful for observable events, such
as text inputs, hidden Markov models allow us to incorporate
hidden events, such as part-of-speech tags, into a probabilistic
model.
iü. They are utilized as sequence models within speech recognition,
assigning labels to each unit i.e., words, syllables, sentences, etc.,
in the sequence.
iv. These labels create a mapping with the provided input, allowing it
to determine the most appropriate label sequence.
3. Neural networks :
i. For deep learning algorithms, neural networks process training
data by mimicking the interconnectivity of the human brain
through layers of nodes.
ii Each node is made up of inputs, weights, a bias (or threshold) and
an output.
5-14 A (CSIT-Sem-7) Applications
iü. Ifthat output value exceeds a given threshold, it fires" or activates
the node, passing data to the next layer in the network.
iv. Neural networks learn the mapping function through supervised
learning,adjusting based on the loss function through the process
of gradient descent.
V. While neural networks tend tobe more accurate and can accept
more data, this comes at a performance efficiency cost as they
tend to be slower to train compared to traditional language models.
Que 5.16. What are the applications of speechrecognition ?
Answer
1 Automotive : Speech recognizer improves driver safety by enabling
voice-activated navigation systems and search capabilities in car radios.
2. Technology : Virtual assistants are increasingly becoming integrated
within our daily lives, particularly on our mobile devices. We use voice
commands to access them through our smartphones, such as through
Google Assistant or Apple's Siri, for tasks, such as voice search, or
through our speakers, via Amazon's Alexa or Microsoft's Cortana, to
play music.
3. Healthcare : Doctors and nurses leverage dictation applications to
capture and log patient diagnoses and treatment notes.
4 Sales : It can help a call center transcribe thousands of phone calls
between customers and agents to identify common call patterns and
issues. Cognitive bots can also talk to people via awebpage, answering
common queries and solving basic requests without needing to wait
for a contact center agent to be available. In both instances speech
recognition systems help reduce time to resolution for consumer issues.
5. Security :As technology integrates into our daily lives, security
protocols are an increasing priority. Voice-based authentication adds a
viable level of security.

Que 5.17. What are the Techniques for Speech Recognition ?

Answer
Techniques for Speech Recognition are:
1. Speech Analysis Technique:
i. Speaker identity can be shown by a different type of information
that is present in speech data.
ii. This incorporates speaker-specific information due to the vocal
tract, excitation source, and behavior feature.
i. This stage deals with a suitable frame size for
segmenting speech
signals for further analysis and extracting.
Artificial Intelligence 5-15 A (CSIT-Sem-7)
2 Feature Extraction Technique :
1. The speech feature extraction technique is the process of
placing
words in groups or classes and decreasing the dimensionality of
the input vector while maintaining the discriminating power of
the signal.
From the basic formation of speaker identification and verification
system, we know that the number of training and test vector
needed for the classification problem grows with the dimension of
the given input; therefore, we need feature extraction of the
speech signal.
3. Modeling :
i The modeling technique aims to create speaker models using a
speaker-specific feature vector. Further, Speaker recognition and
Speaker identification are the parts of Modeling.
ii. The speaker identification technique identifies by itself, who is
speaking based on individual information integrated into a speech
signal.

PART-6
Robot.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.18. What are Robots ? What is Robotics ?

Answer
Robots:
i. Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment.
i. Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking,
moving,modifying the physical properties of object, destroying it, or to
have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing repetitive functions
without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted.
Robotics:
i. Robotics is a branch of AI, which is composed of Electrical Engineering,
Mechanical Engineering, and Computer Science for designing,
construction, and application of robots.
5-16 A (CSTT-Sem-7) Applications
The robots have mechanical construction, form, or shape designed to
accomplish a particular task.
ii. They have electrical components which power and control the
machinery.
iv. They contain some level of computer program that determines what,
when and how a robot does something.

Que 5.19. Difference between AIprogram and Robot System ?

Answer
S. No. Al programs Robots
1. They usually operate in They operate in real physical
computer-stimulated worlds. world.
2 The input to an AI program Input torobots is analog signal ia
is in symbols and rules. the form of speech waveform or
images.
3 They need general purpose They need special hardware with
computers to operate on. sensors and effectors.

Que 5.20. How do Robots and Artificial Intelligence work

together ?
Answer
i Artificial Intelligence gives robots a computer vision to navigate, sense
and calculate their reaction accordingly.
i. Robots learn to perform their tasks from humans through machine
learning which again is a part of computer programming and Al.
iüi. Al has the power to give life to robots and empower them to take
decisions on their own.
their
iv. Depending on the use and the tasks that the robot has to
different types of AI is used. They are as follows : perform
1. Weak Artificial Intelligence:
i. This type of AI is used to create a simulation of human
and interaction. The robots have predefined thought
commands and
responses.
The robots do not understand the
work of retrieving the appropriate commands
they do on!y the
command is given.
response when thesuitable
iüi. The example of this is Sirn and
Alexa. The AI in
executes the taskS as demanded by the owner. these devices only
 5-17A (CSIT-Sem-7)
Artificial Intelligence
2. Strong Artificial Intelligence:
This type of AI is used in those robots that perform their tasks on
their own. They do not need any kind of supervision once they are
programmed to do the task correctly.
This type of AI is widely used in automated things and the examples
are self-driving cars and internet cars.
iii. This type of AI is also used in humanoid robots which can sense
their environment quite well and interact with their surroundings.
there is
iv. Also, robotic surgeons are becoming popular day by day as
no human intervention required at all.
3. Specialized Artificial Intelligence:
This type of AI is used when the robot needs to perform only
specified special tasks. It is restricted only to limited tasks.
ii. This includes mainly industrial robots which perform
specified
and repetitive tasks like painting, tightening, ete.
Que 5.21. What are the Components of aRobot ?

Answer
Robots are constructed with the following:
1 Power Supply : The robots are powered by
batteries, solar power,
hydraulic, or pneumatic power sources.
2. Actuators: They convert energy into movement.
3. Electric motors (ACIDC):They are required for rotational movement.
4 Pneumatic Air Muscles: They contract almost 40% when air is sucked
in them.
5. Muscle Wires: They contract by 5% when electric current is passed
through them.
6. Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors: Best for industrial robots.
7. Sensors :They provide knowledge of real time information on the task
environment. Robots are equipped with vision sensors to compute the
depth in the environment. A tactile sensor imitates the mechanical
properties of touch receptors of human fingertips.
Que 5.22. Describe robot locomotion. What are types of
locomotion ?

Answer
Locomotion is the mechanism that makes a robot capable of moving in its
environment. There are various types of locomotion:
 5-18A(CSIT-Sem-7) Applications
1. Legged Locomotion :
This type of locomotionconsumes more power while demonstrating
walk, jump, trot, hop, climb up or down, etc.
It requires more number of motors to accomplish a movement. It is
suited for rough as well as smooth terrain where irregular or too
smooth surface makes it consume more power for a wheeled
locomotion. It is little difficult to implement because of stability
issues.

It comes with the variety of one, two, four, and six legs. If a robot
has multiple legs then leg coordination is necessary for locomotion.
2 Wheeled Locomotion :
1. It requires fewer numbers of motors to accomplish a movement.
It is little easy to implement as there are less stability issues in case
of more number of wheels. It is power efficient as compared to
legged locomotion.
a. Standard wheel: Rotates around the wheel axle and around
the contact.
b. Castor wheel: Rotates around the wheel axle and the offset
steering joint.
C. Swedish 45° and Swedish 90° wheels : Omni-wheel, rotates
around the contact point, around the wheel axle, and around
the rollers.
d.Ball or spherical wheel: Omnidirectional wheel, technically
difficult to implement.
3. Slip/Skid Locomotion :
i. In this type, the vehicles use tracks as in a tank.
The robot is steered by moving the tracks with different speeds in
the same or opposite direction. It offers stability because of large
contact area of track and ground.

PART-7
Hardware, Perception, Planning, Moving.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 5.23. Describe mobile robot hardware.

Artificial Intelligence 5-19 A (CSIT-Sem-7)

Answer
A mobile robot is nothing but combination of various hardware and
computational components. In terms of hardware components, it is a
collection of subsystems like.
1. Motion : How the robot changes his
its environment. positionw.r.t an object over time in
2. Sensing: How the robot measures properties of itself as well as detects
its environment.
3. Reasoning: How the robot maps these measurements into actions.
4. Communication : How the robot communicates information with an
outside operator.
Que 5.24. Explain the categories of motion of mobile robot.
Answer
Following are the four categories of motion of mobile robot :
1. Terrestrial :
Terrestrial robot:s move on the ground.
ii. They are structured to take benefit of a solid support surface as
wellas gravity.
ii. Wheeled robots are most common type of robots in this category.
They can walk, climb, roll, use tracks, or slither to move. Terrestrial
robots are also known as ground-contact robots.
2. Airborne:
Robotic helicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, robotically controlled
parachutes,and dirigibles have been developed.
. Airborne robot vehicles often mimic existing aircraft or birds.
ii. Flying robots share many issues with aquatic robots.
3. Aquatic :
i This type of robots operates in water, either at the surface or
underwater.
Such types of aquatic vehicles are not only used in water jets but
also in propellers to provide locomotion.
iii. Potentially important application domain since not only is most of
Earth's surface covered with water; but much of the ocean is not
readily accessible to humans.
4. Space:
i There are two main classes of robot those that move by climbing
(over a larger vehicle) as well as those that are independently
propelled (known as free flyers).
5-20 A (CSTT-Sem-7) Applications

ü. Some robots are designed to operate in the microgravity of outer

space, typically for space station maintenance.
ii. Various locomotive devices enable these robots to move about their
environment.

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as wvell as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.

Q.1. Describe the applications of artificial intelligence.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.1.
Q.2. Explain information retrieval with its characteristics.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.3.

Q.3. What do you mean by naturallanguage procèssing? Why it

is needed?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.6.

Q.4. What are the steps in natural language processing ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.8.

Q.5. Describe the role of artificial intelligence in natural

language processing.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.9.

Q.6. in
What is the role of NLP in AI?llustrate the various phases
NLP
Ans. Refer Q. 5.9.

Q.7. What are the most commonly used algorithms for speech
recognition ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.15.

Q.8. What are the Techniques for Speech Recognition ?

Ans. Refer Q. 5.17.
Q.9. Describe robot locomotion. What are types of locomotion ?
Ans. Refer Q. 5.22.