1-Introduction and Overview VU

Lecture 1

Introduction and Overview

What is Algebra?

History
Algebra is named in honor of Mohammed Ibn-e- Musa al-Khowârizmî. Around 825, he
wrote a book entitled Hisb al-jabr u'l muqubalah, ("the science of reduction and
cancellation"). His book, Al-jabr, presented rules for solving equations.
Algebra is a branch of Mathematics that uses mathematical statements to describe
relationships between things that vary over time. These variables include things like the
relationship between supply of an object and its price. When we use a mathematical
statement to describe a relationship, we often use letters to represent the quantity that
varies, since it is not a fixed amount. These letters and symbols are referred to as
variables.
Algebra is a part of mathematics in which unknown quantities are found with the help of
relations between the unknown and known.
In algebra, letters are sometimes used in place of numbers.
The mathematical statements that describe relationships are expressed using algebraic
terms, expressions, or equations (mathematical statements containing letters or symbols
to represent numbers). Before we use algebra to find information about these kinds of
relationships, it is important to first introduce some basic terminology.

Algebraic Term

The basic unit of an algebraic expression is a term. In general, a term is either a product
of a number and with one or more variables.

For example 4x is an algebraic term in which 4 is coefficient and x is said to be variable.

Study of Algebra
Today, algebra is the study of the properties of operations on numbers. Algebra
generalizes arithmetic by using symbols, usually letters, to represent numbers or
unknown quantities. Algebra is a problem-solving tool. It is like a tractor, which is a

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farmer's tool. Algebra is a mathematician's tool for solving problems. Algebra has
applications to every human endeavor. From art to medicine to zoology, algebra can be a
tool. People who say that they will never use algebra are people who do not know about
algebra. Learning algebra is a bit like learning to read and write. If you truly learn
algebra, you will use it. Knowledge of algebra can give you more power to solve
problems and accomplish what you want in life. Algebra is a mathematicians’ shorthand!

Algebraic Expressions

An expression is a collection of numbers, variables, and +ve sign or –ve sign, of

operations that must make mathematical and logical behaviour.

For example 8 x 2 + 9 x − 1 is an algebraic expression.

What is Linear Algebra?

One of the most important problems in mathematics is that of solving systems of linear
equations. It turns out that such problems arise frequently in applications of mathematics
in the physical sciences, social sciences, and engineering. Stated in its simplest terms, the
world is not linear, but the only problems that we know how to solve are the linear ones.
What this often means is that only recasting them as linear systems can solve non-linear
problems. A comprehensive study of linear systems leads to a rich, formal structure to
analytic geometry and solutions to 2x2 and 3x3 systems of linear equations learned in
previous classes.
It is exactly what the name suggests. Simply put, it is the algebra of systems of linear
equations. While you could solve a system of, say, five linear equations involving five
unknowns, it might not take a finite amount of time. With linear algebra we develop
techniques to solve m linear equations and n unknowns, or show when no solution exists.
We can even describe situations where an infinite number of solutions exist, and describe
them geometrically.
Linear algebra is the study of linear sets of equations and their transformation properties.

Linear algebra, sometimes disguised as matrix theory, considers sets and functions, which
preserve linear structure. In practice this includes a very wide portion of mathematics!

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Thus linear algebra includes axiomatic treatments, computational matters, algebraic

structures, and even parts of geometry; moreover, it provides tools used for analyzing
differential equations, statistical processes, and even physical phenomena.
Linear Algebra consists of studying matrix calculus. It formalizes and gives geometrical
interpretation of the resolution of equation systems. It creates a formal link between
matrix calculus and the use of linear and quadratic transformations. It develops the idea
of trying to solve and analyze systems of linear equations.
Applications of Linear algebra
Linear algebra makes it possible to work with large arrays of data. It has many
applications in many diverse fields, such as
• Computer Graphics,
• Electronics,
• Chemistry,
• Biology,
• Differential Equations,
• Economics,
• Business,
• Psychology,
• Engineering,
• Analytic Geometry,
• Chaos Theory,
• Cryptography,
• Fractal Geometry,
• Game Theory,
• Graph Theory,
• Linear Programming,
• Operations Research

It is very important that the theory of linear algebra is first understood, the concepts are
cleared and then computation work is started. Some of you might want to just use the

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computer, and skip the theory and proofs, but if you don’t understand the theory, then it
can be very hard to appreciate and interpret computer results.
Why using Linear Algebra?
Linear Algebra allows for formalizing and solving many typical problems in different
engineering topics. It is generally the case that (input or output) data from an experiment
is given in a discrete form (discrete measurements). Linear Algebra is then useful for
solving problems in such applications in topics such as Physics, Fluid Dynamics, Signal
Processing and, more generally Numerical Analysis.
Linear algebra is not like algebra. It is mathematics of linear spaces and linear functions.
So we have to know the term "linear" a lot. Since the concept of linearity is fundamental
to any type of mathematical analysis, this subject lays the foundation for many branches
of mathematics.
Objects of study in linear algebra
Linear algebra merits study at least because of its ubiquity in mathematics and its
applications. The broadest range of applications is through the concept of vector spaces
and their transformations. These are the central objects of study in linear algebra

1. The solutions of homogeneous systems of linear equations form paradigm

examples of vector spaces. Of course they do not provide the only examples.
2. The vectors of physics, such as force, as the language suggests, also provide
paradigmatic examples.
3. Binary code is another example of a vector space, a point of view that finds
application in computer sciences.
4. Solutions to specific systems of differential equations also form vector spaces.
5. Statistics makes extensive use of linear algebra.
6. Signal processing makes use of linear algebra.
7. Vector spaces also appear in number theory in several places, including the
study of field extensions.
8. Linear algebra is part of and motivates much abstract algebra. Vector spaces
form the basis from which the important algebraic notion of module has been
abstracted.

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9. Vector spaces appear in the study of differential geometry through the tangent
bundle of a manifold.
10. Many mathematical models, especially discrete ones, use matrices to represent
critical relationships and processes. This is especially true in engineering as
well as in economics and other social sciences.

There are two principal aspects of linear algebra: theoretical and computational. A major
part of mastering the subject consists in learning how these two aspects are related and
how to move from one to the other.

Many computations are similar to each other and therefore can be confusing without
reasonable level of grasp of their theoretical context and significance. It will be very
tempting to draw false conclusions.

On the other hand, while many statements are easier to express elegantly and to
understand from a purely theoretical point of view, to apply them to concrete problems
you will need to “get your hands dirty”. Once you have understood the theory sufficiently
and appreciate the methods of computation, you will be well placed to use software
effectively, where possible, to handle large or complex calculations.

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Course Segments

The course is covered in 45 Lectures spanning over six major segments, which are given
below;

1. Linear Equations
2. Matrix Algebra
3. Determinants
4. Vector spaces
5. Eigen values and Eigenvectors, and
6. Orthogonal sets

Course Objectives
The main purpose of the course is to introduce the concept of linear algebra, to explain
the underline theory, the computational techniques and then try to apply them on real life
problems. Mayor course objectives are as under;

• To master techniques for solving systems of linear equations

• To introduce matrix algebra as a generalization of the single-variable algebra of
high school.
• To build on the background in Euclidean space and formalize it with vector space
theory.
• To develop an appreciation for how linear methods are used in a variety of
applications.
• To relate linear methods to other areas of mathematics such as calculus and,
differential equations.

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Recommended Books and Supported Material

I am indebted to several authors whose books I have freely used to prepare the lectures
that follow. The lectures are based on the material taken from the books mentioned
below.

1. Linear Algebra and its Applications (3rd Edition) by David C. Lay.

2. Contemporary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton and Robert C. Busby.
3. Introductory Linear Algebra (8th Edition) by Howard Anton and Chris Rorres.
4. Introduction to Linear Algebra (3rd Edition) by L. W. Johnson, R.D. Riess and
J.T. Arnold.
5. Linear Algebra (3rd Edition) by S. H. Friedberg, A.J. Insel and L.E. Spence.
6. Introductory Linear Algebra with Applications (6th Edition) by B. Kolman.

I have taken the structure of the course as proposed in the book of David C. Lay. I would
be following this book. I suggest that the students should purchase this book, which is
easily available in the market and also does not cost much. For further study and
supplement, students can consult any of the above mentioned books.
I strongly suggest that the students should also browse on the Internet; there is plenty of
supporting material available. In particular, I would suggest the website of David C. Lay;
www.laylinalgebra.com, where the entire material, study guide, transparencies are readily
available. Another very useful website is www.wiley.com/college/anton, which contains a
variety of useful material including the data sets. A number of other books are also
available in the market and on the internet with free access.
I will try to keep the treatment simple and straight. The lectures will be presented in
simple Urdu and easy English. These lectures are supported by the handouts in the form
of lecture notes. The theory will be explained with the help of examples. There will be
enough exercises to practice with. Students are advised to go through the course on daily
basis and do the exercises regularly.

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Schedule and Assessment

The course will be spread over 45 lectures. Lectures one and two will be introductory and
the Lecture 45 will be the summary. The first two lectures will lay the foundations and
would provide the overview of the course. These are important from the conceptual point
of view. I suggest that these two lectures should be viewed again and again.

The course will be interesting and enjoyable, if the student will follow it regularly and
completes the exercises as they come along. To follow the tradition of a semester system
or of a term system, there will be a series of assignments (Max eight assignments) and a
mid term exam. Finally there will be terminal examination.

The assignments have weights and therefore they have to be taken seriously.

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