Topic 01

Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets

MA201 Mathematics III

MGPP, AC, ST, SP

IIT Guwahati

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Syllabus of Complex Analysis

Complex Numbers: Complex numbers and elementary properties.

Complex Functions: Limits, continuity and differentiation. Cauchy-Riemann
equations. Analytic functions, Harmonic functions. Elementary Analytic functions.
Complex Integration: Contour integrals, Anti-derivatives and path independent of
contour integrals.
Cauchy-Goursat Theorem. Cauchy’s integral formula, Morera’s Theorem.
Liouville’s Theorem, Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, Maximum Modulus
Principle and its consequences.
Power Series: Taylor series, Laurent series.
Zeros and Singularities: Zeros of Analytic Functions, Singularities, Argument
Principle, Rouche’s Theorem.
Residues and Applications: Cauchy’s Residue Theorem and applications.
Conformal Mappings: Conformal Mappings, Mobius transformations.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Complex Analysis Books
Text Book:

J. W. Brown and R. V. Churchill, Complex Variables and Applications, 7th or 8th

Edition, Mc-Graw Hill, 2004. Note: Any Edition is fine.
Reference Book:

J. H. Mathews and R. W. Howell, Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering,

3rd Edition, Narosa, 1998. Note: Any Edition or Other Publisher is fine.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Topic 01: Learning Outcome
We learn
Complex Numbers
Algebraic Operations: Addition, Multiplication, Division
C is a field, but not an ordered field
x + iy form of complex numbers
Conjugate, Modulus of a complex number
Basic identities and inequalities
Nonzero complex numbers: Polar Form, Trigonometric Form, Exponential Form,
argument function
Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers
Interior Point, Open, Closed, Limit point, boundary point, Exterior Point
Bounded Set, Connected Set, Compact Set, Convex Set
Domains, Regions
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Recall: (R, +, ·) is a field w. r. t. addition + and multiplication ·
Closure Law: For all a and b in R, a + b ∈ R and a · b ∈ R.
Associative Law: For all a, b and c in R,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a · (b · c) = (a · b) · c .
Identity Law: For all a in R,
a+0=a=0+a and a·1=a=1·a.
Law of Additive Inverse: Given a ∈ R, there exists a unique x ∈ R such that
a + x = 0 = x + a.
Law of Multiplicative Inverse: Given a ∈ R with a , 0, there exists a unique x ∈ R
such that a · x = 1 = x · a.
Commutative Law: For all a and b in R,
a+b=b+a and a·b=b·a.
Distributive Law: For all a, b and c in R,
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c .
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Why do we need Complex Numbers C?
NOT all polynomial equations have roots in R.
Example: x2 + 1 = 0 has no roots in R.

(R, +, ·) is NOT algebraically closed. There is a need of bigger number system in which
all (nonconstant) polynomial equations have roots.

Fact/History: Complex numbers C were originated when Four Italy mathematicians

(Ferro, Tartagila, Cardano, Bombelli) in 16th Century tried to solve cubic equations like
x3 − 3bx − 2c = 0, x3 − 15x − 4 = 0 (but not from quadratic equations at that time).
For an interesting article on History of Complex Numbers see:
http://www.math.uri.edu/∼merino/spring06/mth562/ShortHistoryComplexNumbers2006.pdf

Advantages (now): Certain real integrals can be computed easily in C. Certain

differential equations can be easily solved. A differentiable complex function in an open
set (analytic function) has many interesting properties.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Complex Numbers

Definition
A complex number z is defined to be an ordered pair of real numbers x and y as
z = (x, y). That is, the set of complex numbers is denoted by C and is given by

C = {z = (x, y) : x and y are real numbers } .

The ordered pair here means the order in which we write x and y in defining the
complex number z = (x, y). For example, the number (1, 5) is not the same as (5, 1).

In the complex number z = (x, y),

x is called the real part of z and is denoted by ℜ(z) or Re z
y is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by ℑ(z) or Im z

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
 The numbers of the form (0, y) are called pure imaginary numbers.
The numbers of the form (x, 0) are called real numbers.
The set of real numbers can be identified as a subset
R = {z = (x, y) ∈ C : x ∈ R and y = 0} in C. That is, R ⊂ C.
Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real parts are equal and their
imaginary parts are equal.
History: The representation of complex numbers in the plane was proposed
independently by Casper Wessel (1797), K. F. Gauss (1799) and Jean Robert Argand
(1806).

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Complex Plane/ z-plane/ Argand Plane

The complex number z = (x, y) can be viewed as a point P having cartesian

coordinates (x, y) in the plane R2 = R × R.
The x-axis and y-axis are called the real axis and the imaginary axis respectively.
The complex number z = (x, y) can also be represented by a vector connecting
the origin 0 = (0, 0) to the point P.
This plane is called the complex plane or z-plane. It is also known as the Gauss
plane or the Argand Plane. The term Argand diagram is sometimes used.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Addition Operation
For any two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), the addition of z1 and z2
is defined
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ) .

The sum of any two complex numbers is a complex number.

Geometric Interpretation of Addition of two complex numbers:

⃗ and OQ
If OP ⃗ are not collinear, then OR
⃗ is the diagonal of the parallelogram with OP
⃗
and OQ⃗ as adjacent sides.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Subtraction Operation

The subtraction z1 − z2 of the complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) is

defined as
z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 , y1 − y2 ) .

The subtraction z1 − z2 can be viewed as the sum of the complex numbers z1 and −z2 .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Geometric Interpretation of Subtraction

This picture will be useful

 to understand
 parallelogram law (later on).
|z + w|2 + |z − w|2 = 2 |z|2 + |w|2

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Multiplication and Division
For any two complex numbers z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ), the multiplication of z1
and z2 is defined by
z1 z2 = (x1 x2 − y1 y2 , x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) .

The product of any two complex numbers is a complex number.

This multiplication is different from the vector product.

If z1 = (x1 , y1 ) and z2 = (x2 , y2 ) , 0 are any two complex numbers, then the complex
number z1 divided by z2 is defined as
 
z1  1 
=  2  ((x1 x2 + y1 y2 ), (x2 y1 − x1 y2 )) .

z2 x2 + y2
2

The set of complex numbers C with these operations addition + and multiplication ·
forms a field. The identity element of + is (0, 0) and the identity element of · is (1, 0). R
is a subfield of C.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Binomial Formula

Let 0! = 1 and n! = 1 · 2 · · · (n − 1) · n for n ∈ N.

Let nCk = n!
k! (n−k)! for k = 0, · · · , n.

Binomial Formula:
For any two complex numbers z1 and z2 and for n ∈ N,
n
X
(z1 + z2 )n = nCk zn−k
1 z2 .
k

k=0

The proof is based on mathematical induction and is left as an exercise.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Additional Information: Complex Field is NOT an Ordered Field

We can not define usual order relation like less than, less than or equal to, greater
than, greater than or equal to on the set of complex numbers. That is, the usual
ordering of R can not be taken to C as such.

However, we can define in other ways, like dictionary order on C as follows.

Let z1 = x1 + i y1 and z2 = x2 + i y2 . The dictionary order is given by:

z1 < z2 if x1 < x2
z1 < z2 if x1 = x2 and if y1 < y2
z1 = z2 if x1 = x2 and if y1 = y2

The complex field (C, +, ·) can NOT be an ordered field with respect to any (total) order
defined on C.
Therefore, the dictionary order is NOT useful in some sense.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Algebraic form (or x + iy notation)

Set
i = (0, 1) .
It is called iota.

Electrical engineers use the letter j instead of i.

(x, y) = (x, 0)(1, 0) + (0, 1)(y, 0) = x · 1 + i · y = x + i y

(x, y) = x + i y ,
i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (−1, 0) = −1 .
The form x + iy is called the algebraic form of a complex number.

Hereafter, we prefer to use x + iy form instead of ordered pair (x, y) form to write
complex numbers.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Conjugate of a Complex Number

The complex conjugate, or simply, the conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib is

denoted by z and is defined by
z = a − ib .
Geometrically, the point z = a − ib is the reflection (mirror image) of the point z = a + ib
on the real axis.

Examples: If z = 3 + 4i then z = 3 − 4i. If z = −5 then z = −5.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties of Complex Conjugation

1 z1 = z2 if and only if z1 = z2 .
2 z = z.
3 z = z if and only if z is a real number.
4 z + z = 2ℜ(z) = 2x if z = x + iy.
5 z − z = 2i ℑ(z) = 2i y if z = x + iy.
6 z1 ± z2 = z1 ± z2 .
7 z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
8 (z1 /z2 ) = z1 /z2 provided z2 , 0.
The numbers z and z are called the complex conjugate coordinates, or simply the
conjugate coordinates corresponding to the point z = (x, y) = x + iy. Also they have
been called the isotropic coordinates and the minimal coordinates of the point.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Modulus of a Complex Number

The modulus or absolute value of a complex number z = x + iy is denoted by |z| and is

given by q
|z| = x 2 + y2 .
Here, as usual, the radical stands for the principal (non-negative) square root of
x 2 + y2 .

Example: The modulus √ of the complex

√ number 4 + 3i is
|4 + 3i| = 42 + 32 = 25 = 5.
Note: |z| ≥ 0 for all z ∈ C. |z| = 0 if and only if z = 0.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties - Modulus & Conjugate
1 |z| ≥ 0 and |z| = 0 iff z = 0.
2 |z| = |z| = | − z|.
3 |z|2 = z z.
4 If z = x + iy, |z| ≤ |x| + |y|.
5 If z = x + iy, |x| ≤ |z| and |y| ≤ |z|.
6 |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |.
 
7 Parallelogram Law: |z1 + z2 | + |z1 − z2 | = 2 |z1 | + |z2 |
2 2 2 2

8 Triangle Inequality: |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |. (Work out proof in class)

9 |z1 − z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.
10 |z1 − z2 | ≥ | |z1 | − |z2 | |. (Work out proof in class)
11 |z1 + z2 | ≥ | |z1 | − |z2 | |.
z1 |z1 |
12 = provided z2 , 0.
z2 |z2 |
13 If n ∈ N, then |zn | = |z|n . If −n ∈ N, then |zn | = |z|n for z , 0.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties (continuation) - Additional Information

14 Lagrange’s Identity: If {z1 , z2 , · · · , zn } and {w1 , w2 , · · · , wn } are two sets of n

complex numbers (n ≥ 1), then

n 2  n   n 
X X  X  X
zk w k =  |zk | 
 2  |wk |2  −
  |z j wk − zk w j |2 .
k=1 k=1 k=1 1≤ j≤k≤n

15 Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality: If {z1 , z2 , · · · , zn } and {w1 , w2 , · · · , wn } are two sets

of n complex numbers (n ≥ 1), then

n 2  n   n 
X X  X 
2  |wk |2 
zk wk ≤  |zk | 

 
k=1 k=1 k=1

where the equality sign holds iff the zk are proportional to the wk .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Distance between Two Complex Numbers

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any two complex numbers. Then the
(Usual/Euclidean) distance between z1 and z2 is defined by
q
d(z1 , z2 ) = |z2 − z1 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
q
= |z1 − z2 | = (x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .

p
Example: If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 1 − i then |z1 − z2 | = (1 − 1)2 + (1 − (−1))2 = 2.
Note: |z| = d(0, z). (C, d) is a metric space.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Polar Form of (Non-Zero) Complex Numbers

Each non-zero complex number z = x + iy = (x, y) , (0, 0) can be represented by

the vector from the origin O to the point P = (x, y) in the plane.
⃗ is given by r = x2 + y2 = |z| = Modulus of z.
p
The length r of the vector OP
The measure θ in radians of the oriented angle from the positive real axis to the
⃗ is called the argument or the amplitude of the vector OP
vector OP ⃗ , and we write
θ = arg z.
For z , 0, we can write z = (r, θ) where r = |z| and θ = arg(z). This representation
is called the polar representation of z, and the values of r and θ are called polar
coordinates of z.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Trigonometric Form of (Non-Zero) Complex Numbers

x y
From trigonometry we have, cos θ = and sin θ = .
r r
z = r cos θ + i r sin θ = r(cos θ + i sin θ) .

This is known as the trigonometric form of the complex number z.

The number θ is determined only up to multiples of 2π and the set of all such
angles is denoted by arg z. However all the values in this set represent the same
direction in the complex plane.
√
Example: Modulus of (1√+ i) is 2 and √ argument of (1 + i) = π/4+ any multiple of 2π.
Polar form of (1 + i) is ( 2, π/4) or ( 2, 9π/4), etc.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
About the function arg(z)

For the complex number z = 0, the modulus is 0, but the argument is undefined.
If a complex number z is written in the polar form or in the trigonometric form then
it is understood that it is a non-zero complex number.
For each nonzero z, arg(z) takes a set of values. This set is an infinite set. For
each nonzero point z, argument function thus assigns a set as value. Therefore,
arg(z) is called a multiple valued function.
Examples: arg(5) = {2nπ : n ∈ Z}; arg(−3) = {(2n + 1)π : n ∈ Z};
arg(1 + i) = {(π/4) + 2nπ : n ∈ Z}; Compute arg(1 − i).

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Principal Value of argument of z: Arg z
Picking one of the values of arg(z) for computation purpose. For example, if teacher
gives some condition, all students should be able to pick up the same (and unique)
value for arg(1 + i). How to do it?
e.g., Teacher says: Restrict the value of arg(z) in the interval (−π, π] and now tell me
the value of arg(1 + i).
Answer: arg(1 + i) in the interval (−π, π] is .

For each non-zero z, there is only one value of arg z say Θ satisfying −π < Θ ≤ π. This
value will henceforth be denoted by Arg z and is called the principal value of arg z.

Examples: Arg (5) = 0, Arg (i) = π/2, Arg (−8) = π, Arg (−i) = −π/2.
Exercise: Find the largest set in C on which Arg z is continuous?

Relation between arg z and Arg z:

arg z = Arg z + 2πk where k is an integer .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Computing Principal Value of argument and argument
Let z = x + iy , 0.

Compute ϕ = Principal value of tan−1 (y/x) which lies in (−π/2, π/2).

With the value of ϕ and with the information of signs of x and y (which quadrant z lies)
we can compute

ϕ x>0



 if
ϕ+π x < 0 and y ≥ 0

if




Arg (z) =  ϕ−π x < 0 and y < 0

if


π/2 x = 0 and y > 0




 if
x = 0 and y < 0

−π/2 if



arg(z) = Arg (z) + 2kπ where k ∈ Z .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Exponential form of Non-Zero Complex Numbers

Let z = x + iy , 0 be written in the trigonometric form as z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

where r is the modulus and θ is the argument of z.
The Euler’s formula says that

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

where θ is measured in radians.

If z , 0 then using Euler’s formula, we can write z as

z = reiθ

where r = |z| and θ = arg(z) which is known as the exponential form of a complex
number z.
√ i π/4
Examples: 1 + i = 2e , −i = e−iπ/2 , −8 = 8eiπ = 8ei3π .
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Geometrical Interpretation of Multiplication
Let z1 , 0 and z2 , 0. Then,
zi = ri (cos θi + i sin θi ), i = 1, 2 .

z1 z2 = r1 r2 [(cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 ) + i (sin θ1 cos θ2 + cos θ1 sin θ2 )]

= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin(θ1 + θ2 )]

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
 arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 )

The above identity is to be interpreted as saying that if values of two of these three
(multiple valued) arguments are specified, then there is a value of the third such that
the above equation holds.
Example: If 3 = 3e2π i and −2 = 2e3π i then −6 = 6eiθ3 with θ3 = 5π (one of the values of
arg(−6) plus a suitable multiple of 2π is to be taken) so that the identity holds.

In the above identity, if we replace arg(z) by Arg (z), then identity is in general NOT true.
If z1 and z2 lies in the first quadrant then it will be true.

Arg (z1 z2 ) , Arg (z1 ) + Arg (z2 ) (in general) .

If 0 , z = reiθ then (1/z) = (1/r)e−iθ and hence arg(1/z) = − arg(z).

!
z1
arg = arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ) .
z2
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Powers of Complex Numbers
Let z be a complex number and let n be an integer.
If z = 0, we have zn = 0 if n ∈ N.
If z , 0, then setting z = rei θ and using et1 et2 = et1 +t2 by mathematical induction
one can prove that

zn = rn einθ for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .

If n is negative integer, then set m = −n and apply the above equation to (1/z)m to
get zn = rn einθ .
 n
If r = 1 then we get eiθ = einθ .
Rewriting it, we get following de Moivre’s formula.

(cos θ + i sin θ)n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ) n∈Z. for

√ √
Example: ( 3 + i)7 = (2eiπ/6 )7 = 27 ei7π/6 = (2 e )(2e ) = −64( 3 + i).
6 iπ iπ/6

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
n-th Roots of Unity (11/n )

Find the solutions of the equation zn = 1 where n is a positive integer.

Let z = reiθ be a solution to zn = 1.
Then, zn = rn (eiθ )n = rn ei nθ = 1 · ei0 which implies

rn = 1, nθ = 0 + 2k π where k is an integer .

We get n distinct solutions to zn = 1 by setting k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1 as

2k π 2k π
! !
i 2kn π
zk = e = cos + i sin
n n
where k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1 and are called the n-th roots of unity.

Set ωn = ei2π/n (primitive n-th root of unity). By De Moivre’s formula, the n-th roots of
unity can be expressed as 1, ωn , ω2n , ω3n , · · · , ωn−1
n .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties of n-th Roots of Unity

Geometrically, the n-th roots of unity are equally spaced points that lie on the unit circle
{z : |z| = 1} and form the vertices of a regular polygon with n sides.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
n-th Roots of Nonzero Complex Number W 1/n
Find the solutions of the equation zn = W where n is a positive integer.
Let z = reiθ be a solution to zn = W = ρei ϕ .
zn = rn einθ = W = ρeiϕ gives that

rn = ρ and nθ = ϕ + 2k π where k ∈ Z .

By setting k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1,we get n distinct solutions to zn = W as

ϕ + 2k π ϕ + 2k π
" ! !#
1
i ϕ+2k π 1
zk = ρ n e n = ρ n cos + i sin
n n

for k = 0, 1, · · · , n − 1.
If c is any n-th root of W then all the n-th roots of W are given by c, cωn , cω2n , · · · , cωn−1
n
where ωn is a primitive n-th root of unity. √ √
Example: Cube roots of 64i are z0 = 4e iπ/6 = 2 3 + i 2, z1 = 4ei5π/6 = −2 3 + i 2 and
z3 = 4ei3π/2 = −4i.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Computing W α where W , 0 and α ∈ Q

Let W be a nonzero complex number.

Let α = m/n where m and n are integers with gcd (m, n) = 1.
Then,
W α = W m/n = W m

1/n
.
Since m is an integer, W m will be a single complex number.
Then, taking n-th root of W m , we get n distinct complex numbers zk satisfying znk = W m .

Exercise: Find all values of (−8i)2/3 .

Exercise: From real function to complex function what is happening? Compare domain
of definition and range of real function x01/n and complex function z1/n
0 .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Sets in C (Planar Sets)

Identify the following sets / Find the Locus of the Points satisfying the equations /
Interpret geometrically the following relations:
1 {z ∈ C : |z − 1| − |z + 1| = 0}.
2 {z ∈ C : |ℜ(z)| + |ℑ(z)| = 1}.
3 |z − a| − |z + a| = 2c where a and c are real constants with c > 0.
4 z = a + tb for t ∈ R where a and b , 0 are complex constants.
z − a
5 {z ∈ C : Im > 0} where a and b , 0 are complex constants.
b

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Open Ball/Neighorhood, Puncture Neighborhood

|z − z0 | < R 0 < |z − z0 | < R

Open Disk/Open Ball centered at the point z0 with radius r is denoted by Br (z0 ) (or
B(z0 ) or B(z0 , r)) and is defined by Br (z0 ) = {z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < r}.
Let z0 be a point in C. Any open ball with center at z0 and radius r > 0 is called an
open neighborhood of z0 or simply a neighborhood of z0 and is usually denoted by
Nr (z0 ) or N(z0 ) or N(z0 , r).
A punctured or deleted neighborhood of a point z0 is given by
Br (z0 ) \ {z0 } = {z ∈ C : 0 < |z − z0 | < r}.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Interior Points, Interior of a Set

In the above picture z0 is an interior point. z1 is not an interior point.

Definition
Let S ⊆ C be a set. A point z0 ∈ C is said to be an interior point of the set S if there
exists an open neighborhood N(z0 ) of z0 such that N(z0 ) ⊂ S .

The set of all interior points of S is called called the interior set of S and is denoted by
S ◦ or Int(S ).
Examples:
Let S : |z| < 2. Then 1 + i is an interior point of S , but 2 is not an interior point of S .

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Open Set, Closed Set

Definition
A set S ⊆ C is said to be an open set in C if every point of S is an interior point of S .

Examples of Open Sets:

{z ∈ C : |z − z0 | < r} with r > 0 is an open set.
{z ∈ C : ℜ(z) > 0} is an open set.
Definition
A set S ⊆ C is said to be a closed set in C if the complement set C \ S is an open set.

Examples of Closed Sets:

{z ∈ C : |z − z0 | = r} with r > 0 is a closed set.
{z ∈ C : ℜ(z) ≥ 0} is a closed set.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
 The empty set Ø and the whole set C are both open and closed.
There are sets which are neither open nor closed in C. For example,
S = {z = x + iy ∈ C : x ∈ (−1, 1) and y = 0} is neither open nor closed in C
(Why?).
Examples of Open Sets:
{z : |z − (1 + i)| < 5},
{z : Im(z) , 0},
{z : Im(z) > 0},
{z : 2 < |z − (1 + i)| < 5}.
Examples of Closed Sets: {z : |z − (1 + i)| ≤ 5},
{z : |z − (1 + i)| = 5},
{z : Im(z) ≥ 0},
{z : 2 ≤ |z − (1 + i)| ≤ 5}.
Draw the pictures of the above sets and explore whether it is open or closed or not?

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Limit Point, Closure

Definition
Let S ⊆ C be a set. A point z0 ∈ C is said to be a limit point or accumulation point of the
set S if every deleted neighborhood N(z0 ) of z0 contains at least one point of S .

Example: Let S = {z ∈ C : |z| < 1}. Then each point z with |z| ≤ 1 is a limit point of S .

A set S is closed iff S contains all its limit points.

If S is a finite set then S has no limit points.

The set of all limit points of S is called the derived set of S and is denoted by S ′ or
Der(S ).
Definition
A set S together with all its limit points is called the closure of S and is denoted by S or
Cl (S ).

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties

The closure of a set is always a closed set.

The closure of a set S is the smallest closed set containing the set S .
S is closed if and only if S = S .
The interior of a set is always an open set.
The interior of a set S is the largest open set contained in the set S .
S is open if and only if S = S ◦ .
Empty set Ø and the whole set C are both open and closed sets.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Properties

[ {Aα : α ∈ Λ} be an arbitrary collection of open sets in C. Then, their union

Let
Aα is an open set. That is, Arbitrary union of open sets is open.
α∈Λ
Let {Aα : α \∈ Λ} be an arbitrary collection of closed sets in C. Then, their
intersection Aα is a closed set. That is, Arbitrary intersection of closed sets is
α∈Λ
closed.
Let {Ai : 1 ≤ i ≤ m} be a finite collection of open sets in C. Then, their
m
\
intersection Ai is an open set. That is, Finite intersection of open sets is open.
i=1
Let {Ai : 1 ≤ i ≤ m} be a finite collection of closed sets in C. Then, their union
m
[
Ai is a closed set. That is, Finite union of closed sets is closed.
i=1

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Boundary Point, Exterior Point
Let S be a subset of C. The complement of the set S in C is defined as
S c = {z ∈ C : z < S } = C \ S .
Definition
A point z0 is said to be a boundary point of S if every neighborhood N(z0 ) of z0 contains
at least one point in S and at least one point not in S . That is, every neighborhood of z0
intersects S and S c .
Example: Each point on |z| = 1 is a boundary point of the set |z| < 1.
The set of all boundary points of S is called the boundary set of S and is denoted by
∂S or Bd(S ).
Definition
A point z0 is said to be an exterior point of S if there is an open neighborhood N(z0 ) of
z0 such that N(z0 ) ∩ S = Ø.
That is, N(z0 ) ⊆ S c and z0 is an interior point of S c .

The set of all exterior points of S is called the exterior set of S and is denoted by
Ext(S ). MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets

Example: Each point in |z| > 1 is an exterior point of the set |z| < 1.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Bounded Set, Compact Set
Definition
A set S ⊆ C is said to be bounded if there exists an open ball B(z0 , r0 ) for some z0 ∈ C
with r0 > 0 such that S ⊂ B(z0 , r0 ).
That is, the set S can be put inside an open ball with some center and a finite radius.

An empty set Ø is bounded.

A set S which is not bounded is called unbounded.
Definition
A set S ⊆ C is said to be compact if it is closed and bounded.

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Connected Set, Domain, Region

Let w1 , w2 , · · · , wn+1 be n + 1 points in the plane. For each k = 1, 2, · · · , n, let lk denote

the line segment joining wk to wk+1 . Then, the successive line segments l1 , l2 , · · · , ln
form a continuous chain known as a polygonal path that joins w1 to wn+1 .

Polygonal Path

Definition
An open set S ⊆ C is said to be connected if every pair of points z1 , z2 in S can be
joined by a polygonal path that lies entirely in S .

Note: The concept of connecting any two points by a path is actually known as Path
Connected and Path Connected =⇒ Connected.
If a set S is connected then its closure S is also connected.
MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Connected Sets and Domain
Definition
An open, connected set S ⊆ C is called a domain.
A domain, together with some, none, or all of its boundary points, is called a region.

Connected Set
A set that is not connected is called a disconnected set.

Connected Set Disconnected Set

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets
Convex Set

Definition
A set S is said to be convex if every straight line segment L joining any two points of S
lies entirely inside the set S .

Not Convex Convex

MGPP, AC, ST, SP Topic 01 Complex Numbers and its Algebra, Topology of Sets