CHAPTER 3 - HARDWARE

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 Learning Outcomes

Exit Skills / 1.Understand the role of the central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer. Understand what is meant by a microprocessor.
Learning 2.Understand the purpose of the components in a CPU, in a computer
Objective that has a Von Neumann architecture. Describe the role of each
component in the process of the fetch–decode–execute cycle.
Students 3.Understand what is meant by CPU core, cache and clock how they
can affect the performance of a CPU.
should be 4.Understand the purpose and use of a CPU instruction set.
able to: 5.Describe the purpose and characteristics of an embedded system
and identify devices in which they are commonly used.

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Terminologies

Central Processing Unit (CPU) → a component in a computer system that processes data and instructions.

Microprocessor → an integrated circuit that is to perform many CPU functions.

Microprocessor Vs CPU →CPU processes complex instructions whereas microprocessor process

limited set of instructions( on a smaller scale)

Embedded system → a computer system which performs one function/ one specific task to
optimize efficiency. (Or) a computer system that performs a dedicated function.

Fetch-decode-execute cycle → the cycle through which data and instructions are processed.

Architecture → design of computer systems including the components it contains.

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3.1 The role of CPU

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 Computer Architecture

CPU a.k.a microprocessor /processor

Central
/fundamental
part of a Functions of the CPU
computer
(including tablets
& smartphones) Responsible

CPU is an
for executing
/ processing
Microprocessor Vs CPU
integrated all the data CPU processes complex instructions whereas
circuit (IC) on a and microprocessor process limited set of instructions( on
single instructions. a smaller scale)
microchip.

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Von Neumann Architecture

Early computers were fed data while running the machines. Computers were
built to carry out single specific task. E.g. breaking secret wartime codes.

For a computer to perform a different set of task/job, you have to rewire

the computer by hand which takes weeks.

It was not possible to store programs or data.

In mid 1940s John Von Neumann developed the “stored program concept”. It
is the simplest form of architecture followed ever since.

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Features Of Stored Program Concept

The concept of a central processing unit (CPU /

processor)

CPU was able to access the memory directly.

Programs and data can be stored in computer

memories.
The instructions in the stored program can be
executed in sequential order.

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Stored Program Concept

Von Neumann architecture is based on stored-program concept.

Stored-program computer stores programs and data / instructions in digital memory.

Modern stored program concept is referred to keeping programming instructions and its data in
(read-write) random access memory.

A set of instructions called a program is read, processed to produce information. The program will
state what processing is required.

More than one program can be stored in a computer at a given time.

Exam Style Question
Explain what is meant by the stored program concept.
• Programs / instructions are stored in memory
• Data is stored in memory
• Instructions are fetched and executed one after another
Schematic Diagram – Architecture Of Simple CPU

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Central Processing Unit – Components Of CPU
Arithmetic
Control
Logic Unit Register System Bus
Unit (CU)
(ALU)

ARITHMETIC / LOGIC UNIT

• Allows arithmetic operations like Addition, subtraction.

• Multiplication and division is carried out by sequence of
addition and subtraction and left or right logical shift operations.
• Allows logical comparisons of values such as NOT, AND, and OR
to be carried out while the program is run.
• It is possible to have more than one ALU to carry specific
functions.
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Central Processing Unit – Components Of CPU
CONTROL UNIT

• CU reads an instruction from the memory.

• The address of the memory location where the data/instruction is found is stored
in the Program Counter (PC).
• This instruction is interpreted / processed through a cycle called fetch-decode-
execute cycle. During this process, signals are generated along the control bus to
tell the computer components what to do.
• CU synchronizes and controls flow of data in the computer and ensure correct
handling of program instructions.
• System Clock – vital part of control unit to produce timing signals on the control
bus and synchronize the processes. Without the clock the computer will crash.
• Two clocks – Internal & system clock. Internal clock – controls activity cycles
within the processor.
• System clock – controls activity outside the processor. Speed of the CPU is
measured in clock speed.
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Central Processing Unit – Components Of CPU
REGISTERS
• Fundamental components of the Vonn Neuman architecture.
• Temporary storage area / small piece of memory built into a CPU. Values /data / instructions are
temporarily held.
• Registers are not a part of primary or secondary storage. It is Small in capacity, extremely fast read &
write rate compared to read-write operations to be processed directly from primary or secondary
memory(processing is slow).
• Allow short access times – since closer to ALU. Faster access →makes registers suitable where small
amounts of data need to be quickly accessed. E.g. Performing calculations.
• Limited storage – 16bit ,32bit or 64 bit.
• Two types of registers – general purpose, special purpose.
• Accumulator (ACC store single value at one time) – general purpose register stores value before and
after the execution on an instruction by ALU

Types Of Register
• Processor Registers – Program Counter (PC), Accumulator, Memory Address Register (MAR) à Registers
are part of CPU.
• Hardware Registers – Specific to different types of hardware, used to convey a signal. E.g. Robotic Arm
– Raise arm, open the grip and close the grip motor works via signal 1 for ON and 0 for OFF.
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Registers
Why computer Computer systems uses registers to hold values &
system uses
registers to
instructions for processing → It is used to increase the
hold values? speed at which they are processed.

Current Instruction Register

SPECIAL PURPOSE
(CIR)
REGISTER
Index Register (IR)

REGISTERS
SPEED
CACHE Memory Address Register
(MAR)
Memory Data Register
(Memory Buffer Register) MDR
MAIN MEMORY – RAM (MBR)
Program Counter (PC)

HD Status Register (SR)

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 Special Purpose Registers
ABBREVIATION
REGISTER FUNCTION / PURPOSE
USED

This register stores the current instruction being

Current Instruction Register CIR
decoded and executed.
This register is used to store data / value temporarily
Accumulator ACC before and after execution when carrying out ALU
functions.
Stores the address of the memory location currently
Memory Address Register MAR
being read from or written to.

Memory Data / Buffer Stores the data which has been read from memory
MDR
Register or written to memory.

This register stores the address of the next

Program Counter PC
instruction to be read /found /executed.
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System Buses and Memory

What is a bus?
It is a communication A bus is a parallel
system(set of physical transmission
connections -cables, component where
printed circuits, etc.), multiple data bits are
that transfers data transferred over
between components multiple channels at
inside a computer, or the same time.
between computers.

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System Buses & Memory

• Computer memory is made up of partitions.

• Each partition consists of a memory address and its contents.
Memory • Memory address uniquely identifies every location in the memory.
• The contents will be the binary values stored in that location(memory
location).

• Input devices convert the external data into digital form that the
Input & Output computer can understand and process.
Devices • Output devices will show the results of computer processing in human
understandable form.

• Address bus – carries address, unidirectional.

System Buses • Data bus – carries data, bi-directional.
• Control bus – carries signal from the control unit.
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THE SYSTEM BUS

System Bus is a Three type of ADDRESS BUS

Bus is not a mechanism to system bus →MAR, DATA
storage device transfer data from components: BUS →
because it does one system Address Bus, Data MDR/MBR,
not hold data. component to /Instruction Bus CONTROL BUS →
another. And Control Bus. CONTROL UNIT
System Buses in Detail
Parallel Each wire in
the bus
System Buses transmission
transmit one
component bit data

Address Bus
• Carries address of the memory location.
• It is unidirectional(bits care travel in one direction only) between CPU and
memory.
• As it is unidirectional, it prevents address being carried back to the CPU.
• The wider the address bus width, more memory can be directly accessed at a
given time.
• E.g. 16bits bus width carries 216 (65 536) memory location.
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System Buses in Detail

Data Bus

• Carries /allows data to be sent in both directions. It is bi-directional, means data can be
carried from CPU to memory and vice versa, and to and from input/output devices.
• Data can be an address, instruction or a numerical value.
• The wider the data bus width, the larger the word length can be transported.
• Word → is a group of bits considered as single unit. E.g. 16-bit, 63 bit word lengths. Larger
word lengths can improve the computer’s overall performance.

Control Bus

• Carries signals from the control unit (CU). It is bi-directional.

• It is usually 8-bits wide. No need to be any wider as it carries only control signals.
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3.2, 3.3, 3.4
Fetch-Decode-Execute
Cycle

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The Machine Instruction Cycle

Define Machine Instruction Cycle

Basic operation cycle of a computer taking place in a definite time period,
during which one instruction is fetched from memory and executed.

Three Stages
Fetch Decode Execute
THE FETCH – EXECUTE CYCLE

ENCODE – convert data

into specialized code
format (letters, numbers,
symbols etc.) for efficient
transmission and storage.

DECODE – convert code

/encoded format into
original form
Describe Machine Instruction Cycle
Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as series of machine code instructions. These
instructions and other additional data must be moved from primary memory into the CPU to execute it.
The following steps /functions are carried out by the CPU to run a computer program.

Fetch Instruction
• Fetch instruction from primary memory to control unit
• CPU is responsible to know which instruction to take from the primary memory.
• CPU sends appropriate address through memory address bus to primary memory.
• The instruction that resides in the memory address is then copied into the data bus
and then sent to the control unit (CU).

Decode Instruction
• Decode instructions means → CPU looks for any additional data that
are necessary to execute the instructions. Those data need to be loaded
from memory in order to execute the instruction. The addresses of
these data are placed in the address bus and the data in those address
bus in the data bus are received by the CPU.
 Describe Machine Instruction Cycle
Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as series of machine code instructions. These
instructions and other additional data must be moved from primary memory into the CPU to execute it.
The following steps /functions are carried out by the CPU to run a computer program.

Execute Instruction
• CPU executes the instruction using all necessary data that were loaded to
calculate the result.
• Depending on the result, any additional data may be needed. Again these
data are fetched from the primary memory for further calculations.

Store Result
• Store result of execution and check for next instruction.
• After executing the instruction and computing the result the CPU
stores the result in the primary memory.
• It stores address of the result in the address bus and sends the data
through the data bus.
• CPU then checks for next instruction to be executed.
Exam Style Question
Explain how an instruction is fetched in Von Neumann model
computer.
• PC(Program Counter) holds the address of the next instruction.
• The address held in PC is sent to MAR(Memory Address Register) using
address bus.
• MAR goes to the memory location where the instruction is stored.
• Instruction is sent to MDR(Memory Data Register) using data bus.
• Instruction is then sent to CIR(Current Instruction Register).
• Control unit sends signals to manage the flow of data & process using
control bus.
3.5 Factors that can affect
the performance of a CPU

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Factors that affect the performance of a CPU
How quick the Important because higher
CPU CPU can CPU performance →
performance process an processes more
instruction. instructions in a second.

Core Clock Speed Cache

• Part of the CPU • Number of fetch-decode- • A type of storage
that contains all execute cycles that can be that is built into
the components performed in a second. (Or) the CPU, to store
used to perform measures the number of cycles most frequently
fetch-decode- your CPU executes per second, used data and
execute cycle. measured in MHz(megahertz) or instructions.
GHz (gigahertz) (or) Number of
pulses per second.
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Factors that affect the performance of a CPU
• number of cores it contains.
• One core→ perform one fetch-decode-execute cycle at a time.
CORES • Two/dual cores → perform two fetch-decode-execute cycle at the same time.
Four /quad core processor → four fetch-decode-execute cycle at the same time.
If CPU has multiple cores, its performance increases, allows multi tasking.

• CPU contains an internal clock which controls the speed at which instructions are
processed.
• Speed of the CPU measured in hertz.
• CPU with clock speed of 1 hertz → process 1 instruction per second.
CLOCK
SPEED • 1MHz clock speed → 1million clock pulse / instructions per second.
• 1 GHz clock speed → 1 billion clock pulse / instructions per second
• If a computer has two cores → each core can process 2 billion instructions per
second.

• A temporary storage within the CPU.

CACHE – • Mostly used data and instructions are stored in cache. This means that the CPU
does not need to fetch the data from the CPU, but fetches quickly from cache
size of cache memory.
• Fetching data from cache improves the performance of processing instructions.
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Cache Memory

Cache holds most actively used information from the RAM.

Computer runs / processes faster →when main memory (RAM &ROM)

is less frequently used.

When processor reads from → main memory → first checks if copy of

the data exists in cache. If yes, the processor reads from cache instead
of reading from main memory. [speeds up the process]

If data does not exist in cache→ data is first copied to cache, then
used. When CPU needs to write the data back to main memory it does
through cache memory.

Cache Cache memory is

separated in L1( on the
Cache memory is Cache memory memory
nearer to the CPU than is faster than microprocessor) &
more L2(b/w primary
RAM. RAM. expensive memory and
than RAM. microprocessor).
3.6 Input and Output Devices

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 Input Devices

Input Devices
Manual Input Direct Data
Devices Entry Devices

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Manual Input Devices Read through

Mouse (Pointing Touch Pad (Pointing Tracker Ball (Pointing

Keyboard Concept Keyboard Numerical Keypads Joystick
Device) Device) Device)

Driving Wheel Remote Control Touch Screen Scanner Digital Camera Video Camera Microphone

Interactive
Sensors Graphics Tablet Webcams Light Pens
Whiteboards

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 Read through
Direct Data Entry Devices

RFID - Radio Frequency MICR – Magnetic Ink

Magnetic Stripe Reader Contactless Reader Chip & Pin Reader
Identification Reader Character Reader

OCR – Optical Character OMR – Optical Mark QR Quick Response

Barcode Reader
Recognition / Reader Recognition Codes

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 Read through
Scanners
Soft Copy OCR Software
Image Format Editable Format

These images can

Computers
be edited &
equipped with OCR
Scanner converts manipulated using a
software (Optical
hard copy (paper) OCR software to E.g. Scan old
Character Two-
document into soft allow this documents,
Recognition) is used Dimensional
copy (electronic information to be photographs →
to convert the &
form). Resolution of used in a word saves as JPEG file
scanned text(image
the scanner processor, desktop format Three-
format) into a
measured in PPI publishing, Dimensional
editable format
(Pixels Per Inch) presentation Scanners
(text file format).
software etc..

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 Read through

Explain the process of scanning a document

The document is placed on a glass panel

Bright light(xenon lamp) illuminates the document which produces

bright white light.

Scan head moves across the whole document to scan it.

The scanned image is sent to a lens using series of mirrors

Lens focused image falls onto charge couple device(CCD). CCD consists
of integrated circuits fixed into silicon. It is made of thousands of light
sensitive elements /pixels.

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 Three-dimensional Scanner Read through

Scans solid objects scans images of Scanned images Technologies used

to produce 3D solid objects at can be used in in 3D scanners –
image. several points Computer Aided lasers, magnetic
using x,y,z Design (CAD) or 3D resonance
coordinates to printer to produce imaging(MRI),
form a digital working model. computed
image. tomography(CT),
white light etc..

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Application of 3D scanner – Computed Tomography
Scanners Read through

Used to create 3D image (solid object)

E.g. produce image of internal parts of the

body
Based on tomography technology → builds
up an image of solid object through series of
thin slices(less than 0.1mm thick)
Each slice is stored as digital image in the
computer memory

These 2D slices together represent 3D solid • X-rays CT scanners

object digitally in the computer memory.
• Radio Frequency MRI
Tomographic
Depending on the image formation, different Scanners • Gamma Rays SPECT Single
type of tomographic scanners are used Photon Emission Computed
Tomography
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Barcode Reader / Scanner
Read through

Barcode

• series of dark & light parallel lines of varying thickness. Numbers 0-9 are
represented by unique series of lines.
• a.k.a hand-held scanners / wands.
• Used in supermarkets, libraries etc..
• 12 digit barcode → local product
• 13 digit barcode → universal product

Input devices used at the checkout

• Keypad, magnetic stripe reader (debit/credit card), touchscreen (both I/O)

Output devices used at the checkout

• Screen /monitor, speaker(beep sound when the barcode is read correctly), printer
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Using Barcodes

Advantages to the management Advantages to the customers

• Easier & faster to change prices on stock • Faster checkout queues
items
• Manual errors reduced in charging
• More updated sales information / sales customers
trend
• Itemised bill given to customers
• Reduced time & cost management → no
• Cost savings passed on to the customer
need to price every stock item on the
shelves • Better track of “sell by dates” (food
• If used as a way of recording data, they should be fresher)
improve safety
• Allows automatic stock control
• Possible to check customers buying
habits by linking barcodes to customer
loyalty cards.

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Exam Style Question
Barcode is read by red laser / red LED (Light
Emitting Diode)

Light is reflected back off the barcode.

Describe how the
Dark areas reflect little or no light / Black lines
barcode scanner reflect less light or absorbs light, white lines
reflects light
reads the barcode Sensors (photoelectric cells) reads/ detects the
reflected light
/ What happens
when a barcode is Laser /LED light scanned across the barcode

scanned? Pattern is generated and converted into digital

data(computer understands digital form only)

A microprocessor interprets the data

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Quick Response (QR) Codes Read through

• Another type of barcode. Made up of matrix filled in • User no need to write the key /website
dark squares on a light background. address, it is done automatically by
scanning the QR code.
• A normal barcode holds 30 digits. QR hold over 7000
• QR codes can store website addresses
digits→ greater storage of information.
/ URLs that appears in the magazine,
• Smart phones with internet access →QR codes can be buses, trains, business cards, which
scanned anywhere. Using built-camera on the smart provides effective method of
phone, and by downloading the APP, it is possible to advertising.
read the QR code.
• The code may contain website link / some form of
advertisement, link to video etc..

Quick Response ADVANTAGES:

(QR) Codes
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Exam Style Question
QR code is scanned using mobile device camera
which is read/decoded using an application
software

Illuminator light is shone on the code

Describe how
Black squares reflects less light / white squares
customers obtain reflect more light

the information Three large black squares are used to define the
alignment / used for alignment targets. (Or)
from the QR codes corners of code are used for orientation

The app / device process the image

/ Explain how the
data stored in QR Each small square / pixel is converted into a binary
value
barcode is read E.g. opens document with information, directs to
website with information etc..

QR code can be saved for future reference

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Touchscreens - Both I/O Device

Major Touch
Touch Screen Used In Advantages Disadvantages Screen
Technologies

self-service tills – petrol

The user can stations, ATMs, POS (Point faster data
choose an of Sales)terminals in limited Capacitive
option by restaurants, supermarkets, entry
public information systems options
simply touching at airports, railway stations, compared
a button / icon available.
tourist offices, used in PDAs, to
on the screen. mobile phones, satellite Can lead to
The selection is
navigation systems,
interactive white boards,
keyboard
health
Infra-red
automatically computer based training or mouse.
made without (CBT) where answers are related
Easy and
the need for selected during on-screen problems
any pointing
testing. It is used as a user
output device since it can be (RSI). Resistive
device. used as a flat-screen friendly.
monitor.
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Capacitive Touch Screen – Exam Style Question

Describe how a capacitive touch screen registers our touch

• Made of many layers of glass (acts like capacitor) / conductive layer
• An electrostatic / electric fields created between glass plates in layers
• Sensors around the screen monitors the electrostatic field
• When the top glass layer is touched, electrostatic charge is transferred to the finger.
• The electric current changes and the location / coordinates of the touch is determined /
calculated by an on-board microprocessor
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Capacitive Touch Screen

Benefits
• Medium cost technology
• Good screen visibility in sunlight
• Durable / robust screen

Drawbacks
• Allows use of bare fingers only
• Special stylus used only for latest
screens

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Infra-Red Touch Screen – Exam Style Question

Explain how infrared touch screen detects a user touch

• Infrared rays are sent across screen (from edges)
• Uses sensors / array of sensors (optical) to capture beams
• Infrared rays forms a grid across the screen
• Infrared rays is broken by a finger blocking a beam / Finger touches the screen & disrupts the
beam
• Calculation is made on where beam is broken to locate the ‘touch’ / co-ordinates are used to
locate the touch / point of contact Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Infra-Red Touch Screen
Benefits
• Multi-touch capabilities
• Optical system allows use of bare
fingers, gloved fingers, stylus
• Durable / robust screen

Drawbacks
• Expensive technology
• Heat-sensitive system allows only
bare fingers.
• Screen visibility fairly good in sunlight
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Resistive Touch Screen – Exam Style Question

Describe how the resistive touch screen registers the visitor’s touch
• Screen makes use of two layers → upper layer (polyester), bottom layer (glass)
• When the top polyester (plastic) layer is touched, the top layer is connected to bottom layer to
create a circuit.
• Signals are sent out, interpreted by the microprocessor.
• Calculation is carried out on the connected layers where the coordinates of the screen was
touched.
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Resistive Touch Screen

Benefits
• Inexpensive technology
• Possible to use of bare fingers,
gloved fingers, stylus

Drawbacks
• No multi-touch capability
• Fair screen durability, vulnerable to
scratches & screen wears out
• Screen visibility is poor in sunlight
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Exam Style Questions

Explain why the touch screen will

Explain how we use our mobile
not register our touch while
device whilst wearing gloves
wearing gloves
Gloves are not conductive / Glove is an Use conductive stylus. This will allow the
insulator charge to be distributed

Block current / charge from the Use capacitive gloves. This will allow the
finger/body/person charge to be distributed

Use natural language interface / voice

Stop the electrostatic field being disturbed /
interface. We can give vocal commands to
changed
the device

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Sensors
These physical quantities are
Device that inputs data into the analogue in nature, since the
Sensors are
computer. The data is a computers understands only
used in both
measurement of physical digital data (1s and 0s) the data
monitoring
quantity that is continuously from the sensors needs to be
and control
changing. Ex) temperature, light, converted to digital form using
applications.
moisture etc.. ADC (analogue to digital
converter).

Advantage Disadvantage
• More accurate readings compared to human operators. • Faulty sensors can give spurious(false) results.
• Computer wouldn’t forget to take readings. • Computer is unable to respond to unusual circumstances.
• Readings can be taken frequently. • Expensive to purchase and set up computer equipment &
• Computer’s response time, if some parameter is out of range, is much measuring software.
faster. • Student might rely on computer fully while doing an
• Sensors can monitor continuously 24/7. experiment and will not learn as much as using a computer
• Since it’s a continuous process the actions are taken by the control system.
systems and the warnings are given by the monitoring systems • Computer cannot be used during malfunctions / power cuts
appropriately. or other eventualities.
• Computers can produce graphs automatically for analysis of results.
• In hazardous environment, sensors can be used instead of human
intervention.
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Analogue To Digital Conversion Read through

Analogue Data ADC Digital Data

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Analogue To Digital Conversion Read through

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Types Of Sensors
Central Heating System • Temperature

• Temperature
Chemical Process • Acoustic /sound (liquid noise dripping in pipe)

• Temperature
• Moisture / Humidity (soil & air)
Greenhouse • Light
• Gas – Oxygen, Carbon dioxide
• pH (acidity, alkaline level in soil)

Industrial Application • Moisture / Humidity (paint spray booth)

Street Light • Light

• Light
Vehicle / Car • Infra-red /motion (wind screen wipers)
• Magnetic field (anti-lock braking system)

• Infra-red / motion
Burglar Alarm • Pressure
• Acoustic /sound

• Pressure
Vehicle Weight • Infra-red / motion (count vehicle /people entering/leaving)
• Magnetic field (also in cell phone, CD player etc.)

• Gas – Oxygen
Monitoring Pollution (River) • Gas – Carbon dioxide (leaks in power station)
• pH Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 TYPES OF SENSORS Read through

Barometer Sensor Digital Thermometer Humidity Sensor Infrared Light Sensor

(Pressure)

Security Light Sensor Temperature Sensor Voice Activation Magnetic Field

pH Sensor Sudha Vaitheeswaran Sensor Sensor
Sensors in a car Read through

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 Read through
Microprocessor Applications • Monitoring patients vital sign
in a hospital
• Pulse rate, heart rate,
temperature, blood pressure,
Sensors send signal to μ𝜌 / respiration etc.
computer • Monitoring intruders in a
burglar alarm system
New data outside the preset Monitoring • Movement, footsteps,
/acceptable range → warning breaking glasses etc.
message on the screen / activates Applications • Checking temperature levels in
alarm – Examples the car
• Monitoring pollution levels in a
Analogue signal converted Monitoring System /
river
to digital signal (ADC) Application
• Oxygen levels, acidity levels

No action taken by computer /

μ𝜌. Monitor / watch the process
Computer / μ𝜌 analyze the
data against preset values • Street light control
in the computer New data outside the preset • Central heating / air-
/acceptable range → μ𝜌 / conditioning system
computer sends signals to control
valves, motors etc.. and takes
Control • Traffic light system
• Anti-lock braking systems (ABS)
necessary actions Applications • Greenhouse / Glasshouse
Control System / environment
Application – Examples • Chemical process control

Output from the system affects the

next set of inputs

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Output Devices

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 Read through
Output Devices
Control
Loud Speakers / Applications –
Multimedia / Printers
Monitor Headphones Actuators
Light Projectors
CRT Monitors Digital Light Laser Printers Motors

TFT Monitors Projectors(DLP) Inkjet Printers Buzzers

LCD & LED LCD Projectors Dot matrix Light

Monitors Printers Heaters
3D Printers

2D / 3D Cutters

Graph Plotter

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Monitors Read through

CRT MONITORS – Cathode ray tube monitors make use of an electron gun
firing against a phosphor screen. The picture is made of tiny dots that are
colored red, green or blue.
• ADVANTAGES – angle of viewing better than TFT monitors. CRT monitors are used in LIGHT
PENS to create design on the screen in CAD/CAM applications.
• DISADVANTAGES – heavy, generate lot of heat radiation. Consume more power than TFT
monitors. Flickering causes head ache and eyesight problems.

TFT MONITORS – Thin film Transistors are used in laptop computers. The
screen is made up of thousand of tiny pixels(each pixel has 3 transistors-
red, green or blue), made up of transistors controlled by microprocessor.
• ADVANTAGES – lightweight, produce less glare than CRT monitors. Emits less radiation and less
power consumption. Don’t generate much heat.
• DISADVANTAGES – angle of viewing is critical (image isn’t clear when several people looking at
the screen at the same time).

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Exam Style Question
Describe • Display is made of pixels that are arranged together
as a matrix behind the LCD screen.
how a LCD • Each pixel has 3 filters – red, green & blue.
• Shades of colors are achieved by mixing RGB.
screen • Screen uses backlight technology because LCD
doesn’t emit any light. (modern LCD monitors are
operates backlit using LED technology)
• Light is shone through the liquid crystals.
to display • The front layer of the monitor is made of liquid
crystals that can be made to turn solid or transparent

data (on/off) by changing the shape of the crystal.

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Monitors Read through

LCD MONITOR – liquid crystal display LED MONITOR – In light emitting diode Future - OLED – Organic Light Emitting
technology is a development of TFT a matrix of tiny LEDs are used behind Diode – uses organic materials made up
monitors. the LCD screen. of carbon compounds.
• Modern LCD monitors uses cold • Features – maximum brightness. • ADVANTAGES over LCD and LED
cathode fluorescent lamp(CCFL) as Sharpens images(due to white light). monitors - Thinner, lighter, brighter,
the backlighting technology. LCD Bright light improves color definition. no backlight required(use less power
monitors does not emit any light, its LED monitors are thinner than LCD than LCD screens)
uses backlight technology(some form monitors which uses CCFL technology.
of illumination) Consumes less power, produce less
heat and more reliable.

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Types of Printers Read through

Dot-Matrix Printers Ink-jet printers

Non-impact printers -
Non-impact printers do
Impact printers - An Daisy-wheel not use a striking device
impact printer makes printers to produce characters on
contact with the paper. It the paper; and because
usually forms the print these printers do not Laser printers
image by pressing an hammer against the
inked ribbon against the paper they are much
quieter. Following are
paper using a hammer or some non-impacted
pins. Following are some printers.
examples of impact Line printers
printers.
Thermal printers

Drum printer

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Laser Printer Inkjet Printer Dotmatrix Printer

• Produce very high quality • Produces good quality printouts.

• Print head made up of matrix of
printout. • Used for printing photographs. pins presses against an inked
• Print rate per page is very • Do not have large buffer memories ribbon.
quick, thus used for high – printing is done slowly and • Used in noisy environments
volume printing. sometimes paused since the whole (factory, garage, workshop)
• Has large buffer memories to page cannot be stored in the buffer.
store the whole document • Used for low volume printing (small • Used in places where multipart
before it can be printed out. printing jobs). forms or continuous stationery
• Produces low noise. • Cheaper than laser printers and do is being used. (produce wage
• Disadv – produce ozone & not produce ozone or volatile slips) – carbon copies or multi-
volatile organic compounds organic compounds. part outputs can be produced.
because of the toner/ink • Printing can smudge if the user in • Tend to be slow, noisy and
used. not careful. output is not good – poor
Read through quality printing.
Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Exam Style Question
Describe • Rollers are used to move the paper through the printer.
• Print head consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink onto the paper.

how the • Stepper motor and belt moves the print head across the paper to
distribute the ink.
• Different color inks from the cartridges are mixed to create required
colors.
inkjet • Ink droplets are produced using two technologies – thermal bubble &
Piezoelectric
• Using thermal bubble → Ink is heated to form tiny bubble, when the
printer bubble expands the ink is pushed/ejected from print head through the
nozzle onto the paper.

prints an
• When the bubble collapses, vacuum is created, fresh ink is drawn to the
print head.
• Piezoelectric → Crystal located at the back of the ink reservoir is given
tiny electric charge which makes it to vibrate to force the ink to be
image pushed/ejected onto the paper through the nozzle

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 3D Printer Read through

• Various types exists according to the size.

• Used in CAD applications. • 3D printer use additive manufacturing ( object built up layer by layer
• It is based on inkjet and laser using powdered stone). This is contrast to subtractive manufacturing
where an object is built by removing the stone which is not required
technology to produce solid objects. ex) carving the statue out of solid stone.
• Solid objects are built up layer by • Direct 3-D printing uses inkjet technology – a print head can move left
to right as in normal printer. The print head can also move up and
layer using materials like powdered down to build up the layers of an object.
resin, powdered metal, paper or • Binder 3-D printing similar to 3-D printing but uses two passes for
each layer – first pass sprays dry powder then second pass, a binder(a
ceramic. type of glue) is sprayed to form solid layer.

3-D Printers 3D Printer Features

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
How to create a solid object using a 3D printer

Create solid object

Design made using CAD software

Final drawing is imported into special software understood by 3D

printer

3D printer is set up to make solid object

Solid object built layer by layer (often only 0.1 thick) → takes several
hours depending on the thickness, material and size of final object
Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 • Prosthetic limbs
• Tissue engineering /
Reconstructive surgery
3D (face)
• Medical tools & equipment
Printing • Aerospace (make wings,
Uses other parts)
• Fashion & art
• Making parts no longer in
production

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
2D & 3D Cutters
Read through

2D cutter
• recognize an object with x-y direction

3D cutter
• recognize an object with x-y-z direction
• Can cut materials like → glass, crystal, metal, polymer, wood
• Cuts complex designs beyond surface of the material to produce
intricate designs,
• Not all 3D cutting materials can be used in 3D printing methods
Sudha Vaitheeswaran
Exam Style Question

Explain how • Design is created using CAD software on the

a 3D cutter computer
• Material is loaded to cutter. Different types of
could be materials (glass, crystal, metal, polymer, wood)
can be used
used to • Uses infra-red laser to cut the material. It
produces extreme heat
produce • Complex/intricate designs are focused using a
small 3D special lens
• 3D cutters recognize the object in x-y-z direction
models
Sudha Vaitheeswaran
 Read through

Both Input & Output Devices

• Touch Screen
• Disk drives
• Modems
• Fax Machines
• Audio / Sound Cards
• Network Cards / NIC
• Headsets (Contains both
speakers(o/p) & Microphone(i/p)

Sudha Vaitheeswaran
3.7 Data Storage

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RAM (Random Access Memory)
• Internal memory where data is stored temporarily. Referred to
as volatile /temporary memory.
RAM Explanation
 ROM (Read-only Memory)
• Internal memory where data is stored permanently. ROM
cannot be altered. Referred to as non-volatile / permanent
memory.
 ROM Explanation
• This memory is used to store data and
information permanently. It contains
configuration data for a computer.
• Advantage – the information stored on the
ROM is not lost even when power is turned off
to the computer.
• ROM contains boot file (coding) which tells
the computer what to do when it starts up or
boots.
• This is referred to as the BIOS (basic
input/output system). When the computer
boots, the BIOS carries out
hardware/configuration check to determine if
all the devices are present and verify if they
are functional. Then it loads the OS into RAM.
• The BIOS stores the date, time and system
configuration in the non-volatile chip called
CMOS (Complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) which is battery powered.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM & ROM

ROM
RAM

• Temporarily stores information in the computer. • Permanently stores information in the

Ex}word document to videos. computer.
• RAM is used in normal operations of the computer • ROM is primarily used for
after starting up and loading the operating system. booting/startup process of the computer.
Stores data and programs currently in use • ROM is non-volatile memory. Contents
• RAM is volatile memory. Contents are lost when the are not lost when the computer is turned
computer is turned off. off.
• RAM is a fast memory. Data can be written to and • Writing data to ROM chip is a slow
read from RAM very quickly. process.
• RAM generally measured in gigabytes.(GB) More • ROM stores megabytes of data (MB).
RAM installed in your computer, the faster it can • ROM is read only memory.
perform. If you open too many programs, you will
notice the computer becomes slow due to more
usage of RAM.
• RAM is read write memory.

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HARD DISK DRIVE – HDD
EXTERNAL STORAGE DEVICES
 SOLID STATE DRIVES - SSD
• SSD drives are rapidly
replacing HDDs. They have no
moving parts and all data is
retrieved at the same rate no
matter where it is stored.
Exam Style Question

• SSD are more reliable as there are no

moving parts.
• SSDs are thin because there are no moving
Advantages parts.
of using • SSD are lighter than HDD which makes
SSD rather them suitable for laptops.
than HDD • SSD have a lower power consumption.
• Data is accessed faster in SSD than HDDs.
• SSDs run much cooler than HDDs which
makes them suitable for laptops.

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 The Memory System

• Two main uses of computer system:

 Run the programs
 Store data.

• Processor has direct access to three

types of storage components:
registers (within processor)
Cache memory (external to processor) –
primary storage.
Main memory (external to processor) – primary
storage.

• Cache memory → stores data so that

future requests for that data can be
served faster.
Primary Memory – RAM & Cache Memory

Holds currently working applications in RAM. RAM is a fast memory.

Data can be written to and read from RAM very quickly.

Two types of RAM – Static RAM & Dynamic RAM.

Static RAM Dynamic RAM

a type of semiconductor memory Data loses with time and needs to be
(semiconductor is a material product usually periodically refreshed. DDR-SDRAM (Double
comprised of silicon, which conducts Data Rate – Synchronous Dynamic RAM)
electricity) which holds data until there is semiconductor technology is used to build
power supply in the memory circuits. RAM chips in modern PCs.
 STATIC RAM (SRAM) DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)

• Made up of flip – flops ( an electronic • Made up of capacitors.

circuit with two stable states), transistors. • Small in size.
• Large in size. • Higher access time, so it is slower.
• Lower access time, so it is faster. • Data stored in form of charge. Data loses
• Data stored in form of voltage. Data with time, so need refreshing circuits.
sustains with time. • Less expensive than SRAM, it can store
• More expensive than DRAM, because stores more bits per chip despite recharging it &
data indefinitely while the computer is requires less power to operate.
switched on. • Simplex structure.
• Complex structure • High storage capacity.
• Low storage capacity. • Consume less power, due to the fact that
• Consume more power – require constant the information is stored in a capacitor.
power supply. • DRAM are used in main memory.
• SRAM are used in Cache memory.
3.8 Virtual Memory

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Virtual Memory (VM)
When programs / processes run out of RAM, then it is a memory management issue which may cause a
system crash.

We use hard disk drive (HDD) or solid-state drive (SSD) as a virtual memory which may be used as an
extension of RAM.

RAM → Physical memory / Virtual memory → RAM + swap space on HDD or SSD.

The data that is not frequently used is moved to the virtual memory. VM gives the illusion of
unlimited memory being available.

To execute a program, data is loaded into memory from HDD/SSD when required.

Paging (data blocks) → used by memory management to store and retrieve data from HDD /
SSD and copy it into RAM. A page is a fixed-length consecutive or contiguous block of data
utilized in virtual memory systems.
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 Virtual Memory (VM)
• A type of memory that can be used as an extension to the RAM.
• This type of memory is created for temporary use.

When computer is processing many tasks at a

given time How is virtual memory created?

Computer will need a lot of data to do this. It is created with a hard drive component.

Hard drive is partitioned off to be used as an

The data needs to be sent to the RAM for processing extra bit for RAM.

When RAM is full → computer transfers some

When there is no enough storage space to hold data to virtual memory until it is needed.
these data and the RAM is full.

What kind of data is sent to VM? The data that

It needs to create some extra storage space called is not required immediately.
VIRTUAL MEMORY.
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 Programs larger than physical memory
can still be executed using HDD/SSD as
Benefits virtual memory.

of virtual No need to waste memory with unused

data. (They can be moved to the
memory secondary storage device – HDD/SSD)

(VM) Reduces the need to buy and install

more RAM memory.

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3.9 Cloud Storage

Sudha 90
 A data storage method where
data is stored on remote servers.
Or

Cloud Data storage that is owned by

a third party and accessed by

Storage the user using internet.

Same data is stored in more than

one server (data redundancy) to
access data any time.

Public Cloud A storage environment where the client and cloud storage provider are different companies.

Private Cloud A dedicated storage environment behind company firewall where the client and cloud storage
provider integrate and operate as a single entity.
Combination of the above two environments. Some data resides on the private cloud. Less sensitive
Hybrid Cloud and less commercial data can be accessed from public cloud storage provider.

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Data security issues when using cloud storage
• Physical security of the building where the data is housed.
• Data protection and security in case of natural disasters / power cuts.
• data protection against illegal access of any personnel to confidential
data for monetary purpose.

Potential data loss when using cloud storage

• Risk of important and irreplaceable data loss from cloud storage
facilities.
• Hackers gaining access may lead to loss and corruption of data,
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Storing data in the cloud Vs locally
Read through Pg 71 & 72 from Sarah Lawrey textbook

Storing Data in the cloud

• Do not pay for the hardware.

• Do not hold responsibility for hardware security of the data. However, relying on the
third party for data security may impose a risk.
• Can access data / resources from different / many devices but you may need a stable
internet connection to access your data.
• Easy to increase and decrease the storage space / capacity.

Storing data locally

• Need to purchase the hardware to store data. This incurs cost.

• Storage device should be maintained, periodically checked and updated to avoid security
issues.
• No need of internet connection to access data as the data is stored in your local drive of
your computer.

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3.10 Network Hardware
Read through Pg 72 to 75 from Sarah Lawrey textbook

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Similarities between IP address and MAC address
• Both addresses can be represented in hexadecimal (IPv6 uses
hexadecimal).
• Bothe IP and MAC addresses are unique.
• Both addresses do not change if the IP address is static.
• Both addresses can be used to identify a computer/device on
a network.

Sudha 95
 Differences between IP and MAC address
Internet Protocol(IP) Address Media Access Control(MAC) Address

IP address is assigned by the network / router / Define: The unique address is given to a
ISP. NIC(Network Interface Card) by the manufacturer.

IP address can be static or dynamic(address

MAC address is assigned by the manufacturer.
changes each time the device is connected
to a network)
It is static address.
It has 4/8 groups of values.
It has 6 groups/pairs of values separated by
a colon or dash.
It is 32/128 bits. (IPv4 uses 32 bits, IPv6 uses
128 bits)
It is 48 bits.

IP address is assigned by the network when it is

MAC address contains two parts: manufacturer ID
connected to the router.
and serial number/ID for the device.
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