Electrical and Electronics Lab

IIT-Jammu

October 24, 2023

Indian Institute of Technology, Jammu, J&K 181221

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The Experiments for the Electrical and Electronics Design Laboratory Practicals were
designed, fabricated and tested in the department of Electrical Engineering by the fol-
lowing team.
Instructor Contact Department
Arun Verma [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Ajay Singh [email protected] Electrical Engineering
Suresh Devasahayam [email protected] Electrical Engineering

Teaching Assistants Contact Department

Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering

Technical Staff Contact Department

Vikash Kumar Electrical Engineering
Apporv Agarwal Electrical Engineering
Lokesh Electrical Engineering

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Contents

Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab 7

0.1 Introduction to the Lab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2 Electrical and Electronic Test and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.1 DC voltage and current measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.2 Time-varying measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.3 Introduction to Lab Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.3.1 Modern Lab Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.3.2 Oscilloscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.3.3 Function Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3.4 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.4 Circuit Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.4.1 Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.4.2 Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.3 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.4 Potentiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.5 Diodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.6 Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.4.7 Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.4.8 Breadboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.4.9 Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.4.10 Printed Circuit Boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.4.11 Through Hole Components and Surface Mount Components . . . . 14
0.5 Questions to test your understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1 Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current 17

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.2 Measuring Current and Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.3 DC Ammeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.4 DC voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.5 Measurement circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3
Contents 4

2 Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current 23

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Circuits 29

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.2 Experiment-1: Diode rectifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2.3 Experiment-2: Diode voltage-current relation - Rectifier diode . . . 29
3.2.4 Experiment-3: Diode voltage-current relation - Zener Diode . . . . 30
3.2.5 Experiment-4: Rectifier-Filter-Regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2.6 Experiment-5: Diode switching characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

4 Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor - Amplifier 35

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 Lab 5: DC Motors, PWM control, MOSFETs 41

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.1 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET) . . 41
5.1.2 Permanent Magnet DC-motor (PMDC motor) . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.3 Pulse-width Modulation (PWM) for current control . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.4 Slotted Opto-isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

6 Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers - Linear Circuits 45

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.1.1 OpAmp ICs - LM741 and LM358 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

5 Contents

6.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2.2 Experimental Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2.3 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

7 Lab 7: Frequency Filtering: Passive and Active Filters 51

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.1.1 Passive Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.2 Active Lowpass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.1.3 Active Second Order Lowpass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

8 Lab 8: SPICE simulation and relaxation oscillator design 55

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.1.1 Relaxation Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.1.2 SPICE simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
8.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

9 Lab 9: Digitization - Analog-to-Digital converters and Digital-to-Analog

converters 61
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.1.1 Analog-to-digital converters (ADC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.1.2 Arduino . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.2.1 Arduino ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

10 Lab 10: Switched Mode Power Supply 65

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.1.1 Boost converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Contents 6

10.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

10.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

11 Lab 11: Printed Circuit Boards: Design and Fabrication 69

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.2.1 Material Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.2.2 Experiments to Perform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.3 Preliminary Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
11.4 Final Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

 Introduction to the Electrical and
Electronics Design Lab

0.1 Introduction to the Lab

• Students will be divided into groups of 2. Both students in each group must
participate fully in doing the lab.

• Please leave your lab table clean and tidy when you finish. Put away all instruments
and components in the correct places.

• Students should read the lab handout for the week before entering the lab.

• All labs have a preliminary report which must be completed before coming for the
lab practical. If you have not completed the preliminary report you will not be
allowed to do the lab.

• After the lab practical is completed the student must complete the final report
which must be submitted by the next week - before the next lab.

0.2 Electrical and Electronic Test and Measurement

Electrical Systems and Electronic Circuits have to be tested before deploying them, and
they have to be tested when repairs have to be carried out. Testing Electrical and
Electronic Systems and Circuits involves the measurement of DC and AC voltage, DC
and AC current, , resistance, inductance, capacitance, etc. Measurement of Voltage and
Current are primary measurements. Resistance, inductance, capacacitance are secondary
measurements as they are calculated based on the measurement of voltage and current.
Measurement of DC voltage and current is the most basic measurement and will be
done in the first lab, followed by increasingly more complex measurements. We will also
design circuits and understand how to fabricate circuit boards.

0.2.1 DC voltage and current measurement

The measurement of DC voltage and current can be done using a moving needle meter
with appropriate internal connections for the type of measurement (voltage or current)
and the range of measurement (e.g., 5V, 500V or 5mA, 500A).

7
Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab 8

0.2.2 Time-varying measurement

Time varying measurements require an instrument that can not only capture the voltage
or current and then present it or display it for viewing and interpretation. An oscil-
loscope is such an instrument that can measure and display time varying electrical
quantities. In addition to measuring time-varying voltages or current, it is often required
to introduce time-varying voltages and currents into a system or circuit under test to
observe its behaviour. A function generator provides such time-varying electrical
quantities.

0.3 Introduction to Lab Instruments

0.3.1 Modern Lab Instruments
There are three instruments that are the mainstay of a modern Test and Measurement
laboratory and you will use them frequently in this course; they are (i) the oscilloscope,
(b) the function generator, and (c) the lab power supply.
The oscilloscope is used to display time varying signals, the function generator is used
to deliver time-varying signals to a system under test, and the power supply is used to
provide electrical power to electronic circuits, motors, etc.
In addition to these lab instruments you will be given electronic circuits, motors,
sensors, etc., for each lab.
There are two kinds of connections between these instruments: (a) Power Connections,
and (b) Signal Connections. Power connections use banana connectors which are so-
called because of their clong cylindrical shape. Positive connections are usually red
in colour, and negative terminals are usually black in colour; when central “ground”
connections are used, they are usually green in colour. As far as possible, you must
observe these colour conventions. Signal connections use BNC 1 connectors and coaxial
cables. BNC connectors are bayonet connectors, which means they use a push-twist action
for connecting and disconnecting (push and clockwise twist to connect; counterclockwise
twist and pull to disconnect).

0.3.2 Oscilloscope
The oscilloscope is an important test instrument that can be used to display, and also
store, time-dependent voltage signals. You should become familiar with the oscilloscope
controls. When using the oscilloscope for accurate measurement we will regard it as the
combination of an ideal voltage measuring instrument and an input impedance across it.
Here is a short list of the main functions of the oscilloscope:

1. The vertical scale, sensitivity or gain

2. The time scale, or “horizontal sweep” or “time-base”

1
BNC is an abbreviation for Bayonet Neill-Concelman named after the two original designers Neill
and Concelman

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9 Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab

3. The trigger or initiation of the horizontal sweep – there are many accessory controls
for the trigger
a) Auto Trigger Mode is what you will use a lot. In this mode, the horizontal
sweep re-starts automatically, giving a repeated sweep of time from left-to-
right
b) Single Sweep Mode or single-sweep-capture is very important to capture tran-
sient signals. Using this requires good understanding of the trigger functions
c) Roll Mode is not found in many oscilloscopes. This is convenient for looking
at fairly slow and long-duration phenomena

4. A very big advantage of digital oscilloscope are the data storing and transfer func-
tions; they allow storage of signals in digital form, and then transfer to a computer
for analysis and plotting.

In digital oscilloscopes the sampling rate can be inferred from the samples/screen and
sweep time.
Understand how to make amplitude and time measurements using cursors on the os-
cilloscope.
The signals stored in the oscilloscope can be copied to a USB-pendrive and transferred
to a computer.
Understand the concept of ground in all measurements, and the idea of isolated chan-
nels in the oscilloscopes in our laboratory.
The oscilloscopes in the lab are Tektronix, model number TBS1000 series. The wave-
forms on the screen can be saved and transferred to a USB drive for further analysis.

Figure 0.3.1: Tektronix and Keysight oscilloscopes used in the lab

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab 10

0.3.3 Function Generator

The function generator in the lab can be used to generate time varying voltage signals.
These signals that mimic the output of transducers and other real-world sources, can be
used to test various sub-systems that comprise the measurement and control system that
we use. The function generator delivers a voltage function, which can be represented as
a Thevenin source, i.e., an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance (resistance).
The value of the series resistance is important in determining whether the signals will
pass undiminished when connected to other circuits.
Understand the selection of waveform shape, waveform amplitude (minimum, maxi-
mum, offset), waveform frequency. Understand sinusoids, pulses, noise waveforms. Un-
derstand the use of modulation.
Observe how the output amplitude changes when you connect a load resistor across it:
use (i) 1kΩ and (ii) 22Ω. Set the function generator with the following values and see
the waveform on an oscilloscope: Waveshape=sinusoid, frequency=125Hz, peak-to-peak
amplitude=20mV, offset=400mV. Use this example to practice setting the oscilloscope
based on the expected signal frequency and amplitude, rather than randomly flipping
through the knobs.

Figure 0.3.2: Arbitrary Function Generator

0.3.4 Power Supply

The laboratory power supply is a versatile source of electrical energy that can be used
for electrical and electronic circuits. It has several independent voltage sources. These
voltages are adjustable. The power supply will also allow you to set a current limit
to prevent damage to devices and circuits. The voltage sources in a power supply are
regulated so that regardless of the load, the voltage is fixed - as long as the current drawn

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11 Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab

is less than the current limit. Poor quality power supplies will deviate substantially from
this ideal.
The power supplies in the lab have both adjustable voltage and controllable current
limit.
Connect an adjustable resistance (or use several fixed resistors) and understand how
voltage adjustment works with different current settings. Can you set the power supply
to deliver a constant current regardless of the load? What are the conditions?

Figure 0.3.3: Power supply

0.4 Circuit Elements

0.4.1 Resistors

Resistors are purely conductive elements and range in values from a fraction of an Ohm to
millions of Ohms (M Ω). Resistors are rated for the power that they can safely dissipate,
usually 0.1W, 0.25W, 0.5W, 1W, 5W, 10W, etc. Resistors will sometimes have the value
written on the body or they may be colour coded with 2 or 3 digits of precision followed
by the value of the exponent. For example, 7200 Ohms will be coded as 7-2-2 to indicate
72x102 Ω . The colour coding is as follows: Black=0, Brown=1, Red=2, Orange=3,
Yellow=4, Green=5, Blue=6, Violet=7, Grey=8, White=9. After the colours will be
the tolerance band of 5%=Gold, 10%=Silver. The colours should be read left to right
keeping the tolerance band on the right side.
Specification: Resistors are specified by the resistance value, the tolerance, and the
power that they can safely dissipate. When designing make sure that you take into
account the tolerance as the value of any resistor will be somewhere in the range R ± ∆R
where ∆R is the tolerance. Also, ensure that the maximum power that the resistor will
handle in the circuit is well within the amount specified for the component you are using.

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Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab 12

0.4.2 Capacitors
Capacitors are constructed with different dielectric material like clay, ceramic, tantalum,
mica, etc. Capacitors are rated for the voltage they can safely withstand usually, 6.3V,
15V, 25V, 63V, 100V, 450V, etc. Usually, capacitors have their values written on the
body as 2 or 3 digits of precision followed by the value of the exponent and the unit is
picoFarad, pF or 10−12 Farad. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of a capacitor is
an important parameter, and it should be as small as possible.

0.4.3 Inductors
Inductors come in many forms. Inductors used in power circuit have to carry large
currents and should have small resistance. Such power inductors are quite large compared
to other components. Inductors for other applications can be small and in bead form,
and these have fairly large resistance - they should not be used for power circuits. Power
inductors are often handmade by users, and readymade ones are also available.

0.4.4 Potentiometers
Potentiometers are variable or adjustable resistors. They are similar to rheostats but of
smaller size. There are 3 terminals, the centre terminal is the slider. The resistance,
R, between the end terminals is the fixed value of the potentiometer, and the resistance
between the slider (centre) and the end terminals is xR and (1 − x)R respectively, where
0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is the fractional position of the slider. Potentiometers can be either linear
with the slider moving in a straight line, or they can be rotary with the slider rotating
in a circle.
Specifications: Potentiometers are specified by the resistance across the end termi-
nals, and also by the maximum power they can dissipate. In general, stay well below the
maximum power that the potentiometer can dissipate.

0.4.5 Diodes
Diodes are single P-N junction semiconductor devices. They are used for rectification and
sometimes for voltage regulation. Rectifier diodes are specified by the voltage range of
operation, which is the reverse breakdown voltage - this voltage should not be exceeded.
Zener diodes are a designed to specially work in the breakdown region.
Specifications: Diodes are specified by the maximum reverse voltage that they can
withstand before catastrophically breaking down. . Diodes are also specified by the
maximum current they can carry safely.

0.4.6 Transistors
Transistors come in many varieties, the main types being bipolar junction transistors
(BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs) - a subset of FETs are metal-oxide semicon-
ductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). All these transistors have 3 terminals. For
more details refer to your classes on transistors.

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13 Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab

specifications: Transistors are specified by the maximum voltage that can be applied
across the collector-emitter, or the drain-source. Transistor specification will also include
the maximum power they can dissipate - corollaries of this power specification are the
maximum current that can flow continuously and the maximum current that can flow
during pulsatile operation.

0.4.7 Integrated Circuits

Integrated circuits (ICs) contain multiple semiconductor devices as well as resistors and
capacitors. These components are connected together so that they form a sub-circuit to
be used along with other circuits. Every IC will have a power supply connection - this
may be a dual power supply or it may be a single power supply. Dual power supplies
are usually used for analog circuits where the signals being handled can be positive and
negative - dual supplies can range from +/- 18V to +/- 2.25V or less. Single power
supplies are usually used with digital circuits and the voltages in older circuits is +5V,
and newer circuits have +3.3V, +3V, +1.8V. Since nowadays even analog circuits are
eventually connected to digital circuits, so called mixed-signal ICs operate with voltages
less than 5V.
Specifications: ICs are specified by the minimum supply voltage required for cor-
rect operation and the maximum supply voltage they can withstand without damage.
Other specifications of function are usually described in detailed manuals that can be
several pages, sometimes hundreds of pages long. You should be familiar with the full
specifications and functions in the manual before using the IC.

0.4.8 Breadboards
Breadboards (Fig.0.4.1)are used for making temporary circuits. They contain a matrix of
holes with conductive contacts that are interconnected in either the rows or the columns.
ICs, resistors, capacitors, wires, etc., can be placed in the holes to hold the components
and to connect to other components.

Figure 0.4.1: Breadboard

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab 14

0.4.9 Soldering
Soldering is the process of using molten metal to connect metallic connections on com-
ponents. The solder metal is melted and poured over the metallic contact - an alloy of
the solder and the metallic contact is formed when the solder is allowed to cool. This
ensures a very good electrical contact by preventing dust, oxide formation, etc., on the
contact surfaces. The solder also gives a good mechanical adhesion between two contacts
that are connected by the solder. The solder material is one of two broad types:
(a) lead-based solder: This was the most widely used solder material before the 21st
century. The solder material is an alloy of tin and lead (Sn-Pb) which melts at around
180 Celsius.
(b) lead-free solder: With the discovery that lead is a neurotoxin, lead is being removed
from most places where it can be ingested by humans and animals. High quantities of lead
in the human body adversely affects health, although small quantities do not produce
noticeable effects.

Soldering irons and solder-ovens

For soldering a small number of connections manual soldering uses a soldering iron which
has a tip heated to about 230 Celsius to melt the lead and apply it to the contacts.
For soldering hundreds or thousands of contacts manual soldering is difficult and error
prone. Therefore, pre-arranged contacts are placed in solder-ovens in which the temper-
ature is raised quickly to melt the solder-material and form the connections. The oven
temperature is controlled programmatically so that the solder-material is melted quickly
without causing damage to the semiconductor electronic components.

0.4.10 Printed Circuit Boards

Printed circuit boards (PCBs) are made using copper sheets pasted on insulating boards
made of glass-epoxy or bakelite. The copper sheets are etched by various means so as
to provide inter-connections between circuit elements. Connections between the copper
lines on two sides of a PCB are made by electroplating holes drilled through the board -
such boards are said to have plated-through-holes (PTH). The components are connected
to the copper tracks by soldering.

0.4.11 Through Hole Components and Surface Mount Components

Components are often made with wires or leads extending from the body or package, so
that these wires could be connected by soldering or other means. Permanent circuits are
made by placing the components and interconnecting them with wires and conductive
strips. Such assemblies of circuits are made on bakelite or glass epoxy boards. Through-
hole components are placed on one side of such a board and the connections are made
on the other side. Surface-mount components (SMC) or surface-mounted devices (SMD)
have very short leads and the leads are not taken to the other side. Such SMD components
are used for making very small and compact circuits.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

15 Introduction to the Electrical and Electronics Design Lab

0.5 Questions to test your understanding

1. How can you calculate (a) DC power and (b) AC power

2. Why are resistors rated for power and capacitors are rated for voltage?

3. If the power supply voltage is set to 30 volts, and the current limit set to 10mA,
then what will be voltage across a resistor that varies from 0 Ohms to 220 Ohms?
What is the current?

4. How are capacitors and resistors fabricated?

5. What are the common trigger methods in an oscilloscope?

6. Mention 3 advantages of a digital storage oscilloscope over an analog oscilloscope.

What advantage does an analog oscilloscope have over a digital one?

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

1 Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and
Current
1.1 Introduction
Constant voltages are required in several instruments used in homes and offices as well as
many other places. Mobile phones, public address systems, automobile starter motors,
handheld lights, electronic gadgets, etc., all require constant voltages to power them, and
batteries in these devices provide the required constant voltage. The electrical load in all
these devices may vary over time and manifests as a change in the current drawn from the
power source. The voltage and current change very slowly and therefore they are called
Direct Current or DC systems. While “DC voltage” might sound like an oxymoron, the
term DC is just used to indicate unvarying (or negligibly varying) voltage and current.
The measurement of DC voltage and DC current are very useful in testing, monitoring
and analyzing battery operated systems. In this lab we will use some basic principles
to measure voltage and current. The simplest device for electrical measurement is a
moving coil galvanometer. This consists of a coil suspended in a magnetic field. The coil
suspension includes a spiral spring so that when there is no current in the circuit, the coil
position always returns to the position with minimum extension of the spring. A needle
attached to the coil shows the amount of deflection which is proportional to the current
through the coil. If the length of wire in the coil is l, the current through the coil is I
and the coil is in a field with magnetic flux density B, then the force experienced by the
coil is:

F = BIl
The motion of the coil is angular displacement, so the torque can be calculated as the
product of the force, F , by the radius, r, of the cylindrical coil. If the spring has a spring
constant of k, then the anglular deflection of the needle is:
 
Fr Blr
θ= = I = K1 I
k k
The measured deflection of the coil is proportional to the current through the gal-
vanometer, with proportionality constant K1 called the galvanometer constant.
Since the coil is made of wire with finite resistance, the coil has a resistance R which
depends on the thickness and length of wire as well as the resistivity of the material of
the wire. The moving coil galvanometer is effectively a pure current measuring device
with a resistance in parallel representing the resistance of the coil to the flow of current.
This resistance results in a voltage drop across the galvanometer.

17
Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current 18

Figure 1.1.1: Simplified sketch of a moving coil galvanometer

In this lab we will use a moving coil galvanometer to construct voltmeters and amme-
ters.
Voltmeter: An ideal voltmeter measures the potential difference between two points,
and does not draw any current. A practical voltmeter may be represented by an ideal
voltmeter with its input resistance in parallel - the current through this resistance is the
current drawn by the practical voltmeter.
Ammeter: An ideal ammeter measures the current through it and does not cause any
voltage drop across it. A practical ammeter may be represented by an ideal ammeter
with a series internal resistance which is responsible for the voltage drop in practice.

1.2 Aims
Given a moving coil galvanometer with internal resistance of 2.4 kΩ and full scale deflec-
tion of 50 µA construct the following:
1. (a) DC ammeter with range 0-10 mA, (b) DC ammeter with range 0-1 A.
2. (a) DC voltmeter with range 0-1V, (b) DC voltmeter with range, 0-100V.

1.3 Experiments
1.3.1 Material Required
1. Moving coil galvanometer
2. Power Supply
3. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

19 Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current

Figure 1.1.2: Electrical equivalent of a galvanometer comprising an ideal ammeter and

series resistance

1.3.2 Measuring Current and Voltage

Current has to be measured by placing the ammeter in the current path - this requires
inserting the ammeter in the circuit.

1.3.3 DC Ammeter
Since the galvanometer deflection is proportional to the current through the coil, it is
by default an ammeter. In order to increase the range of the ammeter, use a shunt
resistor so that of the total current, I, a fraction pI goes through the galvanometer and
(1 − p)I goes through the shunt resistance. If the internal resistance or self-resistance of
the galvanometer is Rx , then a shunt resistance Rm gives p = (RmR+R m
x)
. Therefore, the
current through the galvanometer is, Io = pI and the actual current is I = Io /p.
Given that the lab galvanometer has a range of 0-0.05mA and internal resistance of
2.4 kΩ design the required ammeters.

Calibration of the ammeter

Connect the ammeter to the power supply with a resistor as shown in the circuit.
(a) For the ammeter with a range of 20mA, use a resistance value of 1k.
(b) For the ammeter with a range of 1A, use a resistance value of 100.
In each case vary the voltage from 0-20V, and tabulate the voltage of the power supply
and the current reading on the ammeter. Take 5 readings in each case.

1.3.4 DC voltmeter
If the galvanometer’s internal resistance or self-resistance is Ro , then we can connect a
resistor, R1 in series with the galvanometer such that R1 >> Ro , and the current through

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Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current 20

Figure 1.3.1: Extending the current range of a galvanometer using a parallel resistance

the galvanometer is I = V /(Ro + R1 ), and the voltage V = (Ro + R1 )I is proportional

to the deflection of the galvanometer.

Figure 1.3.2: Measuring voltage using a galvanometer and series resistance

Calibration of the voltmeter

Connect the voltmeter to the power supply and vary the supply voltage.
(a) For the voltmeter with a range of 1V, vary the voltage from 0 to 1V
(b) For the voltmeter with a range of 100V, vary the voltage from 0 to 30V
In each case tabulate the voltage of the power supply and the reading on the voltmeter.
Take 5 readings in each case.

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21 Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current

Figure 1.3.3: Representation of (a) a voltmeter as an ideal voltmeter and parallel resis-
tance and (b) an ammeter as an ideal ammeter and a series resistance.

1.3.5 Measurement circuit

Fig.1.3.4 shows a general circuit containing a single electrical source and a single load.
The current in the circuit and the voltage across the load have to be measured.

Figure 1.3.4: General circuit for measuring voltage and current

Fig. shows the ammeter inserted in the current path and the voltmeter placed across
the load.

Figure 1.3.5: Measuring current and voltage

Take measurements and tabulate them as shown below for each case given above.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 1: Measuring DC Voltages and Current 22

Value measured and

calculated from Lab
Instruments
Value from
experimental
voltmeter or ammeter

1.4 Preliminary Report

Calculate the values of the resistors used for making the two ammeters and the two
voltmeters.
What is the power dissipated in the resistors for each case at the maximum reading?

1.5 Final Report

Report your results with tables of the calibration of the voltmeter and ammeter. What
is the current drawn by the voltmeter at the maximum of the range? What is the voltage
drop across the ammeter at the maximum of the range?

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

2 Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and
Transient Voltages and Current

2.1 Introduction
In the last lab we saw the measurement of DC voltages and current. Such DC measure-
ments are sufficient for electric circuits that contain only resistive (R) elements. When
reactive elements like capacitors (C) and inductors (L) are present AC analysis must be
used. In this lab we will see some AC measurements of circuits with R, L, C.
The relation between voltage and current in inductors and resistors involve integration
and differentiation. Alternating current for power generation, transformer based power
conversion, driving of single phase and polyphase motors use sinusoidally varying values.
The frequency of the sinusoidal signal in all electric power on the grid in India and most
countries in the world is 50Hz. When inductive and capacitive elements are present in
the circuit, the alternating current undergoes “phase shift” which is seen as a lead or lag
in the signal with respect to the reference input signal. We will measure the phase shift
introduced by combinations of inductors, capacitors and resistors.
Capacitors and inductors can both be used to store electrical energy. In combination
with the fact that capacitors and inductors have different phase shifts, the energy stored
by a capacitor and inductor can be exchanged repeatedly between them - this is the
phenomenon of electrical resonance. The presence of a resistor in the circuit will dissipate
the energy and result in dampening of the oscillation. All these characteristics will be
studied in this lab.

2.2 Experiments
2.2.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Inductor: Iron or ferrite ring, 20 SWG insulated copper wire

4. Capacitor: 2µF, 100µF

5. Resistors: Two 10Ω resistors

6. Breadboard, wires

23
Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current 24

2.2.2 Experiments to Perform

Phase shift due to capacitor and inductor

To observe phase shift by a capacitor and inductor, construct the circuit shown in
Fig.2.2.1. The function generator indicated as Vo (t) is used to generate a sinusoidal
signal of frequency of 10kHz with an amplitude of 5V. Use a capacitor of value C = 2µF .
The inductor will be constructed as described in the following subsection. The resistors
R1 , R2 are used to measure the current through the capacitor and inductor. Use 10Ω
resistors for R1 , R2 ; although smaller resistors will be better, the measurement is easier
with a larger resistance value. Using the oscilloscope to measure the voltage drop across
each resistor we can calculate the current as I1 ∠θ = V1 ∠θ/R1 and I2 ∠θ = V2 ∠θ/R2 .
Note that the voltages and currents are sinusoidal and therefore functions of time - the
phase angles are measured with respect to the excitation or input signal, Vo , which is
taken as the reference having phase zero, i.e., Vo ∠0o .

Figure 2.2.1: Observing phase shift by capacitor and inductor

Since the laboratory oscilloscopes have only 2 channels, you can observe Vo , V1 and then
Vo , V2 . Measure the amplitude of the voltage and calculate the current, for frequency
values of 5kHz, 10kHz and 20kHz.

Parallel Resonance

A parallel resonance circuit can be made by connecting a capacitor and inductor in

parallel as shown in Fig.2.2.4. Use the L = 100µH, C = 100µF . The resonant frequency
in radians/second is, ωc = √LC1
.
The L − C tank circuit is connected to an excitation source Vo (t) to provide initial
excitation. Since some losses are always present in the inductor and capacitor the oscil-
lations will slowly decrease, therefore, repeated excitation is provided to re-energize the
resonant circuit. The value of R is not critical, and about 2kΩ may be used. With a
square wave excitation, observe the voltage across the LC circuit. Measure the frequency
of oscillation and the time taken for the amplitude to decrease by 50%.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

25 Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current

Figure 2.2.2: Phase shift in the capacitor and the inductor

Frequency response of resonant circuit

Apply a sinusoidal frequency as excitation and note the amplitude of the voltage across
LC, as the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 100kHz. Plot the voltage versus frequency
on a log-log plot.
The resonant circuit’s response can be plotted as the ratio of the voltage across the
LC tank circuit, Vo , to the input voltage, V1 . This can be expressed in deciBels (dB) by
calculating:
 
Vo
Gain = 20 log10
V1

Constructing an inductor
Use an inductor constructed using a 20mm diameter iron ring and insulated copper wire
of gauge 20AWG. The inductance of each winding of wire is the ratio of the flux, φB ,
to the current I. For a coil of N turns wound on a ring with inner diameter,ri , outer
diameter,ro , and height h, the inductance is:

N 2 µh
 
N φB ro
L= = ln
I 2π ri
In this lab we will use a ferrite core as shown in Fig.2.2.6 with ro = 14 mm, ri =
6mm, h = 12mm. The relative permeability of iron is µr ≈ 100 and permeability of free

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current 26

Figure 2.2.3: Resonance across the LC circuit

Figure 2.2.4: Parallel resonance

space µo = 4π × 10−7 Henry/m. Use insulated copper wire of gauge 20SWG to wind
about 25 turns on the iron core as shown on the right side of Fig.2.2.6.
Use a ceramic capacitor of value, 2µF and resistors of 10 Ω.

2.3 Preliminary Report

1. Calculate the value of the inductor with the iron ring of dimensions given above and
25 turns of wire. If the wire is of 20SWG wire, calculate the length of the wire and then
calculate the resistance of the inductor.
2. What is the resonance frequency of the circuit given in Fig.2.2.4?
3. For the circuit in Fig.2.2.1, with R = 10Ω, C = 2µF, L = 100µH, f=10kHz, what
is the current through the capacitor and inductor in terms of the magnitude and phase
with respect to the input voltage.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

27 Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current

Figure 2.2.5: Resonance seen in the frequency response

2.4 Final Report

Report your observations, the observed waveforms and answer the questions asked in the
experiments.
Draw the frequency versus gain of the resonant circuit as shown in Fig.2.2.5.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 2: Measuring Time Varying and Transient Voltages and Current 28

Figure 2.2.6: Ferrite ring and toroidal inductor

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

3 Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and
Diode Circuits

3.1 Introduction
Semiconductor diodes are used widely for rectifying alternating voltages. AC voltages
that are commonly used for power generation and transmission have to be converted into
DC voltages for a lot of applications like electronic circuits, DC motors, etc. Semicon-
ductor diodes are used widely for such AC-DC conversion in low-voltage supplies and
battery chargers that are used in laptops, mobile phones, etc.
In this lab we will study the PN-junction diode as a rectifier and also study its switching
speed characteristics.

3.2 Experiments
3.2.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Power Supply

4. Diodes: 1N4007, Zener diode

5. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

3.2.2 Experiment-1: Diode rectifier

Fig.3.2.1 shows a basic diode-rectifier circuit. This will allow only positive current to flow
through the diode. Connect the circuit as shown, apply a sinusoidal voltage of 50Hz, 10V
amplitude as Vo (t). Observe the voltage V2 (t) on the oscilloscope and note it. The load
is a simple resistance RL ; use a value of RL = 1kΩ.

3.2.3 Experiment-2: Diode voltage-current relation - Rectifier diode

In order to measure the current through the diode and the voltage across the diode, we
will rearrange the circuit and add a small resistor for current measurement to form the
circuit shown in Fig.3.2.2. Measure the voltages Vm (t) and VP (t). The current through
the circuit is Im (t) = ID (t) = VR
m (t)
m
. The voltage across the diode VD (t) = VP (t)−Vm (t).

29
Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Circuits 30

Figure 3.2.1: Semiconductor diode rectifier

By using a small value of Rm we can keep Vm very small, and VD (t) ≈ VP (t). Use
Rm = 1 Ω.

Figure 3.2.2: Measuring diode voltage and current

The observed V_D and I_D will look as shown in Fig.3.2.3. Note that when the diode
is forward biased (i.e., the P-side is positive with respect to the N-side), the voltage across
the diode is small and the current is large; when the diode is reverse biased (i.e., the P-side
is negative with respect to the N-side), the current through the diode is small. Measure
the value of voltage and the corresponding value of the current at a few points as shown
in Fig.3.2.3. Plot these points of voltage versus the corresponding current. This is the
voltage-current or V-I characteristic of the diode.

3.2.4 Experiment-3: Diode voltage-current relation - Zener Diode

Replace the standard diode with a Zener diode and repeat the above experiment. Note
the difference in the waveform. Plot the VI-characteristics of the Zener diode.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

31 Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Circuits

Figure 3.2.3: Diode voltage and current

3.2.5 Experiment-4: Rectifier-Filter-Regulator

The rectifier diode, Zener diode and a capacitor can be used to make a basic AC-DC
with regulation by the Zener and filtering by the capacitor. Connect the circuit shown
in Fig.3.2.4. Note the output voltage V2 (t).

3.2.6 Experiment-5: Diode switching characteristics

Finally, we will study the diode’s switching characteristics. For high-speed communi-
cations, switching power supplies, etc., it is important for diodes to turn ON and turn
OFF very quickly, on the order of a millionth of a second. Connect the circuit shown in
Fig.3.2.5, apply a square wave as the input, Vo (t) - use a pulse waveform with a frequency
of 100kHz. Use a load resistance RL = 1kΩ. Observe the output voltage after the diode,

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Circuits 32

Figure 3.2.4: Diode rectifier with capacitor filter and Zener regulator

V2 (t).

Figure 3.2.5: Diode switching

Measure the parameters shown in Fig.3.2.6, initial switching delay = td , rise time = tr ,
fall time =tf , and recovery time= trecovery . What happens to these values if you decrease
the load by using a larger value RL = 100kΩ ?

3.3 Preliminary Report

1. What is the difference between a rectifier diode and a Zener diode?
2. What is a Schottky diode and what are some of its applications?
3. Why do we use AC-DC conversion?

3.4 Final Report

1. Show the waveforms observed in each experiment. Label all graphs carefully.
2. Draw the V-I characteristics of the rectifier diode and Zener diode.
3. What are the different switching parameters of the diode you studied in the lab?

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

33 Lab 3: Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Circuits

Figure 3.2.6: Diode switching time

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

4 Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor -
Amplifier
4.1 Introduction
The Bipolar Junction Transistor is the most common device used in linear amplifiers. In
this lab we will study the use of BJTs in the Common-Emitter (CE) configuration for
amplification. In the Common Emitter amplifier uses the Base-Emitter for the input and
the Collector-Emitter for the output. In this configuration the transistor can be used as
a Voltage Amplifier, i.e., the relation between the input voltage Vinput and the output
voltage Voutput can be written as:

Voutput = G · Vinput
where G is the gain of the amplifier and in general G > 1.
As we saw in the last lab, a PN junction as in the case of the Base-Emitter is a
unidirectional device that allows current flow when it is forward biased and blocks current
flow when it is reverse biased. This issue is addressed by biasing the Base-Emitter input
so that the input is always positive (and above the forward corner voltage). When a
positive base current flows, in the Base-Emitter circuit, a corresponding current flows in
the Collector-Emitter circuit. The current in the Collector-Emitter circuit is converted
to an output voltage using a resistor as shown in Fig.4.2.1.
There are several features of amplifiers that are important for different applications, for
example, the frequency response is important for analog amplification of audio, video and
radio signals, the switching speed is important for pulsed circuits, the power dissipation
is important for motor control and power supplies, etc.
In this lab we will study only analog amplification and the biasing of transistors for
that purpose.

4.2 Experiments
4.2.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Power Supply

4. Transistors: Any transistor, BC847, 2N3055, TIP41, etc.

35
Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor - Amplifier 36

5. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

4.2.2 Experiments to Perform

Experiment #1
Fig.4.2.1 shows a basic common-emitter, CE, amplifier. The input circuit comprising the
base and emitter is driven by a signal V1 (t) through a resistor Rb which ensures that the
current is within limits for the base-emitter junction; the base current can be calculated
as:

V1 (t) − VBE
Ib (t) =
Rb
where VBE is the base-emitter voltage drop and in forward bias is determined by the
VI characteristics of the PN junction - at low currents it will be approximately 0.65V for
silicon transistors.
The collector-emitter circuit has a power supply of a fixed voltage Vcc = 20V and a
resistor Rc . The collector current Ic = αIb . The output voltage is:

V2 (t) = Vcc − VCE − Ic (t)Rc

In order to ensure that the base-emitter junction is always forward biased a constant
voltage is added such that, V1 (t) = Ao + A1 sin(ωt).
Use:
Rb = 47kΩ, Rc = 10kΩ, Vcc = 20V
Ao ≈ 1.1V, A1 = 0.1V, ω = 6280 radians/second
Adjust the value of Ao so that you get good amplification without saturation.
Measure the output voltage, V2 (t).Calculate the voltage gain G as ratio of the peak-
to-peak voltage (also called the “AC” voltage) of V2 (t) to the peak-to-peak voltage of
V1 (t).

V2:p-p (t)
G=
V1:p-p (t)
Also, measure Vb (t) to see how the base voltage is in the range of positive bias of the
base-emitter junction.
In Fig.4.2.2 the CE amplifier is shown with V1 (t) = A1 sin(ωt) and a separate bias
voltage Voffset = Ao . This separate offset voltage allows us to use an input voltage V1 (t)
that goes both positive and negative. This circuit is only to illustrate transistor biasing
- this circuit need not be tested in this lab.

Experiment #2
The concept of Fig.4.2.1 and Fig.4.2.2 can now be used to provide an offset or bias voltage
to the base of the transistor derived from the collector supply itself. In the circuit of
Fig.4.2.3 two resistors, Ra1 and Ra2 are connected to the collector supply voltage Vcc

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

37 Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor - Amplifier

Figure 4.2.1: Common emitter amplifier with offset input signal

to divide the voltage and obtain the “open-circuit” offset: Voffset = Ra1V+R cc
a2
Ra1 . This
is termed the open-circuit offset because this calculation is true only if no other circuit
elements are connected; in the presence of other circuit elements which provide additional
current paths (the transistor base, the resistance Rb ) the the actual offset will be different.
For any arbitrary transistor, the value of Voffset can be adjusted experimentally by either
adjusting the value of Ra1 and Ra2 or by adjusting the value of Vcc .
Use:

Rb = 47kΩ, Ra1 = 22kΩ Ra2 = 470kΩ, Rc = 10kΩ, Vcc ≈ 20V

Ao ≈ 1.1V, A1 = 0.1V, ω = 6280 radians/second
Adjust the value of Vcc between the values of 18V and 23V such that the output is
amplified and there is no saturation.
Calculate the gain G of the amplifier as in the previous case.
Also, measure Vb (t) to see how the base voltage is in the range of positive bias of the
base-emitter junction.

4.3 Preliminary Report

1. What are the 3 main configurations for BJT transistor amplifiers?
2. Write 4 main differences between BJTs and FETs.
3. What is an IGBT (write 2-3 sentences)? Write any 2 important applications of
IGBTs.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor - Amplifier 38

Figure 4.2.2: Common emitter amplifier with added offset voltage

4.4 Final Report

1. Draw the signals V1 , Vb , V2 for the two circuits tested in the lab (Fig.4.2.1 and
Fig.4.2.3).

2. What is the gain calculated for the two circuits?

3. When A1 = 0 what is the value of Vb in the two circuits?

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

39 Lab 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor - Amplifier

Figure 4.2.3: Common emitter amplifier with supply derived bias

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

5 Lab 5: DC Motors, PWM control,
MOSFETs

5.1 Introduction
In this lab we will learn several concepts as described below.

5.1.1 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

Field-effect transistors (FETs) are different from BJT’s although they overlap in appli-
cations.
FETs have a semiconductor piece with two contacts termed the Source (S) and Drain
(D) - if this is a p-type semiconductor, the device is called a p-channel FET, and it it
is an n-type semiconductor, the device is called an n-channel FET. The Gate (G) is of
the opposite semiconductor type attached to the source-drain semiconductor. A voltage
applied to the gate controls the flow of current in the source-drain circuit.
MOSFETs are a subset of FETs and they find wide applications in power electronics
as they have very low source-drain impedance when the device is ON, and very high
source-drain impedance when the device is OFF.
In this lab we will use a MOSFET to control the current to a DC motor.

5.1.2 Permanent Magnet DC-motor (PMDC motor)

Permanent magnet DC motors are the most common type of electromechanical actuator
used in many common applications like robots, automobile windshield wipers, toys, etc.
(the brushless DC motor is a variant of the PMDC motor, but requires more electronics
for its operation). These motors produce a torque proportional to the magnetic flux and
the current in the coil. The force on the rotor is:

F (t) = BI(t)l
where B is the magnetic flux density, I is the current through the coil, and l is the
length of wire in the coil. The magnetic flux density and the wire length are fixed, while
the force and current can be time-varying.

5.1.3 Pulse-width Modulation (PWM) for current control

The DC-motor is an electromechanical device with significant inertia, such that rapid
switching ON-OFF of the current will not cause a corresponding rapid change in motion.

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Lab 5: DC Motors, PWM control, MOSFETs 42

Using this fact, the average current to the motor can be controlled by rapidly switching
the current ON-and-OFF.

Figure 5.1.1: PWM

5.1.4 Slotted Opto-isolator

A slotted opto-isolator is commonly used for measuring speed of motors and other objects.
The opto-isolator consists of an LED (light-emitting diode) and a photo-transistor with
a gap between the two. A fixed supply with simple current limit is connected to the LED
to keep it ON. The transistor experiences a photo-current when light falls on the base.
This current can be converted to a voltage and measured on an oscilloscope as shown in
Fig.5.1.2.

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43 Lab 5: DC Motors, PWM control, MOSFETs

Figure 5.1.2: Slotted opto-isolator

5.2 Experiments
5.2.1 Material Required
1. Power Supply
2. DC motor
3. n-channel MOSFET (IRF540)
4. Disc attached to motor shaft
5. Slotted opto-isolator (MOC7811)
6. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

5.2.2 Experiments to Perform

Speed control using PWM
Connect the circuit shown in Fig.5.2.1. Use a supply voltage of VDD=12V, Rg=1k,
and the function generator in rectangular pulse mode with frequency of 10kHz. Adjust
the duty cycle of the pulses from 10% to 100%. Measure the voltage across the source
resistance Rm and calculate the current - this is the current through the motor.

Speed Measurement using slotted opto-isolator

Attach the disc with the holes to the motor shaft and place the disc in the gap of the
slotted opto-isolator. Observe the pulse-frequency output, and calculate the speed of the
motor. Determine the current versus speed characteristics of the motor.

5.3 Preliminary Report

Write briefly about the following:
1. What is the speed of a commonly used small DC motor? What is the fastest small
DC motor you can find - specify manufacturer, application and speed.
2. What are geared DC motors? Name 2 applications.

5.4 Final Report

Report your observations. Plot the current-speed characteristics of the motor.

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Lab 5: DC Motors, PWM control, MOSFETs 44

Figure 5.2.1: Using a MOSFET to control a motor

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

6 Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers -
Linear Circuits

6.1 Introduction

An Integrated Circuit (IC) chip consists of many (often hundreds) of transistors, resistors
and capacitors forming a circuit. Such ICs are designed to be general purpose and by
using some additional components specific circuits can be constructed.
In lab#4, we studied a single transistor amplifier, and saw that an important aspect of
the amplifier was the necessity to keep the input such that the PN junction was correctly
biased. In IC amplifiers, all the transistors are provided with the necessary bias using
much more sophisticated circuitry than was used in lab#4. In this lab we will study a
general purpose amplifier IC, the Operational Amplifier or OpAmp. The OpAmp is very
close to an ideal general purpose amplifier and has the following properties:
1. Very high input impedance - negligible current flows into the input.
2. Very low output impedance - a large current can by delivered by the ouput.
3. Very high gain - since the purpose is amplification, the OpAmp has an extremely
high gain.
4. A pair of differential inputs - both a positive input (non-inverting input) and
negative input (inverting input) are available in an OpAmp.
5. Ability to handle both positive and negative voltages.

6.1.1 OpAmp ICs - LM741 and LM358

The LM741 or µA741 is one of the oldest and most widely used OpAmp. It is an 8-pin
IC. The pin connections are shown in Fig.6.1.1. The schematic of the OpAmp is drawn
inside the IC, and 8 pins are shown. The pins are labelled - the main functional pins
of the OpAmp are (i) the Inverting Input, (ii) the non-inverting input, (iii) the output.
The power supply pins are shown as +V and -V. These voltages are with respect to the
ground point. The ground is not explicitly connected to the IC, but may be connected
as part of a circuit. The offset pins (pin 1 and 5) may be ignored for the circuits used in
this lab.
Another commonly used OpAmp is the LM358 which contains 2 OpAmps in a single
8-pin IC. The pin connection of the LM358 is shown in Fig.6.1.2. In this lab you will use
only one of the two OpAmps - you can use either one.

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Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers - Linear Circuits 46

Figure 6.1.1: IC LM741 pin connections

6.2 Experiments
6.2.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Power Supply

4. OpAmp: µA741 or LM358

5. Breadboard, R esistors, wires

6.2.2 Experimental Circuits

Study one circuit from the first A & B, and one circuit from C & D. For all the circuits
use time varying input functions - sinusoids, square waves and triangular waves with
amplitude of 1V and frequency of 1kHz. In the following circuits the input-output relation
is written for the input and output as functions of time, which means they are time
varying.

A.Non-inverting Amplifier
Fig.6.2.1 shows a non-inverting amplifier circuit built with an OpAmp. The input-output
relation is:

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

47 Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers - Linear Circuits

Figure 6.1.2: LM358 pin connections

 
Rf
Vo (t) = 1+ V1 (t)
R1
From this equation we see that the minimum gain of this circuit is 1. The maximum
gain can be almost indefinitely large, but is limited by the characteristics of the OpAmp
- in practice the maximum gain is about 10,000 to 100,000.

Figure 6.2.1: Non-inverting amplifier circuit

B. Inverting Amplifier
Fig.6.2.2 shows an inverting amplifier built with an OpAmp. The input-output relation
of this circuit is:

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Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers - Linear Circuits 48

Rf
Vo (t) = − V1 (t)
R1
From this equation we see that the gain can range from 0 to the maximum value. The
maximum value is again limited by OpAmp characteristics and in practice it is above
10,000. We also note that there is a negative sign which means that the output is inverted
compared to the input.

Figure 6.2.2: Inverting amplifier circuit

C. Summing Amplifier
Fig.6.2.3 shows a circuit which can add two voltage signals. The input-output relation
is:
 
Rf
Vo (t) = − (V1 (t) + V2 (t))
R1
Use a sine wave of frequency 1kHz for V1 (t) and a pulse of frequency 2kHz for V2 (t).

Figure 6.2.3: Summing Amplifier

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49 Lab 6: Operational Amplifiers - Linear Circuits

D. Differential Amplifier
Fig.6.2.4 shows a circuit which takes the difference between two voltage signals. The
input-output relation is :
    
R4 R1 + R2 R2
Vo = V1 · − V2
R1 R3 + R4 R1

Figure 6.2.4: Differential Amplifier

6.2.3 Experiments to Perform

Non-inverting amplifier: Use R1 = 1k and Rf = 10k
Inverting amplifier: Use R1 = 1k and Rf = 10k
Summing amplifier: Use R1 = R2 = 1k and Rf = 10k
Differential amplifier: Use R1 = R3 = 1k and R2 = R4 = 10k
Study one circuit from the first two and one circuit from the next two. Measure the
gain and the waveshape in each case.

6.3 Preliminary Report

1. What is the minimum and maximum supply voltage for the LM741? What are the
values of the maximum and minimum supply voltege for the LM358?
2. What is meant by CMRR of an OpAmp?
3. What is the spacing between the pins in a Plastic Dual-Inline-Package (PDIP) ?

6.4 Final Report

Report your observations. What is the value of the calculated gain and measured gain
for each circuit?
What is the shape of the output for the summing and differential amplifier?

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

7 Lab 7: Frequency Filtering: Passive
and Active Filters
7.1 Introduction
Filters are used to separate frequencies in electrical circuits. During the processing of
time varying electrical quantities, the desired signal is mixed with some unwanted noise
or interference.
For example:
• In an audio recording there may be interfering noise in the background.
• In a radio signal there can be interference from electromagnetic noise from a motor.
• In a power supply there may be unwanted fluctuations in the voltage.
If the electrical signal of interest and the unwanted interference or noise, are different
in frequency composition, we can remove the unwanted noise by using electrical and
electronic filters.
The two fundamental types of frequency filters are:
• Low pass filter: allows low frequencies to pass, removes high frequencies
• High pass filter: allows high frequencies to pass, removes low frequencies
Combinations of filters can be used to achieve the next two most common types of
frequency filters:
• Band pass filter: allows a band of frequencies to pass, removes frequencies outside
the band
• Band stop filter: removes a band of frequencies, allows frequencies outside the band
Real filters cannot achieve perfect separation of desired and unwanted frequencies. There
is a gradual transition from the pass-band which is the range of frequencies that are
desired and should be passed, and a stop-band which is the range of frequencis that are
unwanted and should be removed or stopped.
The frequency at which the filter separates the desired frequencies from the unwanted
frequencies is called the cutoff frequency. The cutoff frequency is formally defined as
the frequency at which the signal power has been reduced to half. Filters are usually
described in terms of their input-output ratio as a function of frequency.
Frequency is expressed in radians/second and the symbol ω is used. Note that ω = 2πf
where f is the frequency in cycles/second or Hertz, Hz.

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Lab 7: Frequency Filtering: Passive and Active Filters 52

7.1.1 Passive Lowpass Filter

A very simple lowpass filter can be constructed using a resistor-capacitor combination as
shown in fig.7.1.1

Figure 7.1.1: Passive lowpass filter

The input-output relation for this circuit is:

Vo (ω) 1
=p (7.1.1)
V1 (ω) 1 + ω/ωc
Here ωc = 1
R 1 C1 is the cutoff frequency.

7.1.2 Active Lowpass filter

Passive filters have the disadvantage of their properties being easily affected by the
circuits connected at the input and at the output. Passive lowpass filters can only
attenuate, i.e., they can only make the signal smaller. Active filters use OpAmps so that
the circuits can have high input impedance and low output impedance making them less
affected by the circuits connected at the input and at the output. Active lowpass filters
can have gain. Fig.7.1.2 shows an active lowpass filter. Note that the OpAmp power
supply connections are implied and not shown in the figure.

Figure 7.1.2: Active lowpass filter

The input-output relation for this circuit is:

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53 Lab 7: Frequency Filtering: Passive and Active Filters

Vo (ω) (1 + Rb /Ra )
=p (7.1.2)
V1 (ω) 1 + (ω/ωc )2
As before ωc = 1
R 1 C1 is the cutoff frequency. Note the gain in the numerator.

7.1.3 Active Second Order Lowpass filter

The above two circuits are called first order filters and their separation of low and high
frequencies is not very good. Better separation of high and low frequencies can be
achieved by using second order filters. A second order lowpass filter can be obtained by
slightly modifying the above circuit and adding another resistor and capacitor. Fig.7.1.3
shows such an active second order lowpass filter.

Figure 7.1.3: Active lowpass filter

When Rb = Ra , R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 , the input-output relation for this circuit is:

Vo (ω) 2
=p (7.1.3)
V1 (ω) 1 + (ω/ωc )2 + (ω/ωc )4
As before ωc = 1
R 1 C1 = 1
R 2 C2 is the cutoff frequency.

7.2 Experiments
7.2.1 Material Required
1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

3. Power Supply

4. OpAmps: LM358/324

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Lab 7: Frequency Filtering: Passive and Active Filters 54

5. Resistors, Capacitors

6. Breadboard, wires

7.2.2 Experiments to Perform

Using the following values characterize each of the above three circuits in terms of the
ratio of the input-output amplitude.
R1 = 10kΩ,C1 = 0.1µF ,Ra = Rb = 10kΩ,R2 = 10kΩ,C2 = 0.1µF
Using sinusoidal signals of frequency given in the table below measure the ratio of the
output voltage to the input voltage.
Freq, f (Hz) 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k
Freq, ω (rad/s)
|Vo /V1 |
20 log10 |Vo /V1 |
Plot the gain versus the frequency - this is the frequency response of the filter. In order
to accomodate the wide frequency range, use a logarithmic scale for the frequency axis.
The gain range will also be large, therefore, the log scale given in the fourth row of the
table may be used. The unit for the gain on this log scale is deciBels, dB.

7.3 Preliminary Report

1. Name any two applications of filters used for audio signals.

2. There are radio waves of many different frequencies used for various types of com-
munications. How are filters used to select the required frequency for a particular
device?

7.4 Final Report

Tabulate and plot the frequency response of each of the 3 types of filters.
Calculate the theoretical frequency response for each of the 3 types of filters at the
frequencies given in the table. Compare the theoretical values with your experimental
values.

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

8 Lab 8: SPICE simulation and
relaxation oscillator design

8.1 Introduction
Designing electronic circuits is helped by the use of circuit simulators. The most common
and best know is a class of simulators called SPICE - an abbreviation for Simulation
Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis. SPICE simulation uses well-known circuit
models for BJTs, FETs, as well as ICs for analog circuits including digital elements.
Each component (resistor, capacitor, inductor, transistor, IC, power supply, etc.) is
defined in terms of it connections or nodes. The netlist in a SPICE simulation is list
containing the componenets, their nodes, and the connection between nodes. The netlist
is processed by the computational back-end of the SPICE simulator which solves the
associated differential equations and generates an output file.
Many modern SPICE simulations use a graphical user-interface with graphs of sig-
nal waveforms and frequency plots. In this lab we will use the SPICE simulation freely
distributed by Linear Technology, Inc., called LTspice, which is available for download at:
https://www.analog.com/en/design-center/design-tools-and-calculators/ltspice-simulator.
html
LTspice is easy to use and available for MS-Windows and MacOS; the Windows version
runs very well in Linux using WINE. Therefore, you should be able to run LTspice on
any of the 3 main Laptop & Desktop Operating Systems. LTspice has a large number of
built-in electronic components. You can also specify your own SPICE model and use it
in LTspice.
In this lab we will learn how to simulate a simple OpAmp circuit, and then build the
circuit in the lab and compare the simulated results with the experimental ones.

8.1.1 Relaxation Oscillator

As we saw in the last two labs, linear OpAmp circuits use negative feedback (i.e., the
output is connected to the negative input) and they produce output that has the same
shape as the input. Using positive feedback we will have a circuit that will oscillate
under the correct circumstances. A simple oscillator can be built using an OpAmp with
positive feedback - this is the relaxation oscillator.
The circuit of a relation oscillator is shown in Fig.8.1.1. This uses positive feedback
with the quantity, R2V+R3
o
R2 being fed back to the positive or non-inverting terminal of
the OpAmp. This positive feedback makes the output of the OpAmp go to the extreme
possible values, either +Vsat or −Vsat depending on whether the net input is positive or

55
Lab 8: SPICE simulation and relaxation oscillator design 56

negative respectively. The capacitor C1 is connected to Vo through the resistor R1 , and

when the absolute value of the capacitor voltage exceeds the absolute value of R2V+R3
o
R2
the output flips to the other extremum. Now, the capacitor charges towards the new
value. This repeats and the time of repetition depends on the values of R1 , C1 ; the ratio
of time for which the output is at +Vsat or −Vsat depends on R2 , R3 .

Figure 8.1.1: Relaxation Oscillator

Using, R1 = R2 = R2 = R and C1 = C the frequency of oscillation is:

k
f=
2RC
where k is a constant approximately equal to unity.

8.1.2 SPICE simulation

Fig.8.1.2 shows the LTspice window when you start the program. The important controls
and buttons are shown. Draw the circuit of the relaxation oscillator as shown. The two
main steps are:
1. Using the “Select from full list of components” select the OpAmp (OP07 which is
similar to the LM741), and the resistors, capacitor and battery power supply.
2. Using the “Draw connecting wires” connect the components in the circuit.
Now you are ready to run the simulation.
• Click on “Run Simulation” you will be asked to “Edit Simulation Control”. Select
the start and stop time as 0ms and 100ms. This will create a new window for the
simulation output.
• Now you should select the point at which you want to observe the signal. When you
move the mouse cursor into the circuit window, the cursor becomes a “measurement
probe”. Place the probe at the output point and click.

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57 Lab 8: SPICE simulation and relaxation oscillator design

Figure 8.1.2: LTspice window showing the main controls

Now the output window will show the output waveform.

8.2 Experiments
8.2.1 Material Required
1. Computer with LTspice

2. Oscilloscope

3. Power Supply

4. OpAmp: LM741/LM358

5. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

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Lab 8: SPICE simulation and relaxation oscillator design 58

8.2.2 Experiments to Perform

Simulation
Draw and simulate the circuit on LTspice using R = 10kΩ, C = 0.1µF . See the output
waveform.
Determine the frequency from the waveform. Change the value of R to 22kΩ and
100kΩ and determine the frequency.
Also, see the waveform at the R-C junction, i.e., the inverting input of the OpAmp.

Physical realization
Construct the circuit in the lab with the values as above and meaure the frequency on the
lab. Compare the waveforms of the output and at the R-C junction with the simulated
waveforms.

8.3 Preliminary Report

Do the simulation before the lab. Draw the waveforms and determine the frequencies.

8.4 Final Report

Construct the circuit in the lab, note the waveforms and calculate the frequencies. Com-
pare these with the simulated values.

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59 Lab 8: SPICE simulation and relaxation oscillator design

Figure 8.1.3: LTspice output

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

9 Lab 9: Digitization -
Analog-to-Digital converters and
Digital-to-Analog converters
9.1 Introduction
In the labs so far you have seen continuous time signals where the voltage varies continu-
ously with time. Real-world signals are continuous-time signals. Most modern electronic
systems convert such continuous-time signals into sequences of numbers that can be
processed by numerical machines (computers). The sequence of numbers are taken at
discrete values in time (i.e., sampled at specific time points). Such signals are called
discrete-time signals. The process of taking the values of a continuous-time signal at
discrete points in time is called sampling. The user decides how frequently the signals
should be sampled - too frequent sampling will result in extremely large quantities of
data which may be unnecessary, and very infrequent sampling may result in incomplete
and erroneous representation of the data. The criteria for deciding the sampling rate are
governed by the sampling theorem, but we will not examine it in this lab.
The representation of the numerical values has finite precision and this is called quan-
tization. Just like the use of precision in decimal representation (2-decimal places for
currency, etc.), for binary number representation in digital systems the precision is de-
termined by the number of bits used. Simple systems will use 8-bits for representing
numbers, and more expensive systems can use 16-bits, 24-bits, 32-bits, 64-bits, 128-bits
and so on.

9.1.1 Analog-to-digital converters (ADC)

Analog-to-digital converters are electronic circuits that convert a voltage into an equiva-
lent number. The input-range of an ADC is specified in volts (e.g., 0-5V) and the output
range in numbers (e.g., 0-255 for 8-bit representation). The input-output relation for a
4-bit ADC is shown here in Fig.9.1.1.

9.1.2 Arduino
Arduino is a microcomputer/ microcontroller development board which contains Analog-
to-digital converters. We will use an Arduino to study ADC and DAC characteristics.
The Arduino has a program loaded to read the continuous time voltage on Analog Input
pin-0, labelled A0, and the ADC will convert the value to an 8-bit number; the 8 bits of
the number are output on the pins labelled Bit-0, Bit-1, Bit-2,....Bit-7.

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Lab 9: Digitization - Analog-to-Digital converters and Digital-to-Analog converters 62

9.2 Experiments
9.2.1 Arduino ADC
Connect the Arduino as shown in Fig.9.2.1. The Arduino can be connected on a bread-
board with 8 LEDs connected to the digital output pins. A resistor must be connected
between each LED and the Arduino pin to allow the voltage drop required by the LED.
The Arduino is powered from a USB port which supplies 5V. The USB port of any
instrument in the lab can be used for this.

Material Required
1. Function Generator

2. Power Supply

3. Arduino Nano

4. Breadboard, LEDs, Resistors, wires

Experiments to Perform
Connect the adjustable 5V supply (channel-3 of the lab power supply) and when the
value of this voltage is varied, the corresponding binary value is shown on the LEDs.
The entire has 256 values. Get 16 values and using it, draw the ADC’s input-output
relation.

9.3 Preliminary Report

1. What is the range of numbers that can be represented by a 16 bit digital value?

2. How many bits are required to represent numbers from 0 to 10,000?

9.4 Final Report

1. Draw the ADC’s input output relation from your data.

2. What are the different types of ADCs that are available? What type is used in the
Arduino?

3.

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63 Lab 9: Digitization - Analog-to-Digital converters and Digital-to-Analog converters

Figure 9.1.1: Input-output relation of a 4-bit ADC

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Lab 9: Digitization - Analog-to-Digital converters and Digital-to-Analog converters 64

Figure 9.2.1: Arduino with ADC and digital output

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

10 Lab 10: Switched Mode Power
Supply
10.1 Introduction
Most modern power supplies and power regulators use switched mode conversion. Com-
pared to transformer based power converters that were widely used in the last century,
switched mode power supplies are more efficient, lighter in weight and cheaper. Switched
mode power supplies are used in power converters for laptop chargers, mobile chargers,
inverters and uninterrupted power supplies (UPS). In the case of laptop power supplies
and chargers, high voltage of 230V is converted to a lower voltage of 20V, 12V, 9V, 5V
for the battery operated devices - such high to low voltage converters are called buck
converters. In the case of inverters and UPS converters, a battery voltage of 12-48V is
converted to a high voltage of 230V - such low-to-high voltage converters are called boost
converters.
Switched mode power supplies use either capacitors or inductors to temporarily store
electrical energy from the input or source, and then release that energy in a controlled
manner to the output or load.

10.1.1 Boost converters

Boost converters are used to convert a low voltage to a high voltage. We will study
a simple boost converter using a single inductor, an active switch (transistor) and a
passive switch (diode). The transistor can be a MOSFET (Fig.10.1.1) or it can be a BJT
(Fig.10.1.2).
Using a MOSFET is usually preferred as the losses are smaller for high voltage gener-
ation, but for small voltages and low power a BJT may be used, and is easier to switch
at low voltages.

10.2 Experiments
Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.10.1.2 and use a single Li-Ion cell as the power supply,
Vbatt .

10.2.1 Material Required

1. Oscilloscope

2. Function Generator

65
Lab 10: Switched Mode Power Supply 66

Figure 10.1.1: Boost converter with MOSFET switch

3. Power Supply/ Battery

4. Inductor: 100µH, Schottky Diode: 1N5822, Transistor: BJT TIP41, Capacitor:

0.1µF, 250V

5. Breadboard, Resistor, wires

10.2.2 Experiments to Perform

10.3 Preliminary Report

10.4 Final Report

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

67 Lab 10: Switched Mode Power Supply

Figure 10.1.2: Boost converter using BJT switch

Electrical and Electronics Lab: EE dept, IIT-Jammu

11 Lab 11: Printed Circuit Boards:
Design and Fabrication
11.1 Introduction

11.2 Experiments
11.2.1 Material Required
1. Desktop PC or Laptop with KiCAD, pSPICE

2. PCB milling machine

3. Power Supply

11.2.2 Experiments to Perform

11.3 Preliminary Report

11.4 Final Report

1.

69