INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (22ESC144/244)

Syllabus: Module-1 (8 hours)

Introduction: Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society- Emerging Trends

and Technologies in different sectors such as Energy, Manufacturing, Automotive,
Aerospace, and Marine sectors.
Energy: Introduction and applications of Energy sources like Fossil fuels, Nuclear fuels,
Hydel, Solar, wind, and bio-fuels, Environmental issues like Global warming and Ozone
depletion
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Introduction:

Mechanical engineering is an engineering branch that combines engineering

physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture,
and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering
branches. The mechanical engineering field requires an understanding of core areas
including mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis,
and electricity. In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such
as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product
lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial
equipment and machinery, heating and cooling
systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and
others. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation
of machinery.

Mechanical engineering field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements; today

mechanical engineers are pursuing developments in such areas
as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology. It also overlaps with aerospace
engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, structural engineering, electrical
engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, industrial engineering, and
other engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical engineers may also work in
the field of biomedical engineering, specifically with biomechanics, transport
phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and modelling of biological systems[Ref:
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia]

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries and Society:

Mechanical Engineering is considered to be the oldest branch of engineering, which has

contributed to several innovations. There is a wide scope after completion of this course.
Mechanical Engineers are instrumental in designing efficient motor vehicles, aircrafts,

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manufacturing units and industrial machinery. They also contribute towards the
development of complex machinery systems, engines and power equipment. Their job
responsibility includes the designing, manufacturing, maintenance and testing of this
equipment.

What is Mechanical Engineering?

Mechanical Engineering is that branch of engineering which combines physics, mathematics,

engineering principles with materials science. This field aims at designing, analysing,
manufacturing and maintaining mechanical systems. Mechanical Engineering is considered
to be the broadest and the oldest of the engineering disciplines. This branch focuses on the
core areas that include thermodynamics, mechanics, dynamics, structural analysis,
electricity and materials science.

These core principles are combined with tools such as CAD (computer aided design) and
CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and product life cycle management for the design
and analysis of industrial equipment, machinery manufacturing plants, transport systems,
robotics, medical devices, heating and cooling systems and so on. This branch of engineering
is primarily concerned with the design, production and operation of machinery.

This field emerged in the 18th century during the Industrial Revolution and has been
continuously developing and advancing since then.

Mechanical Engineering is important because it introduces and helps implement useful

technology in our day to day lives and in modern society. It has a very crucial role to play in
manufactured technologies, right form refrigerators to cars to aeroplanes and much more.

ROLE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN INDUSTRIES AND SOCIETY

Role of Mechanical Engineering in Industries

Knowledge of Mechanical Engineering in the industry helps to do the following

 Analyze problems to see how mechanical and thermal devices might help solve a
particular problem
 Design or redesign mechanical and thermal devices or subsystems, using analysis
and computer-aided design
 Investigate equipment failures or difficulties to diagnose faulty operation and to
recommend remedies
 Develop and test prototypes of devices they design
 Analyze the test results and change the design or system as needed
 Oversee the manufacturing process for the device

Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering fields. Mechanical engineers

design and oversee the manufacture of many products ranging from medical devices to new
batteries.

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Mechanical engineering is required for design in power-producing machines, such as
electric generators, internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines, as well as
power-using machines, such as refrigeration and air-conditioning systems.

By knowledge of Mechanical engineering, one can design other machines inside buildings,
such as elevators and escalators. They also design material-handling systems, such as
conveyor systems and automated transfer stations.

Like other engineers, mechanical engineers use computers extensively. Mechanical

engineers are routinely responsible for the integration of sensors, controllers, and
machinery. Computer technology helps mechanical engineers create and analyze designs,
run simulations and test how a machine is likely to work, interact with connected systems,
and generate specifications for parts.

The following are examples of types of mechanical engineers:

Auto research engineers seek to improve the performance of cars. These engineers work to
improve traditional features of cars such as suspension, and they also work on
aerodynamics and new possible fuels.

Heating and cooling systems engineers work to create and maintain environmental systems
wherever temperatures and humidity must be kept within certain limits. They develop such
systems for airplanes, trains, cars, schools, and even computer rooms.

Robotic engineers plan, build, and maintain robots. These engineers plan how robots will
use sensors for detecting things based on light or smell, and they design how these sensors
will fit into the designs of the robots.

Role of Mechanical Engineers in Society

 Transportation
 Medical
 Agricultural
 Defense
 Power generation

Transportation
Mechanical engineering is largely concerned with road transportation, and networks, rail
and subway systems, airports, and shipping ports.

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Medical
A mechanical engineer specialized in medical science can be called as 'medical engineer'.
Engineer's responsibilities in medicine can include research, development, testing and
evaluation of medical devices, advisement on new biomedical purchases for hospitals and
medical centers.

Agricultural
The graduates are trained professionals who understand technology and are capable of
solving problems in the areas of agricultural production and managementof rural areas
with a special focus on machinery.

Defense
Manage the teams of skilled technicians that monitor, maintain and repair formidable
military hardware such as tanks, artillery guns and armoured logistic vehicles. Not all types
of entry are open for this job.
Power generation
When working in thermal power plants, mechanical engineers make sure heavy machinery
like boilers and turbines, are working in optimal condition and power is continually
generated. Mechanical engineers also work with the operations of the plant.

EMERGING TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT SECTOR.

 Energy sector - Mechanical engineers in the energy industry design and operate
fossil fuel, hydroelectric, conventional, nuclear, and cogeneration power plants. They
are involved in all aspects of the production and conversion of energy from one form
to another. Mechanical engineers are also involved in exciting projects such as
developing alternatives to thermal energy, power cycle devices, fuel cells, gas
turbines, and innovative uses of coal, wind, and tidal flow.
 Manufacturing industry- A majority of the roles in this sector are focused on supply
network logistics/operations or manufacturing/ engineering. The jobs in this sector
are not demarcated in different compartments. The jobs here are a mix of different
engineering disciplines.
 Automobile Industry – This industry is one of the fastest growing and has therefore
opened up numerous job opportunities. The role of a mechanical engineer spans the
design, manufacturing and maintenance of motor vehicles. With the advancement in
technology when breakthrough ideas like driverless cars, pod-based transportation
systems, bullet trains, are being considered. Top companies and automobile brands
are investing a lot on research and recruiting skilled and passionate mechanical
engineers.
 Aerospace industry – This industry has witnessed a lot of innovations and
discoveries. Flying cars to reusable satellites, rockets are now not unheard of as
technology is progressing so is the demand for newer inventions. The requirement

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 for skilled mechanical engineers with knowledge and expertise is growing day by
day. Numerous job roles are being offered here ranging from design, to manufacture
to testing to R&D. The mechanical engineers get a chance to employ the principles of
physics to aeromodelling and dynamics to improve the design and efficiency in
systems.
 Marine industry – Mechanical engineers in this industry design and build or operate
and maintain equipment and marine vessels. These engineers design, install, or
maintain engines, shafts, boilers and propellers. They could be a part of the team
that enforces regulations for air and sea pollution or be a part of designing futuristic
cleaner ships.
 Materials and metals industry – This job role demands the design, development and
testing of a wide variety of complex mechanical system. This will include the entire
life cycle maintenance of the mechanical items that are used in the plant. A few of
those are gas and steam turbines, pipework, valves, fans, coals mills and so on.

Automotive Industry : The automotive industry includes industries associated with the
production, wholesaling, retailing, and maintenance of motor vehicles.

Top 10 Automotive Industry Trends

 Autonomous Vehicles (AVs)
 Vehicle Connectivity.
 Electrification.
 Shared Mobility.
 Artificial Intelligence.
 Big Data & Analytics.
 Human-Machine Interfaces.
 3D Printing
Several automotive industry trends are impacting its future in 2023 and beyond. These
trends involve how vehicles are powered, driven, shopped for, and acquired. Plus, there are
statistics you must know about if you plan to buy a vehicle in 2023. Here are the top 10
trends shaping the future of the rapidly changing auto industry and some critical motor
vehicle-related statistics.
Trends Shaping The Auto Industry 3
1. Increased Production Of Electric Cars With Digital Technology
2. More Connected Cars
3. Autonomous Self-Driving Vehicles
4. Truck Platooning
5. Automakers And Technology Company Partnerships
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1. Increased Production of Electric Cars With Digital Technology
Automakers continue to integrate more digital technology into their vehicles. Technology companies
like Google and Tesla are also working on electric and self-driving vehicles. As a result, it’s clear that
vehicles produced in 2023 and beyond with be full of technology to address digital touch points.
There’s fierce competition to develop software and digital and electronic operating systems to
power and control the new, innovative zero-emission electric vehicles. These new vehicles will be
filled with digital technology.

2. More Connected Cars

Connected cars are vehicles connected to the Internet of Things using wireless means. These
vehicles provide a safe, comfortable, convenient multimedia experience by using on-demand
features that allow you to do anything you want on the web while in your vehicle. Connected cars
can communicate bidirectionally with various other systems outside their local network. The vehicles
can share internet access and data with devices inside and outside the car. Connected cars now send
digital data and remote diagnostics, vehicle health reports, data-only telematics, access 4G LTE Wi-Fi
Hotspots, get turn-by-turn directions, warn of car health issues and directly intervene to prevent
breakdowns. Over a billion customer requests were processed by 2015, and connected car
technology will explode on the scene in diverse ways in 2023 using predictive intelligence and
maintenance technology

3. The Emergence of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

In 2023, the worldwide emergence of fuel cell electric vehicles is poised. More and more people
embrace fuel cell electric vehicles because they recharge faster, have up to 5 times the range of
other electric vehicles, and only emit water out of their tailpipes. Many cars, truck, and SUV
manufacturers are investing in fuel cell electric vehicle development.

4. Autonomous Self-Driving Vehicles

Autonomous self-driving vehicles are here and will be more prevalent in 2023 and beyond. Research
has shown autonomous vehicles are safer, reduce downtime, expand the last-mile delivery scope,
reduce driver fatigue and negligence-related accidents, improve fuel efficiency by 10%, and reduce
CO2 emissions by 42 million metric tons annually. Several trucking companies have installed self-
driving technology and have tested it at locations nationwide. Beginning in 2023, it will become
commonplace to see a fleet of autonomous self-driving commercial trucks or a self-driving Tesla in
the lane next to you.

5. Truck Platooning
Another automotive industry trend you will see more in 2023 is truck platooning. This is when
multiple trucks use vehicle-to-vehicle connectivity to drive close behind each other while traveling at
high speeds.

6. Automakers And Technology Company Partnerships

With the rapid rate at which new technological advancements are being added to cars and other
vehicles, it’s not surprising to see automakers and technology companies forming partnerships.
Electric, connected, and autonomous vehicles require specialized software and advanced technology
to function safely and correctly. Car, truck and SUV manufacturers must either make massive
investments in their technology divisions or partner with tech companies that can design and
produce the new operating systems the next generation of technologically advanced automobiles
will need.

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ENERGY- Capacity to do work.
 Most of the energy that we use is mainly derived from conventional energy sources.
 Due to the vast demand of energy, the rate of depletion of these resources has
reached alarmingly low levels.
 This situation has directed us to seek alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,
ocean, biomass, Hydel etc.
Energy Sources:
 The energy existing in the earth is known as CAPITAL energy.
 Energy that comes from outer space is called CELESTIAL or INCOME energy.
 The CAPITAL energy sources are mainly, fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and heat traps.
 CELESTIAL ENERGY SOURCES ARE- Electromagnetic, gravitational and particle energy
from stars, planets, moon etc.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY of the earth’s sun is called DIRECT SOLAR ENERGY. This
results in WIND, HYDEL, GEOTHERMAL, BIOFUEL, etc.
 GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY of earth’s moon produces TIDAL ENERGY.
Renewable Sources of Energy:
Energy sources which are continuously produced in nature and are essentially
inexhaustible are called renewable energy sources.
1. Direct solar energy 7. Geo thermal energy
2. Wind energy 8. Peat
3. Tidal energy 9. Fuel wood
4. Hydel energy 10. Fuel cells
5. Ocean thermal energy 11. Solid wastes
6. Bio energy 12. Hydrogen
Nonrenewable Energy Sources:
Energy sources which have been accumulated over the ages and not quickly replenishable
when they are exhausted.
1. Fossil fuels.
2. Nuclear fuels.
3. Heat traps.

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 Differences between Renewable and Non Renewable Energy Sources
Factor Renewable Energy Sources Non Renewable Energy
Sources

Exhaustibility/Inexhaustibility Inexhaustible Exhaustible

Availability Abundantly and freely available Not abundantly available

Replenishment Replenished Naturally Cannot be replenished

Environmental Friendliness Environment friendly except in case Not environment friendly
of biomass
Cost Factor Building Systems cost is high, running Production cost is high
cost is low
Nature of Availability Intermittently available Continuously available
Regional restriction and No regional restriction Available in certain countries
dependency factor

TYPES OF FUELS
The important fuels are as follows-
1) Solid fuels 2) Liquid fuels 3) Gaseous fuels
1) Solid fuels
 Coal is the major fuel used for thermal power plants to generate steam.
 Coal occurs in nature, which was formed by the decay of vegetable matters buried
under the earth millions of years ago under pressure and heat.
 This phenomenon of transformation of vegetable matter into coal under earth’s crust
is known as Metamorphism.
 The type of coal available under the earth’s surface depends upon the period of
metamorphism and the type of vegetable matter buried, also the pressure and
temperature conditions.
 The major constituents in coal moisture (5-40%), volatile matter (combustible & or
incombustible substances about 50%) and ash (20-50%).

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  The chemical substances in the coal are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulphur.
 In the metamorphism phenomenon, the vegetable matters undergo the
transformation from peat to anthracite coal, with intermediate forms of lignite and
bituminous coal.
2. Liquid Fuels
 All types of liquid fuels used are derived from crude petroleum and its by-products.
 The petroleum or crude oil consists of 80-85% C, 10-15% hydrogen, and varying
percentages of Sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and compounds of vanadium.
 The crude oil is refined by fractional distillation process to obtain fuel oils, for
industrial as well as for domestic purposes.
 The fractions from light oil to heavy oil are naphtha, gasoline, kerosene, diesel and
finally heavy fuel oil.
 The heavy fuel oil is used for generation of steam.
 The use of liquid fuels in thermal power plants has many advantages over the use of
solid fuels.
Some important advantages are as follows:
1. The storage and handling of liquid fuels is much easier than solid and gaseous fuels.
2. Excess air required for the complete combustion of liquid fuels is less, as compared
to the solid fuels.
3. Fire control is easy and hence changes in load can be met easily and quickly.
4. There are no requirements of ash handling and disposal.
5. The system is very clean, and hence the labour required is relatively less compared
to the operation with solid fuels.
3) Gaseous Fuels
 For the generation of steam in gas fired thermal plants, either natural gas or
manufactured gaseous fuels are used.
 However, manufactured gases are costlier than the natural gas.
 Generally, natural gas is used for power plants as it is available in abundance.
 The natural gas is generally obtained from gas wells and petroleum wells.

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  The major constituent in natural gas is methane, about 60-65%, and also contains
small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, naphthene and aromatics,
carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
 The natural gas is transported from the source to the place of use through pipes, for
distances to several hundred kilometers.
 The natural gas is colourless, odourless and non-toxic.
 Its calorific value ranges from 25,000 to 50,000 kJ/m3, in accordance with the
percentage of methane in the gas.
 The artificial gases are producer gas, water gas coke-oven gas; and the Blast furnace
gas.
 Generally, power plants fired with artificial gases are not found.
 The gaseous fuels have advantages similar to those of liquid fuels, except for the
storage problems.
 The major disadvantage of power plant using natural gas is that it should be setup
near the source; otherwise the transportation losses are too high.
HYDEL POWER PLANT
In hydroelectric power plants the potential energy of water due to its high location is
converted into electrical energy. The total power generation capacity of the hydroelectric
power plants depends on the head of water and volume of water flowing towards the water
turbine. The hydroelectric power plant, also called as dam or hydro power plant, is used for
generation of electricity from water on large scale basis. The dam is built across the large
river that has sufficient quantity of water throughout the river. In certain cases where the
river is very large, more than one dam can built across the river at different locations.

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Working Principle of Hydroelectric Power plant
The water flowing in the river possesses two type of energy:
(1) The kinetic energy due to flow of water and
(2) Potential energy due to the height of water.
The hydroelectric power and potential energy of water is utilized to generate electricity.
THERMAL POWER PLANT

Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations). In these power stations, steam is produced by burning
some fossil fuel (e.g. coal) and then used to run a steam turbine. Thus, a thermal power
station may sometimes called as a Steam Power Station. After the steam passes through
the steam turbine, it is condensed in a condenser and again fed back into the boiler to
become steam. This is known as ranking cycle. This article explains how electricity is
generated in thermal power plants. As majority of thermal power plants use coal as their
primary fuel, this article is focused on a coal fired thermal power plant.

Coal: In a coal based thermal power plant, coal is transported from coal mines to the
generating station. Generally, bituminous coal or brown coal is used as fuel. The coal is
stored in either 'dead storage' or in 'live storage'. Dead storage is generally 40 days backup
coal storage which is used when coal supply is unavailable. Live storage is a raw coal bunker
in boiler house. The coal is cleaned in a magnetic cleaner to filter out if any iron particles are
present which may cause wear and tear in the equipment. The coal from live storage is first

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crushed in small particles and then taken into pulverizer to make it in powdered form. Fine
powdered coal undergoes complete combustion, and thus pulverized coal improves
efficiency of the boiler. The ash produced after the combustion of coal is taken out of the
boiler furnace and then properly disposed. Periodic removal of ash from the boiler furnace
is necessary for the proper combustion.

Boiler: The mixture of pulverized coal and air (usually preheated air) is taken into boiler and
then burnt in the combustion zone. On ignition of fuel a large fireball is formed at the center
of the boiler and large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy is utilized
to convert the water into steam at high temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the
boiler walls in which water is converted in steam. The flue gases from the boiler make their
way through superheater, economizer, air preheater and finally get exhausted to the
atmosphere from the chimney.
 Superheater: The superheater tubes are hanged at the hottest part of the
boiler. The saturated steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to
about 540 °C in the superheater. The superheated high pressure steam is then
fed to the steam turbine.
 Economizer: An economizer is essentially a feed water heater which heats the
water before supplying to the boiler.
 Air pre-heater: The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere and it is then
warmed in the air pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler.
The advantage of pre-heating the air is that it improves the coal combustion.

Steam turbine: High pressure super heated steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes
turbine blades to rotate. Energy in the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the
steam turbine which acts as the prime mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam
falls to a lower value and it expands in volume as it passes through the turbine. The
expanded low pressure steam is exhausted in the condenser.

Condenser: The exhausted steam is condensed in the condenser by means of cold water
circulation. Here, the steam loses it's pressure as well as temperature and it is converted
back into water. Condensing is essential because, compressing a fluid which is in gaseous
state requires a huge amount of energy with respect to the energy required in compressing
liquid. Thus, condensing increases efficiency of the cycle.

Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped
up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.

Feed water pump: The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feed water pump.
Some water may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water
source.

This was the basic working principle of a thermal power station and its typical components.
A practical thermal plant possess more complicated design and multiple stages of turbine
such as High Pressure Turbine (HPT), Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IPT) and Low Pressure
Turbine (LPT).

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Advantages:
 Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
 It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
 The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
 The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power plants.
Disadvantages:
 It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke.
This is one of the causes of global warming.
 The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low (less than 30%).

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Working principle of a nuclear power station
The schematic diagram of nuclear power station is shown in figure. A generating
station in which nuclear energy is converted into electrical energy is known as nuclear
power station. The main components of this station are nuclear reactor, heat exchanger or
steam generator, steam or gas turbine, AC generator and exciter, and condenser.

The reactor of a nuclear power plant is similar to the furnace in a steam power
plant. The heat liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by
the coolant circulating in the reactor. A hot coolant leaves the reactor at top and then flows
through the tubes of heat exchanger and transfers its heat to the feed water on its way. The
steam produced in the heat exchanger is passed through the turbine and after the work has
done by the expansion of steam in the turbine, steam leaves the turbine and flows to the
condenser. The mechanical or rotating energy developed by the turbine is transferred to the
generator which in turn generates the electrical energy and supplies to the bus through a

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step-up transformer, a circuit breaker, and an isolator. Pumps are provided to maintain the
flow of coolant, condensate, and feed water.
SOLAR POWER PLANT
WORKING OF SOLAR POWER PLANT

As sunlight falls over a solar cells, a large number of photons strike the p-type region of
silicon. Electron and hole pair will get separated after absorbing the energy of photon. The
electron travels from p-type region to n-type region due to the action of electric field at p-n
junction. Further the diode is reversed biased to increase this electric field. So this current
starts flowing in the circuit for individual solar cell. We combine the current of all the solar
cells of a solar panel, to get a significant output.

Solar power plant have a large number of solar panels connected to each other to get a
large voltage output. The electrical energy coming from the combined effort of solar panels
is stored in the Lithium ion batteries to be supplied at night time, when there is no sunlight.

Energy Storage

Storage of the energy generated by the solar panels is a important issue. Sometimes the
unused energy generated during daytime is used to pump water to some height, so that it
could be used to generate electricity using its potential energy when required or mainly at
night time.

Advantages of Solar Energy

 Most clean and renewable source of energy.

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  It is available in abundance and endless.

 It provides electricity at low cost, as fuel is free.

 With new research in this sector we now have a good power storage solution.

 Keeping in mind the pollution and cost of fossil fuel, it’s becoming the most reliable
source of clean energy.

Disadvantages of Solar Power Plant

 It requires a lot of land to be captured forever.

 Initial cost of installation is too high.

 The energy storage options are not efficient and moreover costly if efficient.

 Power production is quite low as compared to nuclear or other resources to produce

power.

 There is a problem if it is cloudy for few days.

 Their production causes pollution.

Applications

 Solar power plant is powering cities in most efficient manner.

 Solar panels could be used to generate electricity individually for each house
especially in remote areas.

TIDAL POWER PLANT

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS
Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the
attraction of sea water by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential energy which
is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean sea level, it is called flood
tide. When the water level is below the mean level it is called ebb tide.
Working
The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall and water
can be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall. A dam is
constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in water level is
obtained between the basin and sea.

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During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the water
turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit operates and
generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.
During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in the basin is
more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the flowing water rotates the
turbine and generator power.

The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are equal.
For the generation of power economically using this source of energy requires some
minimum tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250 MW capacity in Russia
and Rance power plant in France are the only examples of this type of power plant.
Advantages of tidal power plants.
1. It is free from pollution as it does not use any fuel.
2. It is superior to hydro-power plant as it is totally independent of rain.
3. It improves the possibility of fish farming in the tidal basins and it can provide
recreation to visitors and holiday makers.
Disadvantages
1. Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural sites are available on the bay.
2. As the sites are available on the bays which are always far away from load centres, the
power generated has to be transmitted to long distances. This increases the transmission
cost and transmission losses.

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WIND POWER PLANT

A windmill is the oldest device built to convert the wind energy into mechanical
energy used for grinding, milling and pumping applications. It consists of a rotor fitted with
large sized blades. Now improvement in performance is achieved by applying sound
engineering and aerodynamic principles. Nowadays the wind energy is used to produce
electrical energy. Wind energy is converted into mechanical energy in wind turbines. These
wind turbines are coupled to generators the mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.

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 GLOBAL WARMING : Reference[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change]

Change in average surface air temperature since the Industrial Revolution, Human activity has
caused increased temperatures.

Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2021 compared to the 1956–1976
average

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Climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average
temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. The current rise in global average
temperature is more rapid than previous changes, and is primarily caused by
humans burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and
some agricultural and industrial practices increase greenhouse gases, notably carbon
dioxide and methane. Greenhouse gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after
it warms from sunlight. Larger amounts of these gases trap more heat in Earth's lower
atmosphere, causing global warming.

Effects of global warming: Due to climate change, deserts are expanding, while heat
waves and wildfires are becoming more common. Increased warming in the Arctic has
contributed to melting permafrost, glacial retreat and sea ice loss. Higher temperatures are
also causing more intense storms, droughts, and other weather extremes. Rapid
environmental change in mountains, coral reefs, and the Arctic is forcing many species to
relocate or become extinct. These include ocean heating, ocean acidification and sea level
rise.

Climate change threatens people with food and water scarcity, increased flooding, extreme
heat, more disease, and economic loss. Human migration and conflict can also be a result.
The World Health Organization (WHO) calls climate change the greatest threat to global
health in the 21st century.

Many climate change impacts are already felt at the current 1.2 °C level of warming.
Additional warming will increase these impacts and may trigger tipping points, such as the
melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Under the 2015 Paris Agreement, nations collectively
agreed to keep warming well under 2 °C. Limiting warming to 1.5 °C will require halving
emissions by 2030 and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.

Fig.(a) Wildfire Fig.(b) bleaching of coral Fig.(c) Drought

Fig.(a) Wildfire intensified by heat and drought Fig.(b)bleaching of coral caused by marine heatwaves

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Reducing emissions requires generating electricity from low-carbon sources rather than
burning fossil fuels. This change includes phasing out coal and natural gas fired power plants,
vastly increasing use of wind, solar, and other types of renewable energy, and reducing
energy use. Electricity generated from non-carbon-emitting sources will need to replace fossil
fuels for powering transportation, heating buildings, and operating industrial facilities Carbon
can also be removed from the atmosphere, for instance by increasing forest cover and by
farming with methods that capture carbon in soil.

Environmental effects [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change]

The environmental effects of climate change are broad and far-reaching, affecting oceans,
ice, and weather. Changes may occur gradually or rapidly. Evidence for these effects comes
from studying climate change in the past, from modeling, and from modern
observations. Since the 1950s, droughts and heat waves have appeared simultaneously with
increasing frequency. The rainfall rate and intensity of increasing, and the geographic range
likely expanding poleward in response to climate warming.

Figure. Historical sea level reconstruction and projections up to 2100 published in 2017 by the U.S. Global
Change Research Program

Global sea level is rising as a consequence of glacial melt, melt of the ice
sheets in Greenland and Antarctica, and thermal expansion. Between 1993 and 2020, the rise
increased over time, averaging 3.3 ± 0.3 mm per year. Over the 21st century, the IPCC
projects that in a very high emissions scenario the sea level could rise by 61–
110 cm. Increased ocean warmth is undermining and threatening to unplug Antarctic glacier
outlets, risking a large melt of the ice sheet and the possibility of a 2-meter sea level rise by
2100 under high emissions.

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Climate change has led to decades of shrinking and thinning of the Arctic sea ice. While ice-
free summers are expected to be rare at 1.5 °C degrees of warming, they are set to occur once
every three to ten years at a warming level of 2 °C. Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations
have led to changes in ocean chemistry. An increase in dissolved CO2 is causing oceans to
acidify. In addition, oxygen levels are decreasing as oxygen is less soluble in warmer
water. Dead zones in the ocean, regions with very little oxygen, are expanding too.

Tipping points and long-term impacts

Greater degrees of global warming increase the risk of passing through ‘tipping points’—
thresholds beyond which certain impacts can no longer be avoided even if temperatures are
reduced. An example is the collapse of West Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, where a
temperature rise of 1.5 to 2 °C may commit the ice sheets to melt, although the time scale of
melt is uncertain and depends on future warming. Some large-scale changes could occur over
a short time period, such as a shutdown of certain ocean currents like the Atlantic Meridional
Overturning Circulation (AMOC). Tipping points can also include irreversible damage to
ecosystems like the Amazon rainforest and coral reefs.

The long-term effects of climate change on oceans include further ice melt, ocean warming,
sea level rise, and ocean acidification On the timescale of centuries to millennia, the
magnitude of climate change will be determined primarily by anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
This is due to CO2's long atmospheric lifetime. Oceanic CO2 uptake is slow enough that
ocean acidification will continue for hundreds to thousands of years. These emissions are
estimated to have prolonged the current interglacial period by at least 100,000 years Sea level
rise will continue over many centuries, with an estimated rise of 2.3 metres per degree
Celsius (4.2 ft/°F) after 2000 years.

Nature and wildlife

Recent warming has driven many terrestrial and freshwater species poleward and towards
higher altitudes. Higher atmospheric CO2 levels and an extended growing season have
resulted in global greening. However, heat waves and drought have
reduced ecosystem productivity in some regions. The future balance of these opposing effects
is unclear.[ Climate change has contributed to the expansion of drier climate zones, such as
the expansion of deserts in the subtropics The size and speed of global warming is
making abrupt changes in ecosystems more likely. Overall, it is expected that climate change
will result in the extinction of many species.

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The oceans have heated more slowly than the land, but plants and animals in the ocean have
migrated towards the colder poles faster than species on land. Just as on land, heat waves in
the ocean occur more frequently due to climate change, harming a wide range of organisms
such as corals, kelp, and seabirds. Ocean acidification makes it harder for marine calcifying
organisms such as mussels, barnacles and corals to produce shells and skeletons; and heat
waves have bleached coral reefs. Harmful algal blooms enhanced by climate change
and eutrophication lower oxygen levels, disrupt food webs and cause great loss of marine
life. Coastal ecosystems are under particular stress. Almost half of global wetlands have
disappeared due to climate change and other human impacts.

Ecological collapse. Coral bleaching from thermal stress has damaged the Great Barrier Reef and
threatens coral reefs
[174]
Extreme weather. Drought and high temperatures worsened the 2020 bushfires in Australia.
Habitat destruction. Many arctic animals rely on sea ice, which has been disappearing in a warming Arctic

Humans
Extreme weather will be progressively more common as the Earth warms.

The effects of climate change are impacting humans everywhere in the world.
Impacts can now be observed on all continents and ocean regions, with low-
latitude, less developed areas facing the greatest risk. Continued warming has
potentially “severe, pervasive and irreversible impacts” for people and
ecosystems. The risks are unevenly distributed, but are generally greater for
disadvantaged people in developing and developed countries.
Food and health

The WHO has classified climate change as the greatest threat to global health in
the 21st century. Extreme weather leads to injury and loss of life, and crop
failures to under nutrition. Various infectious diseases are more easily
transmitted in a warmer climate, such as dengue fever and malaria. Young

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children are the most vulnerable to food shortages. Both children and older
people are vulnerable to extreme heat. The World Health Organization (WHO)
has estimated that between 2030 and 2050, climate change would cause around
250,000 additional deaths per year. They assessed deaths from heat exposure in
elderly people, increases in diarrhea, malaria, dengue, coastal flooding, and
childhood under nutrition. Over 500,000 more adult deaths are projected yearly
by 2050 due to reductions in food availability and quality. By 2100, 50% to
75% of the global population may face climate conditions that are life-
threatening due to combined effects of extreme heat and humidity.

Climate change is affecting food security. It has caused reduction in global

yields of maize, wheat, and soybeans between 1981 and 2010. Future warming
could further reduce global yields of major crops Crop production will probably
be negatively affected in low-latitude countries, while effects at northern
latitudes may be positive or negative. Up to an additional 183 million people
worldwide, particularly those with lower incomes, are at risk of hunger as a
consequence of these impacts. Climate change also impacts fish populations.
Globally, less will be available to be fished. Regions dependent on glacier
water, regions that are already dry, and small islands have a higher risk of water
stress due to climate change.
Livelihoods

Economic damages due to climate change may be severe and there is a chance
of disastrous consequences. Climate change has likely already increased global
economic inequality, and this trend is projected to continue. Most of the severe
impacts are expected in sub-Saharan Africa, where most of the local inhabitants
are dependent upon natural and agricultural resources], and South-East
Asia. The World Bank estimates that climate change could drive over 120
million people into poverty by 2030.

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Current inequalities based on wealth and social status have worsened due to
climate change. Major difficulties in mitigating, adapting, and recovering to
climate shocks are faced by marginalized people who have less control over
resources. Indigenous people, who are subsistent on their land and ecosystems,
will face endangerment to their wellness and lifestyles due to climate
change. An expert elicitation concluded that the role of climate change in armed
conflict has been small compared to factors such as socio-economic inequality
and state capabilities.

Low-lying islands and coastal communities are threatened by sea level rise,
which makes flooding more common. Sometimes, land is permanently lost to
the sea. This could lead to statelessness for people in island nations, such as
the Maldives and Tuvalu. In some regions, the rise in temperature and humidity
may be too severe for humans to adapt to. With worst-case climate change,
models project that almost one-third of humanity might live in extremely hot
and uninhabitable climates, similar to the current climate found in the
Sahara. These factors can drive environmental migration, both within and
between countries. More people are expected to be displaced because of sea
level rise, extreme weather and conflict from increased competition over natural
resources. Climate change may also increase vulnerability, leading to "trapped
populations" who are not able to move due to a lack of resources.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Ozone depletion:
What is ozone depletion?
Ozone Depletion. When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the
stratosphere, they destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000
ozone molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more
quickly than it is naturally created.

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What can cause ozone depletion?
Ozone depletion occurs when chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons—gases formerly
found in aerosol spray cans and refrigerants—are released into the atmosphere.

Why is depletion of ozone bad?

Ozone depletion can cause increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth which
can lead to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, and impaired immune systems.
Overexposure to UV is believed to be contributing to the increase in melanoma, the most
fatal of all skin cancers
Why is ozone so harmful?
Exposure to ozone can reduce the volume of air that the lungs breathe in and cause
shortness of breath. Ozone in sufficient doses increases the permeability of lung cells,
rendering them more susceptible to toxins and microorganisms.

Does ozone depletion cause global warming?

Ozone depletion and climate change are linked in a number of ways, but ozone depletion is
not a major cause of climate change. Atmospheric ozone has two effects on the temperature
balance of the Earth. It absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation, which heats the stratosphere.

How we can prevent ozone depletion?

B
Buy air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment that do not use
HCFCs as refrigerant. Buy aerosol products that do not use HCFCs or
CFCs as propellants. Conduct regular inspection and maintenance of air-
conditioning and refrigeration appliances to prevent and minimize
refrigerant leakage.

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 How can reduce ozone depletion?
.
To halt the depletion of the ozone layer, countries
around the world agreed to stop using ozone-depleting
substances. This agreement was formalised in the
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer in 1985 and the Montreal Protocol on Substances
that Deplete the Ozone Layer in 1987
What are the solutions of ozone depletion?
How can we protect the ozone layer? Avoid the consumption of gases dangerous to the ozone
layer, due to their content or manufacturing process. Some of the most dangerous gases are
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halogenated hydrocarbon, methyl bromide and nitrous oxide.
Minimize the use of cars.
What is the biggest threat to the ozone layer?
Some CFCs and halons can survive in the atmosphere more than a century. Moved by air
currents, the halocarbons released over the past sixty years are a threat to the ozone layer for
decades to come. They are carrying thousands of tons of chlorine and bromine atoms into the
stratosphere
What destroys ozone the most?
The main uses of ozone depleting substances include:
 CFCs and HCFCs in refrigerators and air conditioners,
 HCFCs and halons in fire extinguishers,
 CFCs and HCFCs in foam,
 CFCs and HCFCs as aerosol propellants, and.
 methyl bromide for fumigation of soil, structures and goods to be imported or exported

How can we protect ozone?

Take Action
1. Think about spending more time indoors, where
ozone levels are usually lower.
2. Choose easier outdoor activities (like walking
instead of running) so you don't breathe as hard.
3. Plan outdoor activities at times when ozone
levels are lower (usually in the morning and
evening).

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