OURNAL OF I NQUIRY-BASED L EARNING IN M ATHEMATICS

J No. 42, (May 2016)

Introduction to Advanced
Mathematics

B. J. Baker
LaTeXed by Alys Rodriguez

Lamar University
Contents

To the Student iv

1 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 1
1.1 STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 DENIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 TRUTH TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 COMPOUND STATEMENTS JOINED BY AND/OR . . . 3
1.5 LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS, TAUTOLO-
GIES, & CONTRADICTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 DENIALS OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7.1 DENIALS OF CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS . . 7
1.7.2 UNIVERSAL AND EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS 8
1.7.3 DENIALS OF STATEMENTS WITH UNIVERSAL
AND EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS . . . . . . . 11
1.7.4 RELATED CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS . . . . 14
1.7.5 BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS . . . . . . . . . 15

2 METHODS OF PROOF 17
2.1 PRELIMINARIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 DIRECT PROOFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 PROOF BY THE CONTRAPOSITIVE . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 INDIRECT PROOFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3 SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 22

3.1 SETS, ELEMENTS, AND NOTATION . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 AN AXIOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.4 VENN DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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CONTENTS iii

3.5 MORE DEFINITIONS WITH VENN DIAGRAMS . . . . . 24

3.6 THEOREMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.7 DISPROVING A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT . . . . . . 28
3.8 CONJECTURES TO PROVE OR DISPROVE . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . 29

4 RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 31

4.1 DEFINITIONS DEALING WITH RELATIONS . . . . . . 31
4.2 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 THEOREMS ABOUT EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS . . . 34

5 MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 36

5.1 DEFINITIONS, NOTES, AND COMMENTS . . . . . . . . 36
5.2 DENIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.3 A THEOREM ABOUT FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.4 BINARY OPERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

6 THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 43

6.1 AXIOMS AND DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.2 THEOREMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.3 THE ORDER AXIOM AND MORE DEFINiTIONS . . . . 45
6.4 ORDER THEOREMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.5 THE NATURAL NUMBERS AND THE LEAST NATU-
RAL NUMBER AXIOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.6 THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL INDUC-
TION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.7 THE EXTENDED FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATI-
CAL INDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.8 THE SECOND PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICAL IN-
DUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.9 RATIONAL NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.10 THE COMPLETENESS AXIOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.11 THEOREMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

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To the Student

The object of this course is for you to learn the basics of proving theorems.
There are three sayings which you may or may not have heard of, but which
we suggest that you consider seriously with regards to this course.

The first one is “Mathematics is not a spectator sport.” You don’t learn
mathematics by watching someone else do it. That’s particularly true when
it comes to learning how to prove theorems. You need to learn how by prov-
ing theorems yourself, because it takes a different way of thinking than that
which you are used to using in applying formulas to problems.

The second one is “The devil’s in the details.” The first and last steps in
a proof are usually relatively easy. The hard part is figuring out all the in-
between steps to take - the details.

The third one is “Stick with the nitty-gritty.” That means to stay with the
basics. Make your statements as clear, concise, precise, and uncomplicated
as possible. Try not to make the problem harder than it is. Mathematics
can get complicated enough all by itself; you don’t need to help it. Learn
the definitions (i.e., memorize them) and use them just about the way they
are stated when applying them in a proof. The definitions are usually stated
as precisely as possible. At the level of this course, you don’t want to skip
steps. Most often, that’s where the errors occur: in the skipped steps.

These notes as we have written them were not intended to be used as a self
study course. At the level of this course, the beginning level, you need an in-
structor, someone who understands how to do proofs, to give you feedback
about what you have done, but not someone who just tells you the answers
to your questions or just tells you what you should have done. You need to
figure out as much as possible on your own. The material here presents you
with ample opportunity to do just that.

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC

1.1 STATEMENTS

A statement is a declarative sentence which can be classified as true or

false, but not both. The classification of “true” or “false” is called its truth
value.

EXAMPLES: Classify each of the following sentences as a statement or

a non-statement and explain why.

1. “The Great Salt Lake is in the state of Maine.” is

because .
2. “Argentina is a country in South America.” is
because .
3. “Where are you going?” is
because .
4. “Shut the door.” is
because .
5. “Look out!” is
because .
6. “x + 2 = 5” is a declarative sentence, but since we don’t know what
value x has, we can’t classify it as true or false because when x is 3, the
statement is true, but when x is 5, the statement is false.
7. “5(x + 2) = 5x + 10”, however, is a statement with the truth value of
“true.” In this case, no matter what number x is, the statement is true.

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 2

8. “She doesn’t have red hair.” is a declarative sentence, but it cannot

be classified as true or false because, in this case, we don’t know who
“she” is. If “she” were Lucille Ball, the statement would be false. If
“she” were Shania Twain, the statement would be true.
9. “The city has a population of over 500,000.” is a declarative sentence,
but it cannot be classified as true or false because, in this case, we don’t
know what city is being considered.
10. “Ten thousand people in China ate rice on August 25, 2004.” is a
statement and its truth value is exactly one of “true” and “false” even
though we don’t know which one it is.

Exercise 1.

Classify each of the following 15 sentences as a statement or a non-statement.

If it’s a statement, classify it as true or false.

1. Who’s your friend?

2. The Amazon is the longest river in Africa.
3. Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun.
4. She can’t wait to graduate.
5. x < x + 1.
6. A platypus is an animal that lives in the jungles of South and Central
America.
7. Don’t forget to renew your driver’s license.
8. Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
9. He didn’t do his homework assignment.
10. No spider has 10 legs.
11. Shut the door.
12. Halley’s Comet returns to the solar system every two years.
13. 2x − 18 = 20.
14. Abraham Lincoln was president of the United States during the Civil
War.
15. Did you go home for the holidays?

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 3

1.2 DENIALS

When we want to refer to statements symbolically, we usually use letters

such as p, q, or r. If p is a statement, then the denial of p is a statement,
denoted by ¬ p and read “not p,” with the property that whenever p is true,
¬ p is false, and whenever p is false, ¬ p is true.

EXAMPLE 1: p: My calculus book has 500 pages.

¬ p: My calculus book does not have 500 pages.

EXAMPLE 2: p: My calculus book has 500 pages.

q: My calculus book has less than 300 pages.

Why is statement q not ¬ p?

1.3 TRUTH TABLES

The table below illustrates all of the possible truth values of a statement and
its denial and is called a truth table.
p ¬p
T F
F T

Table 1.1: Truth Table

1.4 COMPOUND STATEMENTS JOINED BY AND/OR

If p and q are two statements, their conjunction is the statement p and q,

denoted symbolically by p ∧ q. For the conjunction of two statements to be
true, both of the statements must be true; otherwise the conjunction is false.

If p and q are two statements, their disjunction is the statement p or q,

denoted symbolically by p ∨ q. For the disjunction of two statements to be
false, both of the statements must be false; otherwise the disjunction is true.
In other words, p ∨ q is true when at least one of p and q is true.
The table below illustrates all the possible combinations of truth values for
p and q and the corresponding truth values for p ∧ q and for p ∨ q.

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 4

p q p∧q p∨q
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F

Table 1.2: Truth Table for a Conjunction and a Disjunction

EXAMPLE:

Let p be “Memorial Day is the last day of June.”

Let q be “Independence Day is celebrated in July.”

Then p ∧ q is “Memorial Day is the last day of June, Independence

Day is celebrated in July.”
The truth value for this statement is because .

Also p ∨ q is “Memorial Day is the last day of June, Independence

Day is celebrated in July.”
The truth value for this statement is because .

1.5 LOGICALLY EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS, TAU-

TOLOGIES, & CONTRADICTIONS

Two statements p and q are logically equivalent provided that they have
exactly the same truth values in all possible cases; i.e., their truth table
columns are identical. Symbolically, for the statement that p and q are logi-
cally equivalent, we write p ⇐⇒ q.

A statement is a tautology provided that its truth value in all possible cases
is True; i.e., in a truth table a tautology would have a column of all T’s.

A contradiction is a statement which has False truth values in all possible

cases; i.e., in a truth table a contradiction would have a column of all F’s.

In table 1.3, which statements, if any, are equivalent, and how do you
know?
Which, if any, are tautologies, and how do you know?
Which, if any, are contradictions, and how do you know?

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 5

p q ¬p ¬q p ∨ ¬p p ∧ ¬p p∨q ¬(p ∨ q) ¬p ∨ ¬q ¬p ∧ ¬q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Table 1.3: Truth Table Showing a Tautology, a Contradiction, and Equivalent Statements

Since the statement p ∧ ¬p is a contradiction, we say that the statement ¬p

contradicts the statement p (or that the statement p contradicts the statement
¬p).

By Table 1.3, we see that the statements ¬(p ∨ q) and ¬p ∧ ¬q are logically
equivalent.

The statement ¬(p ∨ q) is read “It is not the case that p or q,” while the
statement ¬p ∧ ¬q is read “Not p, and not q.”

The statement “It is not the case that p or q” is a denial of the statement “p
or q,” but it is not a very useful statement. The statement “Not p, and not q”
is a much more useful statement, so since the two statements are logically
equivalent, when we want to write a useful denial of “p or q”, we will write
“Not p, and not q.”

Note that anytime we have two logically equivalent statements, p and q, we

can use q instead of p, and likewise we can use p instead of q.

1.6 DENIALS OF COMPOUND STATEMENTS

Not only is “Not p and not q” the useful denial of “p or q”, but now we also
see by Table 1.4 that “Not p or not q” is the useful denial of “p and q.” The
statements that ¬(p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ ¬p ∧ ¬q and that ¬(p ∧ q) ⇐⇒ ¬p ∨ ¬q are
known as DeMorgan’s Laws.

EXAMPLES:

Statement 1: My math book has a blue cover, and it contains more than
100 pages.
Denial:

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 6

p q ¬p ¬q p∧q ¬(p ∧ q) ¬p ∧ ¬q ¬p ∨ ¬q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Table 1.4: Proof of the Other DeMorgan’s Law

Statement 2: Either Joe went to the beach last Sunday, or he went to

an Astro’s baseball game.
Denial:

Statement 3: Either Timmy is 5 and Peggy is 9, or Jimmy is 2 and

Maggie is 7.
Denial:

Most Useful Denial:

Exercise 2.

For each of the following pairs of statements, form the conjunction, write its
denial, form the disjunction, and write its denial, labeling each statement
as to what it is. Then classify the resulting 4 statements as true or false.

1. Venus is the planet closest to the Sun; Mercury is the planet farthest
from the Sun.
2. Pete owns a Ford F150 (assume true); Mary owns a Mercedes (assume
false).
3. Shakespeare wrote A Tale of Two Cities; Tolstoy wrote War and Peace.
4. Orion is not a sign of the Zodiac; Capricorn is a sign of the Zodiac.

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 7

1.7 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

The statement “If p, then q.” is known as a conditional statement. The

statement p is called the hypothesis, and the statement q is called the con-
clusion. The symbol for a conditional statement is p → q, which may also
be read as “p implies q.”

A conditional statement can be thought of as being similar to a promise. If

I win the lottery next Wednesday, then I will buy you a stick of gum. The
only time I would break my promise is when next Wednesday rolls around,
I find that I have won the lottery and I don’t buy you a stick of gum. If,
when Wednesday rolls around, I find that I didn’t win the lottery, then I can
either buy you a stick of gum or not as I choose, but in either case I won’t
have broken my promise. In fact, in the case that I don’t win the lottery, I
feel that I have not made a promise at all.

p q p→q ¬p ¬p ∨ q
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Table 1.5: Truth Table for a Conditional Statement

Table 1.5 on the preceding page shows that the only time that the conditional
statement p → q is false is when the hypothesis p is true and the conclusion
is false. The table also shows that p → q ⇐⇒ ¬p ∨ q.

EXAMPLE:
“If a polygon is a triangle, then the sum of the measures of its angles is
180◦ .” is a conditional statement. The hypothesis is “a polygon is a trian-
gle,” and the conclusion is “the sum of the measures of its angles is 180◦ .”
This conditional statement is true because when the hypothesis is true, then
the conclusion is also true. A logically equivalent statement to the given
conditional statement is “either a polygon is not a triangle or the sum of its
angles is 180◦ .” In mathematics, most axioms and theorems are stated in the
“if, then” form rather than in the “either, or” form.

1.7.1 DENIALS OF CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

By the table below we see that the useful denial of p → q is p ∧ ¬q. Since
p → q is logically equivalent to ¬p ∨ q, its useful denial is the same as for

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 8

¬p ∨ q.

p q p→q ¬(p → q) ¬q p ∧ ¬q
T T T F F F
T F F T T T
F T T F F F
F F T F T F

Table 1.6: Truth Table for the Denial of a Conditional Statement

EXAMPLES:
Statement 1: If Toronto is the capital of New York, then Boston is the
capital of Texas.
Denial:
Statement 2: If the Great Salt Lake is in Utah, then Lake Okeechobee
is in Oklahoma.
Denial:

Exercise 3.
Write the denial of each of the following conditional statements. What is
the truth value of each statement and its denial (if you know it)?

1. If Sam Houston was a president of the Republic of Texas, then he was

also a governor of the state of Texas.
2. If Manhattan was built in one day, then the Sears Tower in Chicago is
the tallest building in the world.
3. If the Sun is a star, then Mars is a star also.
4. If the Amazon River is in Africa, then the Nile River is in South Amer-
ica.
5. If “broccoli” is the name of a vegetable, then “cabbage” is the name of
a fruit.

1.7.2 UNIVERSAL AND EXISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS

“If the city of Austin is the capital of Texas, then it has a population of more
than 100,000” and “If a city is the capital of a state, then it has a popula-
tion of more than 100,000” are both conditional statements, but there is a

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 9

difference between them. In the first conditional statement, the declarative

sentence “the city of Austin is the capital of Texas” is a statement because
it can be classified as true. However, in the second conditional statement,
the declarative sentence “a city is the capital of a state” is not a statement
because it can not be classified as true or false unless we know which city is
being considered. So conditional statements like the second one fall into a
different category than what the first one does. We will refer to the category
the second conditional falls into as “quantified statements.”

In general, when we want to assert that every element of some set has a cer-
tain property, we let the set of all things to be considered be called a uni-
versal set, denoted by U . In the case of a quantified conditional statement.
we are going to consider only those things which satisfy the hypothesis (i.
e., make the hypothesis true) since anything which makes the hypothesis
false renders the conditional true, regardless of the truth value of the con-
clusion. So in the case of the second conditional above, our U is the set
consisting of the 50 state capitals.

Now to represent an element of U , we use a letter, called a variable. The

letter most often used for a variable is x. The property that the element x is
to have is specified by the conclusion of the conditional statement and is de-
noted by P(x). Then we can also say “for every x in U , P(x).” In symbols,
that will be written (∀x)(P(x)).

So the statement “If a city is the capital of a state, then it has a population
of more than 100,000” is equivalent in meaning to the statement “For every
city x that is the capital of a state, x has a population of more than 100,000.”
It is also equivalent to the statement “Every state capital has a population
of more than 100,000. The latter two statements are still considered condi-
tional statements even though they are not in the “If, then” form. For each
of these statements, x represents an element of the set U containing the 50
state capitals, and P(x) is “ x has a population of more than 100,000.”

Now the set of all elements x in U for which P(x) is a true statement is
called the solution set S for P. The solution set S may be U , it may be a
proper subset of U , or it may be empty.

For example, let’s suppose there is a box of chocolates on the desk, U rep-
resents the set of all chocolates in that box, the variable x represents a piece
of candy in U , and P(x) represents the sentence “x has a caramel center.”

In the case that the solution set S is U , we can say, “If x is a piece of choco-

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 10

late in the box, then x has a caramel center,” or we can say, “For every piece
x of chocolate in the box, x has a caramel center,” or we can say “Every
piece of chocolate in the box has a caramel center.” All 3 statements mean
the same thing, and all are true about the chocolates in the box. In this case
where S is U , the statement (∀x)(P(x)) is true.

In the case that the solution set S is a proper subset of U , we can say, “For
some piece x of chocolate in the box, x has a caramel center,” or we can say
“There is a piece x of chocolate in the box such that x has a caramel center,”
or we can say, “Some piece of chocolate in the box has a caramel center.”
Again all 3 of these statements mean the exactly same thing, and all are true
about the chocolates in the box. In this case where S is a proper subset of
U , the general statement is denoted by (∃x)(P(x)), which is read “There
exists an x such that P(x),” and that statement is true for this case.

In the case that the solution set S is empty, we can say, “There is no piece x
of chocolate in the box which has a caramel center,” or we can simply say
“No piece of chocolate in the box has a caramel center.” If we change our
property P(x), which is “x has a caramel center,” to ¬P(x), which is “x does
not have a caramel center,” then the solution set S for ¬P would be U . In
that case we can say, “For every piece x of chocolate in the box, x does not
have a caramel center,” or we can say, “If x is a piece of chocolate in the
box, then x does not have a caramel center,”or we can say, “Every piece of
chocolate in the box does not have a caramel center.” All of these statements
are true in this case and mean the same thing. In this situation where the so-
lution set for ¬P is U , the general statement is denoted by (∀x)(¬P(x)),
which is read “For every x, not P(x).”

Euler diagrams show another way of looking at quantified conditional state-

ments. We still retain the same universal set, but now define a set V to
consist of all those things which make the conclusion of the conditional
statement true. So for the candy box, U is the set of all the chocolates in
the box, and V is the set of all things with a caramel center. Figure 1.1
shows how those two sets could be related.

In the diagram on the left, the statement “every piece of chocolate in the box
has a caramel center” is true. Also true is the the statement “some piece of
chocolate in the box has a caramel center.” In the diagram in the middle,
the statement “some piece of chocolate (A) in the box has a caramel center”
is true. Also true is the statement “some piece of chocolate (B) in the box
does not have a caramel center.” In the diagram on the right, the statement
“no piece of chocolate in the box has a caramel center” is true, and so is the
equivalent statement “every piece of chocolate in the box does not have a

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 INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 11

 
Figure 1.1: Euler Diagrams.

caramel center.”

Words like “every,” “all,” “any,” and “no” are called universal quantifiers,
and the word “some,” which means “one or more,” is called an existential
quantifier. The word “a” is NOT considered to be a quantifier of either
kind; it is not specific enough. In the statement “a spider has 8 legs,” one
usually considers the “a” to mean “every.” However, in the statement “a
spider is crawling up the wall behind you,” the “a” (hopefully) only means
“some.”

1.7.3 DENIALS OF STATEMENTS WITH UNIVERSAL AND EX-

ISTENTIAL QUANTIFIERS

In order for the statement (∀x)(P(x)) to be false, the solution set S can not
be U . Hence there must be at least one element in U that is not in S; that is,
there is an element x in U for which P(x) is false and ¬P(x) is true. A de-
nial of the statement (∀x)(P(x)) is therefore the statement (∃x)(¬P(x)).
For example, the statement “There is a piece x of chocolate in the box such
that x does not have a caramel center.” is a denial of the statement “For
every piece x of chocolate in the box, x has a caramel center” and of the
statement “If x is a piece of chocolate in the box, then x has a caramel cen-
ter.” For a denial of the statement “Every piece of chocolate in the box has a
caramel center,” we could use the same statement but would more likely use
the statement “Some piece of chocolate in the box does not have a caramel
center.” It also follows that a denial of the statement (∃x)(¬P(x)) is the
statement (∀x)(P(x)).

Likewise, for the statement (∀x)(¬P(x)) to be false, the solution set S can
not be U . Hence there must be at least one element in U that is not in S;
that is, there is an element x in U for which ¬P(x) is false and P(x) is true.
A denial of the statement (∀x)(¬P(x)) is the statement (∃x)(P(x)). For
example, the denial of the statement “For every piece x of chocolate in the

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 12

box, x does not have a caramel center” is the statement “There is a piece x
of chocolate in the box such that x has a caramel center.” It is also correct to
write “For some piece x of chocolate in the box, x does not have a caramel
center.” For a denial of the statement “Every piece of chocolate in the box
does not have a caramel center,” we would use the statement “Some piece
of chocolate in the box has a caramel center.”

For the statement (∃x)(P(x)) to be true, the solution set S can be either U
or a nonempty subset of U . So (∃x)(P(x)) is false when the solution set
S is empty. Hence a denial of the statement (∃x)(P(x)) is the statement
(∀x)(¬P(x)). Mathematically, this form is preferred over a statement such
as “No x in U has property P(x) ,” or “There is no x in U for which property
P(x) is true.” So mathematically speaking, we prefer the denial of “Some
piece of chocolate in this box has a caramel center.” to be given as “Every
piece of chocolate in this box does not have a caramel center.” rather than
“No piece of chocolate in this box has a caramel center,” or “There is no
piece of chocolate in the box which has a caramel center.” Basically, we
want the negative as close to the end of the sentence as possible, and in
many cases, the negative can be avoided altogether.

EXAMPLES:

1. All (normal) spiders have 8 legs.

Denial:
2. Some book contains at least 1000 pages.
Denial:
3. For every polygon P, P has exactly 4 sides.
Denial:
1
4. There is a positive number x such that x > 1.
Denial:
5. If f is a function which is continuous at x = 5, then f is differentiable
at x = 5.
Denial:

Exercise 4.

Write the useful denials of each of the following statements.

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 13

1. All caterpillars metamorphose into butterflies.

2. There is a mammal which lays eggs.
3. x is an element of set A, or x is an element of set B. (Assume that we
know what “x” is.)
4. If Boston is the capital of Massachusetts, then Chicago is the capital
of Illinois.
5. For every positive integer x, x2 ≥ 1.
6. Some flowers are red, and some trees have flowers.
7. If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then it has two congruent sides.
8. Either some bird eats insects, or all birds eat grain.
9. There is an atlas which contains 100 maps or more.
10. If a book is a mathematics book, then it contains at least one equation.
11. Seattle is in Indiana, or Salt Lake City is in Utah.
12. Either 61349 is a prime number, or one of its factors is 31.
13. If x is a mammal that swims in the ocean and weighs less than 200
pounds, then x is a seal.
14. Some fish is not less than six inches long.
15. For every real number x, there is a positive integer y such that x + y >
100.
16. Some mountain does not have any snow on it at any time of the year.
17. Either a student likes mathematics, or he does not do well in mathe-
matics courses.
18. There are integers x and y such that if n is any positive integer, then
either x − n < y or y − n < x.
19. For every positive real number x, there is a positive integer n such that
nx > 1.
20. If x and y are real numbers such that y − x > 1, then there is an integer
n such that x < n and n < y.
21. If ε is a positive number, there is a positive number δ such that for
every real number x such that |x − 2| < δ , then |x2 − 4| < ε.

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 14

1.7.4 RELATED CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

There are three other conditional statements related to the conditional “If
p, then q.” These are the converse - “If q, then p,” the inverse - “If not p,
then not q,” and the contrapositive - “If not q, then not p.” In writing the
converse of a given conditional statement, you don’t just switch the hypoth-
esis and the conclusion word for word. In the hypothesis of any conditional
statement, the “object or objects under discussion” need to be identified. In
the conclusion, that “object” or those “objects” may then be referred to by a
pronoun. The resulting statement needs to be grammatically correct.

EXAMPLE

Conditional: If a person is a Texan, then he is an American.

Converse: If a person is an American, then he is a Texan.
Inverse: If a person is not a Texan, then he is not an American.
Contrapositive: If a person is not an American, then he is not a Texan.

Note that in each of the statements above, the object mentioned is a “per-
son,” and this is stated in the hypothesis in every case. Then in the conclu-
sion the person under discussion is referred to by the generic pronoun “he.”

Table 1.7 shows that the given conditional and its contrapositive have iden-
tical truth values and are therefore equivalent, while the converse and the
inverse also have identical truth values and are likewise equivalent.
p q ¬p ¬q p→q q→ p ¬p → ¬q ¬q → ¬p
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

Table 1.7: Truth Table for the Related Conditionals

EXAMPLE:

Conditional: If two integers are both even, then their sum is even.
Converse: .
Inverse: .
Contrapositive: .

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 15

In this exanple the “object or objects under discussion” are “two integers”
or “the sum of two integers,” and the appropriate pronoun is either “they”
or “their.”

Exercise 5.

For the following conditional statements, write the converse, the inverse,
and the contrapositive. Give each statement’s truth value. Which of the 4
statements (the given conditional, the converse, the inverse, and the contra-
positive) always have the same truth values?

1. If Newton’s birthday was February 10, then 8731 is a prime number.

2. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral are perpendicular, then the quadri-
lateral is a square.
3. If two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another
triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
4. If 2 lines in space are parallel, then they do not intersect.
5. If an integer is divisible by 6, then it is an even integer.

1.7.5 BICONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

A biconditional is a statement of the form “p if and only if q,” symbolically

denoted by p ↔ q, and is true precisely when p and q have the same truth
values.
The phrase “if and only if” is often abbreviated as “iff.”

p q p↔q p→q q→ p (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

Table 1.8: Truth Table for a Biconditional

The truth table in Table 1.8 shows that the biconditional p ↔ q is logically
equivalent to (p → q) ∧ (q → p).

EXAMPLES:

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INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC 16

1. A polygon is a quadrilateral if and only if it has four sides.

2. A heavenly body is a planet if and only if it revolves around the Sun,
has enough mass to be nearly round, and has cleared the neighborhood
around its orbit.

Definitions are given as biconditional statements, as in the examples above.

So when the biconditional is true, we note, by the table, that if p is true, then
q is true, and if q is true, then p is true. Likewise,when the biconditional is
true, if p is false, then q is false, and if q is false, then p is false.

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Chapter 2

METHODS OF PROOF

2.1 PRELIMINARIES

In every mathematical system, there two types of terms: defined and un-
defined. Examples of undefined terms are set, element, in, number, point,
between, and line. Then there are terms which are defined in terms of the
undefined terms, such as subset, even integer, ray, angle.
Also, there are three types of statements:

1. definitions, which are always of the type of statement p ↔ q,

2. axioms, or postulates, which are statements that are simply assumed
to be true.
3. theorems, which are “proved,” that is, shown to follow logically from
axioms, definitions, or other theorems which have already been proved.

Any set of axioms (or postulates) is kept to a minimum. Why do you think
that is? Theorems are usually conditional statements, such as p → r. The
hypothesis p contains what is known as the “given information,” that is, the
information we have to start out with.
p q p→q p ∧ (p → q) (p ∧ (p → q)) → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Table 2.1: Making a Deduction

17
METHODS OF PROOF 18

As you see in Table 2.1, (p ∧ (p → q)) → q is a tautology. Therefore, if we

know that p is true and that p → q, then we can logically assert that q must
be true. This kind of reasoning is known as deductive reasoning.

2.2 DIRECT PROOFS

The following is a template for a direct proof.

Theorem: p → r

Proof: Let p. (reason: given information) This is the way every

proof starts out.
Then q. (reason: from some axiom, definition, or
previously proved theorem saying p → q)
Then m. (reason: from one of the same sources saying
that q → m, or p → m, or p ∧ q → m)
.. ..
. .
Thus r. (similar type of reason) This is the conclusion of the
theorem and the way every proof ends.

We now give an example of a direct proof.

Definition E. The integer n is even if and only if there is an integer k such

that n = 2 · k.

Theorem A. If m and n are both even integers, then m + n is an even integer.

Proof:
Let m and n both be even integers. (given)
Then there is an integer k such that m = 2k. ( )
and (definition of even integer)
So then m + n = (equal #’s added to equal #’s)
and m + n = 2·( ) (distributive property)
But is an integer, ( )
so m + n is an even integer. ( )

Therefore, if m and n are even integers, then m + n is even. (This statement is a

recap of what we just proved.)

A strategy that is often used to help one understand what a definition or

theorem is saying is to find examples to illustrate that definition or that

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METHODS OF PROOF 19

theorem. Find 3 examples of even integers, and show why they are (using
the definition, of course). Find 3 examples of integers which are not even.
Illustrate the theorem with 3 examples. How many pairs of even integers
are there? Could 3 examples prove the theorem is true?

2.3 PROOF BY THE CONTRAPOSITIVE

A proof by the contrapositive is actually a direct proof also, just not of the
given statement. Instead it is a proof of the equivalent conditional statement
called its contrapositive.

Theorem: p → r (The equivalent statement is ¬r → ¬p).

Proof: Let ¬r. (reason: given information)

Then q. (reason)
Then m. (reason)
.. ..
. .
Thus ¬p. (reason)
Therefore, since ¬r → ¬p, p → r.

2.4 INDIRECT PROOFS

For the theorem p → r, the conclusion r is either true or false. Since we

want to show that r is true, then in an indirect proof we suppose instead
that r is false or, what is equivalent, that ¬r is true.

Theorem: p → r

Proof: Let p. (reason: given information)

Suppose ¬r. (supposition)
Then q. (reason)
Then m. (reason)
.. ..
. .
Then w ∧ ¬w. (reason)
This is a contradiction. Therefore, the supposition is false, hence r (is true).
(OR: ¬w contradicts w, so therefore the supposition is false. Hence r.)

In this type of proof, one doesn’t usually know beforehand exactly what
statement is going to be contradicted. But there will be a contradiction, and
it will be to either the given information or to some definition, axiom, or

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METHODS OF PROOF 20

previously proved theorem.

We now give an example of an indirect proof.

Definition O. The integer n is odd if and only if there is an integer k such

that n = 2 · k + 1.

Assume also that we know that an integer is either even or odd, but not both.

Theorem B. If m and n are integers such that m · n is an even integer, then

one of m and n is an even integer.

Proof:
Let m and n be integers such that m · n is even. (given)
Suppose it is not true that one of m and n is an even integer.(Supposition: ¬q)
Then . (useful denial of q
by the assumption
above)
Then .
So .
So .
But this contradicts . Therefore, , so .

Therefore, if m · n is even, then m is even or n is even.

The tautologies in the next exercise will be especially useful when proving
the theorems concerning sets in the next chapter.

Exercise 6.

In part A, show that the given statements are tautologies. Then use the tau-
tologies to answer the corresponding questions in part B.

A: 1. (p ∧ q) → p

2. (p ∧ q) → (p ∨ q)
3. p → (p ∨ q)
4. p ∨ (q ∨ r) ↔ (p ∨ q) ∨ r
5. p ∧ (q ∧ r) ↔ (p ∧ q) ∧ r
6. p ∧ (q ∨ r) ↔ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)

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METHODS OF PROOF 21

7. p ∨ (q ∧ r) ↔ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
8. (p ∨ q) → r ↔ (p → r) ∧ (q → r)
9. (¬r → (w ∧ ¬w)) → r (This is the basis for the indirect proof.)

B: 1. If you know “ John is here and Judy is here,” then you know “ .”

2. If you know “ John is here and Judy is here,” then you know “ .”
3. If you know “ John is here,” then you know “ .”
4. “Billy has gone home or Terry is still here, or Joe has not yet arrived.”
is logically equivalent to the statement “
.”
5. “Billy has gone home, and Terry is still here and Joe has not yet ar-
rived.” is logically equivalent to the statement “
.”
6. “Susie is 5 or Josie is 9, and Susie is 5 or Maggie is 7.” is logically
equivalent to the statement “
.”
7. “Bill is 5 ft. 7 in. tall, and Mary is 4 ft. 10 in. tall or Gordon is 4 ft. 10
in. tall.” is logically equivalent to the statement “
.”
8. “If either two integers are both odd or they are both even, then their
sum is even.” is logically equivalent to the statement “
.”

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Chapter 3

SETS AND SET OPERATIONS

3.1 SETS, ELEMENTS, AND NOTATION

What we understand a set to be is a “collection” of “objects” (called ele-

ments of the set) which are characterized by some property that lets us think
of the collection as a unit. The property that characterizes the elements must
be something that determines precisely whether an object belongs to the set
or not. In other words, we say a set must be “well defined.”

We denote sets by capital letters and their elements by lower case letters.

A set may be defined by words, such as N is the set of all natural numbers.
“The set S of all the people in China who ate rice on January 1, 2007” de-
fines a set, but “the set of all good books” does not define a set. Why, or
why not?

A set may be defined by a list (the roster method), such as, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6},
or a set may be defined by the set builder notation, such as
B = {x|x is a prime number}, read either as “the set of all x such that x is a
prime number” or as “the set to which x belongs if and only if x is a prime
number.”

In defining a set using the roster method or the set builder notation, braces
are always used to denote sets just as parentheses are always used to denote
ordered pairs of numbers. We think of the set as being separate from its
elements. If a is an object in set A (or an object which belongs to set A), we
write “a ∈ A,” which is read “a is an element of set A.” If b is not an object
in set A (or b doesn’t belong to A), we write “b ∈/ A,” which is read “b is not
an element of set A.” Also, since the set A is separate from its elements, we
write symbolically “A ∈ / A.”

22
SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 23

Now when we define the set S as S = {x|P(x)}, we know that if x ∈ S, then

we know that P(x) is true, and if we know that P(x) is true, then we know
that x ∈ S.

3.2 AN AXIOM

Axiom 0. There is a set, denoted by 0,

/ called the empty set or the null set,
which has no elements.

3.3 DEFINITIONS

Definition 1. A is a subset of B (denoted by A ⊆ B) if and only if every

element of A is an element of B.

Definition 2. If A and B are sets, A = B if and only if A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

Definition 3. If A and B are sets, A is a proper subset of B, denoted by

A ⊂ B, if and only if A ⊆ B, but A 6= B.

Definition 4. If A is a finite set, then the number of elements in A is called

the cardinality of A and is denoted by |A|.

Definition 5. If A is a set, then the power set of A, denoted by P(A), is

{X|X ⊆ A}.

Definition 6. If A and B are sets, then the union of A and B, denoted by

A ∪ B, is {x|x ∈ A or x ∈ B}. So x ∈ A ∪ B if and only if x ∈ A or x ∈ B.

Definition 7. If A and B are sets, then the intersection of A and B, denoted

A ∩ B, is {x|x ∈ A and x ∈ B}. So x ∈ A ∩ B if and only if x ∈ A and x ∈ B.

3.4 VENN DIAGRAMS

In a given problem we may assume that all of the sets we are discussing
are subsets of some universal set U . Using a universal set also allows us to
draw pictures that represent sets and how they might behave. Such pictures
are referred to as Venn Diagrams. Below are Venn diagrams illustrating A

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 SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 24

as a subset of B, A ∪ B, and A ∩ B (with A ∪ B and A ∩ B needing to be shaded

in correctly).

 
Figure 3.1: A ⊆ B, A ∪ B, and A ∩ B

3.5 MORE DEFINITIONS WITH VENN DIAGRAMS

Definition 8. If A and B are sets, then A and B are said to be disjoint if and
only if A ∩ B = 0.
/

Definition 9. If A and B are sets, then the complement of A with respect

to B, denoted by B\A, is {x|x ∈ B but x ∈
/ A}. (Shade in in the figure below.)

Definition 10. If A is a set, then the complement of A, denoted AC , is

U \A = {x|x ∈/ A}. (Shade in in the figure below.)

/ B\A, and AC
Figure 3.2: A ∩ B = 0,

Definition 11. The symmetric difference of two sets A and B, denoted by

A∆B, is {x|x ∈ A but x ∈
/ B, or x ∈ B but x ∈
/ A}. (Shade in in the figure
below.)
Exercise 7.

1. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12},

B = {1, 4, 6, 9, 11}, and C = {1, 5, 9, 12}. Find each of the fol-
lowing sets and show your work:

a. AC b. A ∪ B c. A ∩ B

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 25

Figure 3.3: A∆B

d. B\A e. A\B f. (A ∪ B)C

g. (A ∩ B)C h. AC ∪ BC i. AC ∩ BC
j. |A| k. A ∪ (B ∩C) l. A ∩ (B ∪C)
m. (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C) n. (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩C) o. (A ∪ B)\(A ∪ B)

2. Shade in each of the following sets in a Venn Diagram, and show your
work.

a. (A ∪ B)C b. (A ∩ B)C c. AC ∪ BC
d. AC ∩ BC e. A ∪ (B ∩C) f. A ∩ (B ∪C)
g. (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C) h. (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩C)

Which of the above sets appear to be the same?

3. a. Let A = {1, 2, 3}. What is |A|? List all of the subsets of

A. Those are the elements of P(A). What is |P(A)|?

b. Let S = {a, b, c, d}. What is |S|? List the elements of P(S).

What is |P(S)|?

c. Let B be a set such that |B| = n. What is |P(B)|?

4. a. Rewrite the statement “every element of A is an element of B” in the

“if p, then q” form.
.

b. What related conditional statement is equivalent to the statement above?

Write that related conditional statement.

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 26

5. The statement in 4 a. above is another way of saying that A ⊆ B. So

now the definition of A * B is the denial of the statement in 4 a. Write
the denial of that statement.
A * B if and only if .

6. If A and B are sets, then x ∈ A ∪ B if and only if .

so x ∈
/ A ∪ B if and only if .

7. If A and B are sets, then x ∈ A ∩ B if and only if .

so x ∈
/ A ∩ B if and only if .

8. If A and B are sets, then A = B if and only if .

so A 6= B if and only if .

9. If A and B are sets, then x ∈ B\A if and only if .

so x ∈
/ B\A if and only if .

10. Two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if ,

so A and B are not disjoint if and only if ,

3.6 THEOREMS

*Theorem 1. If A is a set, then

1. A ⊆ A
2. A ∪ A = A
3. A ∩ A = A
4. (AC )C = A

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 27

*Theorem 2. If A is a set with no elements, then A = 0.

/

*Theorem 3. If A is a set, then

1. 0/ ⊆ A
2. A ∪ 0/ = A
3. A ∩ 0/ = 0/

*Theorem 4. If A is a set, then

1. A ∪ AC = U
2. A ∩ AC = 0/

*Theorem 5. If A is a set, then

1. A ∪ U = U
2. A ∩ U = A

*Theorem 6.

1. 0/ C = U
2. U C = 0/

*Theorem 7. If A and B are sets, then

1. A ∪ B = B ∪ A
2. A ∩ B = B ∩ A

*Theorem 8. If A and B are sets, then

1. A ∩ B ⊆ A
2. A ⊆ A ∪ B

Note: The preceding theorem also implies that A ∩ B ⊆ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B.

Theorem 9. If A, B, and C are sets such that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

Theorem 10. If A and B are sets, then (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC .

Theorem 11. If A and B are sets, then (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC .

Theorem 12. If A and B are sets, then (A ∪ B)\B = A ∩ BC .

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 28

Theorem 13. If A, B,C and D are sets such that A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D, then
A ∪C ⊆ B ∪ D and A ∩C ⊆ B ∩ D.

Theorem 14. If A, B and C are sets, then

1. A ∪ (B ∪C) = (A ∪ B) ∪C
2. A ∩ (B ∩C) = (A ∩ B) ∩C

Theorem 15. If A, B and C are sets, then

1. A ∪ (B ∩C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪C)
2. A ∩ (B ∪C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩C)

Theorem 16. If A and B are sets, then A ∪ B = A if and only if B ⊆ A.

Theorem 17. If A and B are sets, then A ⊆ B if and only if BC ⊆ AC .

Theorem 18. If A and B are sets, then A ⊆ B if and only if P(A) ⊆ P(B).

Theorem 19. If A, B and C are sets, then A\B ⊆ C if and only if A\C ⊆ B.

3.7 DISPROVING A CONDITIONAL STATEMENT

The statement (∀x)(P(x)) is false when the statement (∃x)(¬P(x)) is true.

One specific example of an x which makes P(x) false is called a coun-
terexample, and giving a counterexample is called disproving the statement
(∀x)(P(x)). Statements whose truth values are unknown are referred to as
conjectures.

3.8 CONJECTURES TO PROVE OR DISPROVE

Conjecture 1. If A and B are sets, then (A\B)C = BC \AC .

Conjecture 2. If A, B and C are sets such that A ∪C ⊆ B ∪C, then A ⊆ B.

Conjecture 3. If A, B and C are sets such that A ∩C ⊆ B ∩C, then A ⊆ B.

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 29

Conjecture 4. If A, B and C are sets, then (A\B) ∪C = A\(B ∪C).

Conjecture 5. If A, B and C are sets, then (AC ∪ B) ∩ (BC ∪C) = AC ∪C.

Conjecture 6. If A, B and C are sets, then (A ∩ BC ) ∩CC =

(A ∩CC )\(B ∩CC ).

3.9 VALID AND INVALID ARGUMENTS

What, if anything, is wrong with each of the following conjectures and/or

proofs?

Conjecture 7. If A, B, and C are sets such that A ⊆ B and B * C, then A * C.

“Proof 1:” Let A = {1, 3, 5, 7}, B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11} and C = {5, 7, 9, 11}.
Then A ⊆ B since every element in A is also in B; but B * C since 1 is in
B, but 1 is not in C. Then we also see that since 1 is in A and not in C, A * C.

“Proof 2:” Let A, B and C be sets such that A ⊆ B and B * C. Let x ∈ A.

Then since A ⊆ B, then x ∈ B also. But since B * C, x ∈
/ C. Thus x ∈ A, but
x∈
/ C. Therefore, A * C.

“Proof 3:” As can be seen by the Venn Diagram on the next page, since
A ⊆ B and B * C, then A * C.

 
Figure 3.4: ”Proof 3.”

Conjecture 8. If A, B, and C are sets, then A ∪ (B ∩ C)C ⊆ (A ∪ BC ) ∩ (A ∪

CC ).

“Proof:” Let A, B, and C be sets. Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)C . Then x ∈ A, or

x ∈ (B ∩C)C . So x ∈ A, or x ∈
/ B ∩C. Then x ∈ A, or x ∈ / B and x ∈
/ C. Thus
x ∈ A, or x ∈ BC and x ∈ CC . So then x ∈ A or x ∈ BC , and x ∈ A or x ∈ CC .
Thus x ∈ A ∪ BC and x ∈ A ∪CC . Hence, x ∈ (A ∪ BC ) ∩ (A ∪CC ), and there-

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SETS AND SET OPERATIONS 30

fore, A ∪ (B ∩C)C ⊆ (A ∪ BC ) ∩ (A ∪CC ).

Conjecture 9. If A, B, and C are sets such that A ⊆ B, then A ∩CC ⊆ B ∩CC .

“Proof:” Let A, B, and C be sets such that A ⊆ B. Let x ∈ A. Since

A ⊆ B, x ∈ B. Let C be any set that does not contain x. Then x ∈/ C. Then
x ∈ CC . Hence x ∈ A and x ∈ CC , so x ∈ A ∩CC . Also x ∈ B and x ∈ CC , so
x ∈ B ∩CC . Consequently, A ∩CC ⊆ B ∩CC .

Conjecture 10. If A and B are sets, then P(A\B) ⊆ P(A)\P(B).

“Proof:” Let A and B be sets. Let {x} ∈ P(A\B). Then {x} ⊆ A\B. So
x ∈ A\B. Hence x ∈ A but x ∈ / B. Then {x} ⊆ A, but {x} * B. So {x} ∈
P(A), but {x} ∈/ P(B). Thus, {x} ∈ P(A)\P(B). Therefore, P(A\B) ⊆
P(A)\P(B).

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Chapter 4

RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE

RELATIONS

4.1 DEFINITIONS DEALING WITH RELATIONS

Definition 12. The Cartesian product of two nonempty sets A and B, de-
noted by A × B, is {(a, b)|a ∈ A and b ∈ B}; a is called the first component
of (a, b), and b is called the second component of (a, b).

Definition 13. A relation R from A to B is a nonempty subset of A × B. A

relation R which is a subset of A × A is called a relation on A.

Notation. If (a, b) ∈ R, then we write aRb, and read that as “a is related to

b.”

Definition 14. If R ⊆ A × B, the domain of R is the set dom(R) = {x ∈

A|(x, y) ∈ R for some y ∈ B} and the range of R is the set range(R) =
{y ∈ B|(x, y) ∈ R for some x ∈ A}.

Notation.
The set of all real numbers is denoted by R, the set R\{0} of non-
zero real numbers is denoted by R∗ , and the Cartesian product R × R
is denoted by R2 . The set of all positive real numbers is denoted by R+ .

The set of all rational numbers is denoted by Q, the set Q\{0} of

non-zero rational numbers is denoted by Q∗ , and the set of all positive
rational numbers is denoted by Q+ .
The set of all integers is denoted by Z, the set Z\{0} of non-zero
integers is denoted by Z∗ , and the set of all positive integers is denoted
by Z+ .

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RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 32

The set of all natural numbers is denoted by N. This is the same set
as the set Z+ .
The set of all complex numbers is denoted by C, and the set of all
non-zero complex numbers is denoted by C∗ .

Exercise 8.

Find the domain and range of the given relations.

1. {(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6), (7, 8), (9, 10)} 2. {(−1, (p, q)), (−2, (r, s)), (−3, (t, u))}
3. R×Z 4. Q × N
5. {(x, y) ∈ R2 |x, y ∈ [0, 1] and x > y} 6. {(x, y) ∈ R2 |y = 5x + 2}
7. {(x, y) ∈ R2 |y = √ |x|} 8. {(x, y) ∈ R2 |x2 + y2 = 1}
9. 2
{(x, y) ∈ R |y ≤ x, x ≥ 0} 10. {((a, b), a + b)|a, b ∈ Z}

4.2 EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

Definition 15. A relation R on a non-empty set A is an equivalence rela-

tion on A if and only if the following 3 conditions are satisfied:

i. if a ∈ A, then aRa. (reflexive property)

ii. if aRb, then bRa. (symmetric property)
iii. if aRb and bRc, then aRc. (transitive property).

An equivalence relation will be denoted by ∼ rather than by R.

Definition 16. If ∼ is an equivalence relation on the set A and a ∈ A, then

the equivalence class of a for ∼ is the set [a] = {x ∈ A|x ∼ a}.

Definition 17. If A is a non-empty set, a partition of A is a collection C of

non-empty subsets of A such that

i. every element of A is an element of some subset of A that belongs to

C, and
ii. if S1 and S2 are two elements of C, then S1 ∩ S2 = 0.
/

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RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 33

EXAMPLE: Either prove that the following relation is an equivalence rela-

tion on the given set, or prove that it is not; in either case, test all 3 conditions
required for a relation to be an equivalence relation.

Let aRb on Z if and only if a + n = b for some integer n ≥ 0.

Give examples of pairs (a, b) such that a is related to b: ( , ), ( , ),

( , ).
Give examples of pairs (a, b) such that a is not related to b: ( , ),
( , ), ( , ).

i. Reflexive property: Let . Then a + = .

is an integer greater than or equal to 0. Therefore .
So R reflexive.
ii. Symmetric property: Let a = 3 and b = 10. Then 3 + 7 = 10 and 7 is
an integer greater than or equal to 0, thus 3R10.
But suppose 10R3. Then there is a non-negative integer n such
that . Then n = , but an
integer greater than or equal to 0. Therefore, , so
R symmetric.
iii. Transitive property: Let .
Then because aRb, ,
and because , .
So
is an integer greater than or equal to 0.
Therefore, , so R transitive.
Hence R an equivalence relation on Z.

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RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 34

Exercise 9.

A. In problems 1-14, be able to find 3 pairs of elements in the set which

are related to each other, and show why they are related. Be able to
find 3 pairs of elements in the set which are not related to each other,
and show why they are not related.
B. Either prove that the following relations are equivalence relations on
the given sets, or find a counterexample. Test all 3 conditions required
for a relation to be an equivalence relation. If the relation is an equiv-
alence relation, can you describe some of the equivalence classes?
1. Let aRb on Z if and only if there is an integer k such that b = ak.
2. Let aRb on Z iff gcd(a, b) = 1. (Note: gcd(a, b) stands for the
greatest common divisor of a and b.)
3. Let aRb on Z iff a = b(2k ) for some k ∈ Z.
4. Let aRb on Z iff a = 5m − b for some integer m.
5. Let aRb on Q+ iff a = bk for some k ∈ Q.
6. Let aRb on R iff a − 1 ≤ b ≤ a + 1.
7. Let aRb on R iff a = kb for some k ∈ Q∗ .
Prove that the following relations are equivalence relations on the given
sets, and describe some of the equivalence classes. In the case that
there are only finitely many such classes, describe all of them.
8. Let a ∼ b on Q iff a − b = m for some integer m.
9. Let a ∼ b on Z iff |a| = |b|.
10. Let a ∼ b on Z iff (a − b) = 7k for some integer k. (This relation
is known as congruence modulo 7, and instead of writing a ∼ b,
we would write a ≡ b(mod7)).
11. Let (a, b) ∼ (c, d) on N2 iff a + d = b + c.
12. Let (a, b) ∼ (c, d) on Z × Z∗ iff ad = bc.
13. Let (a, b) ∼ (c, d) on R2 iff a2 + b = c2 + d.
14. Let (a, b, c) ∼ (d, e, f ) on R3 = R × R × R iff 2a + 7b − 3c = 2d +
7e − 3 f .

4.3 THEOREMS ABOUT EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS

Theorem 20. If ∼ is an equivalence relation on a set A and a ∼ b, then

[a] = [b].

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RELATIONS AND EQUIVALENCE RELATIONS 35

Theorem 21. If ∼ is an equivalence relation on a set A, then the collection

of all equivalence classes of A for ∼ is a partition of A, and if P is a partition
of A, then there is an equivalence relation on A for which P is the collection
of all its equivalence classes.

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Chapter 5

MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS

5.1 DEFINITIONS, NOTES, AND COMMENTS

Definition 18. If A and B are two non-empty sets, a mapping f (function,

map) from A to B is a subset of A × B such that if a ∈ A, there is exactly
one ordered pair in f having a as its first component. If A and B are sets
of numbers, then we usually use the word “function” instead of the word
“mapping.”

Notation. “The mapping f from set A to set B” and “ f is a mapping from

set A to set B” are both denoted by “ f : A → B.”

Definition 19. If (a, b) is an ordered pair in f , then b is denoted by f (a) and

is called the image of a under f while a is called a pre-image of b.

Definition 20. The set A is called the domain of f , and the set B is called
the co-domain of f . The range of f (or image of A under f ) is the set
f (A) = {b ∈ B|b = f (a) for some a in A}.

Definition 21. If C ⊆ A, then the image of C under f is the set f (C) = {b ∈

B|b = f (a) for some a in C}, while if D ⊆ B, the pre-image of D is the set
f −1 (D) = {a ∈ A| f (a) = d for some d in D}.

Definition 22. If b ∈ B, then f −1 ({b}) is called the fiber of f over b.

Definition 23. If C ⊆ A and f : A → B, then the restriction of f to C will

be denoted by f |c .

EXAMPLES
a. Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 2x2 − 5x − 1 for all x in R. Then

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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 37

what is
i. the image of 5?
ii. a pre-image of 5?
iii. the fiber of f over 5?
iv. the range of f ?
v. f (C) where C = (−1, 1)?
vi. f −1 ([−1, 1])?

b. Let g : R → R be defined by g(x) = 7 − 3x − x2 for all x in R. Then

what is
i. the image of −4?
ii. a pre-image of −4?
iii. the fiber of g over −4?
iv. the range of g?
v. g(C) where C = (−3, 2)?
vi. g−1 ([−5, 7])?

c. Let h : R2 → R be defined by h(x, y) = x + y for all (x, y) in R2 . Then

what is
i. the image of (1, 2)?
ii. a pre-image of 7?
iii. the fiber of h over −4?
iv. the range of h?
v. h(C) where C = {(x, y)|x2 + y2 = 1}?
√ √
vi. h−1 ([− 2, 2])?

Definition 24. If f : A → B and g : A → B, then f = g if and only if for all

a ∈ A, f (a) = g(a).

Definition 25. If f : A → B and g : B → C, then the composite map g ◦ f :

A → C is defined by g ◦ f (a) = g( f (a)) for all a ∈ A.

Definition 26. A function f : A → B is one-to-one (1-to-1, 1-1, injective, an

injection) means that if x1 and x2 are elements of A such that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ),
then x1 = x2 (or, by the contrapositive, if x1 and x2 are elements of A such

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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 38

that x1 6= x2 , then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )).

Definition 27. A function f : A → B is onto (surjective, a surjection) if and

only if every element in B is the image of some element in A (i.e., f (A) = B).

Definition 28. A function f : A → B is a bijection if and only if f is both

one-to-one and onto. (In this case, f is sometimes referred to as a one-to-
one correspondence.)

Definition 29. Two sets A and B have the same cardinality if and only if
there is a bijection from A to B. Sets which have the same cardinality are
often referred to as being equally numerous.

5.2 DENIALS

1. A function f : A → B is not one-to-one means that

.
2. A function f : A → B is not onto if and only if .
.

EXAMPLES: Determine if the given function is one-to-one, onto, both, or

neither, and prove your answers are correct.

1. Let α : R → R where α(x) = 5 − 2x − 2x2 for all x in R.

1 - 1: Let α(x) = 5. Then
so x = . Then α(0) = 5 − 0 − 0 = 5, and α( )=
, so α(0) = α( ), but 0 .
Therefore α one-to-one.

Onto: is an element of R. Suppose α is onto. Then there

is such
that . Then

, so x = or x = .
But .

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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 39

Therefore α onto.

5 − 2x
2. Let β : R → R where β (x) = for all x in R.
3
1 - 1: Let β (x1 ) = β (x2 ). Then
so ,
and , then .
Therefore β one-to-one.

Onto: Let . Suppose β is onto. Then there is such that

. Then

, so x = .
Now is in R because ,
and β ( )= .
Therefore β onto.

Exercise 10.
For each of the mappings given in problems 1) through 23), be able to show
the following: 3 things in the domain of the mapping, 3 things not in the
domain of the mapping, and 3 ordered pairs that belong to the mapping.
Then determine if the mapping is one-to-one, onto, both, or neither.

1. ψ : Z → Z where ψ(x) = 2x − 1 for all x in Z.

2. ω : Q → Q where ω(x) = 3x + 5 for all x in Q.
3x − 5
3. τ : R → R where τ(x) = for all x in R.
4
8x 5
4. φ : Q → Q where φ (x) = + for all x in Q.
3 2
x−3
5. π : R∗ → R where π(x) = for all x in R∗ .
x
6. α : R → R where α(x) = x2 − 2x − 1 for all x in R.
7. ω : R → R+ ∪ {0} where ω(x) = x2 − 4x + 4 for all x in R.
8. α : [−2, ∞) → [−7, ∞) where α(x) = x2 + 4x − 3 for all x in [−2, ∞).
2x + 1
9. ϑ : R \ {3} → R where ϑ (x) = for all x in R \ {3}.
3−x
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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 40

2x
10. η : R \ {2} → R \ {2} where η(x) = for all x in R \ {2}.
x−2
3x − 5
11. ν : R \ { −7 3
2 } → R \ { 2 } where ν(x) = for all x in R \ { −7
2 }.
2x + 7
5
12. σ : R \ {−2} → R∗ where σ (x) = for all x in R \ {−2}.
x+2
m
13. γ : Z × Z∗ → Q where γ(m, n) = for all (m, n) in Z × Z∗ .
n
14. λ : Z × Z → Z where λ (m, n) = 3m + 2n for all (m, n) in Z × Z.
15. µ : Z × Z → Z where µ(m, n) = 4m + 2n for all (m, n) in Z × Z.
16. δ : R → R2 where δ (x) = (x + 1, x − 1) for all x in R.
x+y
17. σ : R2 → R where σ (x, y) = for all (x, y) in R2 .
2
18. κ : Z × Z → Z × Z where κ(m.n) = (2m, n − m) for all (m, n) in Z × Z.

2 − x if x ≤ 1
19. β : R → R where, for all x in R, β (x) = 1 .
 if x > 1
x

 6x + 1 if x 6= 1
20. λ : R → R where, for all x in R, λ (x) = 3x − 3 .
2 if x = 1
(
n + 1 if n is even
21. η : Z → Z, where for all n in Z, η(n) = .
n − 1 if n is odd
(
2x if x is rational
22. φ : R → R, where for all x in R, φ (x) = .
x if x is irrational
(
2x if x is an integer
23. ψ : R → R, where for all x in R, ψ(x) = .
3x otherwise
24. Let A and B be non-empty sets and f : A → B be an onto map. Prove
that the relation ∼ defined by a ∼ b iff f (a) = f (b) is an equivalence
relation on A. Can you describe some of the equivalence classes?
25. Let F (R) = f | f : R → R and let f ∼ g in F (R) if and only if

f (0) = g(0). Prove that the relation ∼ just defined is an equivalence
relation on F (R). Can you describe some of the equivalence classes?

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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 41

5.3 A THEOREM ABOUT FUNCTIONS

Theorem 22. Let f : A → B, g : B → C and h : C → D. Then

1. (h ◦ g) ◦ f = h ◦ (g ◦ f ),
2. if f and g are one-to-one, then g ◦ f is one-to-one,
3. if f and g are onto, then g ◦ f is onto,
4. if f and g are bijections, then g ◦ f is a bijection, and
5. if f is a bijection and f −1 : B → A defined by f −1 (b) = a where (a, b)
is an element of f , then f −1 is also a bijection.

5.4 BINARY OPERATIONS

Definition 30. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is a mapping from S × S to

S. Instead of writing ∗(s,t) = u, we write s ∗ t = u.

Definition 31. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is commutative if and only if

s ∗ t = t ∗ s for every s and t in S.

Definition 32. A binary operation ∗ on a set S is associative if and only if

(s ∗ t) ∗ u = s ∗ (t ∗ u) for every s, t and u in S.

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MAPPINGS AND BIJECTIONS 42

Exercise 11.

Do the following definitions for ∗ yield binary operations on the given sets?

1. on N, a ∗ b = a − b.
2. on Q, a ∗ b = a/b.
3. on R+ , a ∗ b = ab.
4. on R+ , a ∗ b = a ln b.

Are the following binary operations commutative or associative, both, or

neither? For each operation, select 2 elements in the set and carry out the
operation.

5. on Z, a ∗ b = a − b.
6. on R, a ∗ b = a + b + ab.
a+b
7. on Q, a ∗ b = .
2
8. on N2 , (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac + bd, ad + bc).
9. on Z × Z∗ , (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ad + bc, bd).
10. on R∗ × R, (a, b) ∗ (c, d) = (ac, bc + d).
11. on R3 , (a, b, c) ∗ (d, e, f ) = (b f − ce, cd − a f , ae − bd).
/ A, B, U }, where A = {a}, B = {b}, U = {a, b}, and C ∗D =
12. on G = {0,
C ∪ D.
/ A, B, U }, where A = {a}, B = {b}, U = {a, b}, and C ∗D =
13. on G = {0,
C ∩ DC .
14. on M(2, Z) of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries and A ∗ B = A + B
(i.e., matrix addition).
15. on M(2, Z) of 2 × 2 matrices with integer entries and A ∗ B = A · B (i.e.,
matrix multiplication).
16. on B, f ∗ g = f ◦ g, where B denotes the collection of all bijections
from S to S, and S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
17. on S, the set of equivalence classes modulo 7, [a] ∗ [b] = [a + b]. ( See
exercise 9, problem 10.)

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Chapter 6

THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS

6.1 AXIOMS AND DEFINITIONS

Axiom R-I. Let R be a set whose elements will be called real numbers. The
relation = is an equivalence relation on R, and there are 2 binary operations,
+ and ·, on R such that

1. If each of a and b is a real number, then a + b is a real number and ab

is a real number.
2. a + b = b + a and ab = ba for all real numbers a and b.
3. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (ab)c = a(bc) for all real numbers a, b
and c.
4. There is a real number 0 such that a+0 = 0+a = a for all real numbers
a.
5. If a is a real number, there is a real number − a, known as the opposite
of a, such that a +− a =− a + a = 0.
6. a(b + c) = ab + ac and (b + c)a = ba + ca for all real numbers a, b,
and c.
7. There is a real number 1, different from 0, such that 1 · a = a · 1 = a for
every real number a.
8. If a is a real number not 0, there is a real number 1a , known as the re-
ciprocal of a, such that a · 1a = 1a · a = 1.

Note that if given the equation x = b, with the reflexive property of equal-
ity we can say x + a = x + a, and then using the principle of substitution,
we can get x + a = b + a. But instead of doing both, we will go directly
from x = b to x + a = b + a, and just list substitution as the reason, but at

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 44

the same time not forgetting that the reflexive property of = was also needed.

Likewise we will go from x = b directly to ax = ab, and just give the reason
as being substitution.

6.2 THEOREMS

Theorem 1. If a is a real number and x is a real number such that a + x = a

or x + a = a, then x = 0.

Theorem 2. If a is a real number and x is a real number such that a + x = 0

or x + a = 0, then x =− a.

Theorem 3. If a is a real number, then − (− a) = a.

Theorem 4. − 0 = 0

Theorem 5. If each of a, b and c is a real number such that a + b = a + c,

then b = c.

Theorem 6. If each of a and b is real number, there is a one and only one
real number x such that x + a = b.

Theorem 7. If a is a real number not 0 and x is a real number such that

ax = a, then x = 1.

Theorem 8. If a is a real number not 0 and x is a real number such that

ax = 1, then x = 1a .

Theorem 9. If each of a, b and c is a real number such that a 6= 0 and

ab = ac, then b = c.

Theorem 10. If a is any real number, then a · 0 = 0 · a = 0.

Theorem 11. If each of a and b is real number such that ab = 0, then a = 0

or b = 0.

Theorem 12. If each of a and b is a real number such that a 6= 0, then there

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 45

is a one and only one real number x such that ax = b.

Theorem 13. If a is a real number, then (− 1)a =− a.

Corollary 14. If each of a and b is a real number, then

1) − (a + b) =− a +− b.
2) (− a)b = a(− b) =− (ab).
3) (− a)(− b) = ab.

b 1 1
Definition 1. If a is a not zero, we define = b · = · b. In particular,
a a a
then a
a = a · 1a = 1.

Lemma 15. If each of b and d is a real number such that b 6= 0 and d 6= 0,

1 1 1
then · = .
b d bd
Theorem 16. If each of a, b, c and d is a real number such that b 6= 0 and
a c ac a c ad + cb
d 6= 0, then · = and + = .
b d bd b d bd
Theorem 17. If each of a and b is a real number such that b 6= 0, then
  −a −a
− a a a
= = − , and − = .
b b b b b
Theorem 18. If each of a, b, and c is a real number such that a 6= 0 and
ab b
c 6= 0, then = .
ac c

Definition 2. We define a − b = a +− b.

6.3 THE ORDER AXIOM AND MORE DEFINiTIONS

Axiom R-II. There is a subset P of the set R of real numbers such that

1. if each of a and b is an element of P, then a + b is an element of P and

ab is an element of P, and

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 46

2. if x is a real number, one and only one of the following three statements
is true:
a. x is in P.
b. −x is in P.
c. x = 0.

Definition 3. If each of a and b is a real number, then a < b means that

there is an element p of P such that a + p = b.

Definition 4. Also b > a means a < b.

6.4 ORDER THEOREMS

Theorem 19. − 1 is not in P, and 1 is in P,

Prove Theorems 20 through 25 using the definition of “ <”.

Theorem 20. If each of a and b is a real number, then just one of the fol-
lowing is true: a = b, a < b, or b < a.

Theorem 21. If a is a real number, then a is in P if and only if a > 0. In

particular, 1 > 0.

Theorem 22. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that a < b and b < c, then
a < c.

Theorem 23. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that a < b, then
a + c < b + c.

Theorem 24. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that a < b and c > 0, then
ac < bc.

Theorem 25. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that a < b and c < 0, then
bc < ac. (or ac > bc.)

Now after Theorem 25, do not use the definition of “ <” anymore. Instead
use Theorems 19 through 25 as needed, assuming that you know that the

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 47

hypothesis of the theorem being used is true in the theorem being proved.
Also, after this point, it won’t be necessary to show every step you make
using parts of Axiom I or Theorems 1 - 18. Just use the term “simplifying”
as the reason instead of specifying which parts of Axiom I or which of those
theorems you actually used.

Theorem 26. If a, b, c, and d are real numbers such that a < b and c < d,
then a + c < b + d.

Theorem 27. If a and b are real numbers such that a < b, then − b <− a; if
a < 0, then − a > 0; and if a > 0, then − a < 0. In particular, then − 1 < 0.

Corollary 28.1. If x and y are real numbers such that x > 0 and y > 0, or
x < 0 and y < 0, then xy > 0.

Corollary 28.2. If x and y are real numbers such that x > 0 and y < 0, or
x < 0 and y > 0, then xy < 0.

Corollary 28.3. If x is a real number not 0, then xx > 0 (i.e., x2 > 0).

1
Theorem 29. If a is a positive number, then a + ≥ 2.
a
1
Theorem 30. If a is a real number, then if a > 0, then > 0, and if a < 0,
a
1
then < 0.
a
Theorem 31. If x and y are real numbers such that xy > 0, then either x > 0
and y > 0, or x < 0 and y < 0.

Theorem 32. If x and y are real numbers such that xy < 0, then either x < 0
and y > 0, or x > 0 and y < 0.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 48

Theorem 33. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that ac < bc and c > 0,
then a < b.

Theorem 34. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that ac < bc and c < 0,
then a > b.

Definition 5. If a and b are real numbers such that a < b, then c is between
a and b if and only if a < c and c < b. This is also denoted by a < c < b.

Theorem 35. If a and b are real numbers such that a < b, then
a+b
a< < b.
2
1 1
Theorem 36. If a and b are real numbers such that 0 < a < b, then > .
a b
Theorem 37. If a, b, and c are real numbers such that a > 0 and b ≥ 1, then
a
c − ≥ c − a.
b

6.5 THE NATURAL NUMBERS AND THE LEAST NAT-

URAL NUMBER AXIOM

Definition 6. A non-empty set S contains a smallest element if and only if

there is an element s in S such that for every element x in S s < x.

Definition 7. A non-empty set S contains a largest element if and only if

there is an element g in S such that for every element x in S x < g.

Axiom R-III. There is a subset N of P, known as the set of natural numbers,

such that

1. 1 is an element of N.
2. if n is an element of N, then n + 1 is an element of N, and if n is greater
than 1, then n − 1 is also an element of N.
3. if m and n are elements of N, then m + n ∈ N and mn ∈ N.
4. if n is an element of N, then n ≥ 1.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 49

5. (The Least Natural Number Axiom) every non-empty subset of N con-

tains a smallest element.

Theorem 38. If n is an element of N, then there is no element k of N such

that n < k < n + 1.

Definition 8. The real number a is an integer if and only if either a is in N

(thus, being called a positive integer), a is 0, or − a is in N.

Definition 9. If a and b are integers such that b 6= 0, b divides a if and only

if there is an integer k such that a = bk.

Definition 10. A positive integer n is prime if and only if it has exactly 2

positive divisors.

EXAMPLES:
1 is not a prime because .
2 is a prime because .
9 is not a prime because .
12 is not a prime because .

Definition 11. A positive integer n is called composite if it has more than 2

positive divisors. Then it has a divisor different from n and 1.

6.6 THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHEMATICAL IN-

DUCTION

Theorem 39. (The First Principle of Mathematical Induction) If S is a sub-

set of N such that
i.) 1 is in S and ii.) if k is in S, then k + 1 is in S,
then S = N.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 50

Exercise 12.

Prove each of the following by the First Principle of Mathematical Induc-

tion.
n(n + 1)
1. If n is a natural number, then 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + · · · + n = .
2
2. If n is a natural number, then 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + · · · + (2n − 1) = n2 .
n(3n + 1)
3. If n is a natural number, then 2+5+8+11+· · ·+(3n−1) = .
2
4. If n is a natural number, then 3 + 11 + 19 + · · · + (8n − 5) = 4n2 − n.
[(−1)n (2n + 1) − 1]
5. If n is a natural number, then −1+2−3+4−· · ·+(−1)n n = .
4
n(n + 1) n(n + 1)(n + 2)
6. If n is a natural number, then 1+3+6+10+· · ·+ = .
2 6
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
7. If n is a natural number, then 12 +22 +32 +42 +· · ·+n2 = .
6
n2 (n + 1)2
8. If n is a natural number, then 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + · · · + n3 = .
4
9. If n is a natural number, then 13 + 33 + 53 + 73 + · · · + (2n − 1)3 =
n2 (2n2 − 1).
1 1 1 1 1
10. If n is a natural number, then 1 + + 2 + 3 + · · · + n−1 = 2 − n−1 .
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
11. If n is a natural number, then + + + +· · ·+ =
1(2) 2(3) 3(4) 4(5) n(n + 1)
n
.
n+1
12. Let x and y be real numbers such that 0 < x < y. Then if n is a natural
number, then 0 < xn < yn .
13. If n is a natural number, then 3 divides 5n − 2n . (Use the definition of
divides given in Section 6.5.)
14. If n is a natural number, then 5 divides 8n − 3n .
15. If n is a natural number, then 7 divides 11n − 4n .
16. If n is a natural number, then 2 divides 3n − 1.
17. If n is a natural number and x and y are different integers, then (x − y)
divides xn − yn .

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 51

18. Let x and a be real numbers. Then
for every natural number n,

xn+1 − an+1 = (x − a) Σni=0 xn−i ai .
n
n n+1 n
(Note: t · ∑ f (i) = ∑ (t · f (i)) and ∑ f (i) = ∑ f (i) + f (n + 1).)
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1

What, if anything, is wrong with the following three conjectures and/or

”proofs?”

20. Conjecture A. If n is a natural number, then n2 + n + 41 is prime.

“Proof:” Let n = 1.Then n2 + n + 41 = 12 + 1 + 41 = 43, which is prime.

Let n = 2.Then n2 + n + 41 = 22 + 2 + 41 = 47, which is prime.
Let n = 3.Then n2 + n + 41 = 32 + 3 + 41 = 53, which is prime.
Let n = 4.Then n2 + n + 41 = 42 + 4 + 41 = 61, which is prime.
Let n = 5.Then n2 + n + 41 = 52 + 5 + 41 = 71, which is prime.
Let n = 6.Then n2 + n + 41 = 62 + 6 + 41 = 83, which is prime.
Let n = 7.Then n2 + n + 41 = 72 + 7 + 41 = 97, which is prime.
Let n = 20.Then n2 + n + 41 = 202 + 20 + 41 = 461, which is prime.
Let n = 35.Then n2 + n + 41 = 352 + 35 + 41 = 1301, which is prime.
Let n = 42.Then n2 + n + 41 = 422 + 42 + 41 = 1847, which is prime.
Let n = 51.Then n2 + n + 41 = 512 + 51 + 41 = 2693, which is prime.
Let n = 100.Then n2 + n + 41 = 1002 + 100 + 41 = 10141, which is
prime.
Therefore if n is a natural number, then n2 + n + 41 is prime.

21. Conjecture B. If n is a natural number, then

(2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2 · n + 1) = n2 + 2n + 1.

“Proof:” Let S = {n ∈ N|(2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2 · n + 1)

= n2 + 2n + 1}.
Let k be an element of S. Then
(2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2 · k + 1) = k2 + 2k + 1.
So then
[(2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2 · k + 1)] + (2(k + 1) + 1)
= [k2 + 2k + 1] + (2(k + 1) + 1).
So (2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2(k + 1))
= (k + 1)2 + 2(k + 1) + 1.
Therefore k + 1 is in S. So S = N, and therefore, for every natural
number n, (2 · 1 + 1) + (2 · 2 + 1) + (2 · 3 + 1) + · · · + (2 · n + 1)
= n2 + 2n + 1.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 52

22. Conjecture C. All people are the same height.

“Proof:” Let S = {n ∈ N| for every set A of n people, all the people in set A
are the same height}.
Let n = 1. Let A be a set containing 1 person. Then all the people in set A
are the same height.
Now let k be an element of set S. Then for every set of k people, all the
people in the set are the same height.
Now let A be a set containing k + 1 people. Let p be a person in set A.
Now the set A\{p} is a set containing k people.
Since k is in S, all the people in the set A\{p} are the same height.
Now let q be a person in set A different from p. The set A\{q} is
a set of k people and all of the people in this set are the same height.
The set A\{p} and the set A\{q} have k − 1 people in common
and they are all the same height as both p and q. So p and q are the same
height. Therefore all the people in set A are the same height.
Hence k + 1 is in S, and therefore S = N ,
Therefore for any n, a set of n people are all the same height.

6.7 THE EXTENDED FIRST PRINCIPLE OF MATHE-

MATICAL INDUCTION

Theorem 40. Let m ∈ N. If S is a subset of N such that

i.) m is in S, and
ii.) if k ≥ m and k ∈ S, then k + 1 ∈ S,

then S = {n ∈ N|n ≥ m}.

Exercise 13.

Prove each of the following by the Extended First Principle of Mathematical

Induction.

1. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 6, then (n + 1)2 ≤ 2n .

2. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 2, then 1 + 2n < 3n .
1
3. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 3, then (1 + )n < n.
n
4. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 5, then n = 2k + 3m for some
whole numbers k and m.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 53

5. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 4, then n! > 2n .

6. If x is a real number such that x > −1, then if n is a natural number,
then (1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx.
1 1 1 1
7. If n is a natural number such that n ≥ 2, then √ + √ + √ + √ +
1 2 3 4
1 √
···+ √ > n
n

6.8 THE SECOND PRINCIPLES OF MATHEMATICAL

INDUCTION

Theorem 41. If S is a subset of N such that

i.) 1 is in S, and
ii.) if for every k in N such that {1, 2, 3, . . . , k} ⊆ S, then k + 1 is in S

then S = N.

Theorem 42. If m is a natural number and S is a subset of N such that

i.) m is in S, and
ii.) if for every k in N such that k ≥ m and {m, m + 1, m + 2, m + 3, . . . , k} ⊆
S, then k + 1 is in S,

then S = {n ∈ N|n ≥ m}.

Theorem 43. (the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) Every natural num-

ber greater than 1 is either prime or the product of primes.

6.9 RATIONAL NUMBERS

Definition 12. The real number a is a rational number if and only if there
p
are integers p and q with q 6= 0 such that a = .
q
Definition 13. If a and b are integers, the greatest common devisor of a
and b is a positive integer d such that

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 54

i.) d divides a and d divides b, and

ii.) if c divides a and c divides b, then c ≤ d.

Theorem 44. If d is the greatest common divisor of a and b, and a = dk and

b = dm, then the greatest common divisor of k and m is 1.

m
Definition 14. If m and n are integers, and gcd(m, n) = 1, then is said to
n
be in lowest terms.

Theorem 45. Every rational number can be put in lowest terms.

Definition 15. If x is a real number, x1 = x, and if n ≥ 1, then xn+1 = xn · x.

2
√ If x is a positive real number such that x = n, then x will be
Definition 16.
denoted by n.

Theorem 46. There is no rational number x such that x2 = 2.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 55

√
So now we know√ that 2 is not a rational number. But is there really a num-
ber which is 2? Well, by the Pythagorean Theorem, we know that a right √
triangle both of whose legs have length 1 has a hypotenuse with length 2,
so we do want such a number to exist and be “real”. However, the problem
is that the set Q of rational numbers also satisfies all three of the axioms
for real numbers that we have so far. This means that we need another ax-
iom which will help us fill in the “holes” in the real number line. There are
a couple of ways to do this, but the one most often used is known as the
Completeness Axiom. Another way is to use the Dedekind Cut Axiom. If
one assumes one of these two axioms, then the other one can be proved as a
theorem.

Consider the following two sequences of numbers.

{an } = {1, 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.41421, . . . } and
{bn } = {2, 1.5, 1.42, 1.415, 1.4143, 1.41422, . . . }

Note that every element in {an } is smaller than every element in {bn }. Also
1
note that an − bn = n−1 . Is there a rational number between all the ele-
10
ments of {an } and all the elements of {bn }? Any number at all?

6.10 THE COMPLETENESS AXIOM

Definition 17. The real number M is an upper bound of a nonempty set S

of real numbers provided that if x ∈ S, then x ≤ M. When a nonempty set S
has an upper bound, it is said to be bounded above.

Definition 18. The real number L is a least upper bound of a nonempty set
S of real numbers if and only if

i.) L is an upper bound of S and

ii.) if M is an upper bound of S, then L ≤ M.

(What is the contrapositive of the statement in Definition 16, part ii?)

Definition 19. The real number M is a lower bound of a nonempty set S

of real numbers provided that if x ∈ S, then x ≥ M. When a nonempty set S
has a lower bound, it is said to be bounded below.

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Definition 20. The real number L is a greatest lower bound of a nonempty

set S of real numbers if and only if
i.) L is a lower bound of S, and
ii.) if M is a lower bound of S, then M ≤ L.

Definition 21. A nonempty set S of real numbers is said to be bounded

when it has both an upper bound and a lower bound.

Axiom R-IV. (The Completeness Axiom) If S is a nonempty set of real

numbers which has an upper bound, then S has a least upper bound.

Exercise 14.
Define each of the following.
1. The real number M is NOT an upper bound of a nonempty set S of
real numbers means that .
.

2. The real number L is NOT a least upper bound of a nonempty set S

of real numbers means that .
.
.

3. The real number M is NOT a lower bound of a nonempty set S of real

numbers means that .
.

4. The real number L is NOT a greatest lower bound of a nonempty set

S of real numbers means that .
.
.

5. A nonempty set S of real numbers is NOT bounded means that .

.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 57

6.11 THEOREMS

Theorem 47. The set N of natural numbers has no upper bound.

Exercise 15.
Prove each of the following statements.
n2 − 2
 
1. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
n
upper bound.
n2 − 3
 
2. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
n
upper bound.
n2 − 4
 
3. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
2n
upper bound.
n2 − 9
 
4. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
4n
upper bound.
n2 − 10
 
5. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
3n
upper bound.
2n2 − 7
 
6. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
3n
upper bound.
3n2 − 9
 
7. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
5n
upper bound.
7n2 − 1
 
8. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
3n
upper bound.
5n2 − 3
 
9. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
2n
upper bound.
5n2 − 7
 
10. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then S has no
10n
upper bound.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 58

Theorem 48. If a > 0, then there is a natural number n such that an > 1.

Theorem 49. If 0 < a < b, then there is a natural number n such that an > b.

1
Theorem 50. If ε > 0, then there is a natural number n such that < ε.
n
Theorem 51. If each of B and L is a least upper bound of the nonempty set
S of real numbers, then B = L.

Lemma 52. If B is the least upper bound of the nonempty set S of real num-
bers and ε > 0, then B − ε is not an upper bound of S.

Theorem 53. If the real number B is an upper bound of the nonempty set S
of real numbers, then B is the least upper bound of S if and only if for every
positive number ε there is an x in S such that x > B − ε.

Exercise 16.
 
2n − 9
1. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then 1 is the
2n
least upper bound of S.
 
2n
2. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then 2 is the
n+1
least upper bound of S.
 
n 1
3. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
2n + 1 2
least upper bound of S.
 
n−1
4. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then 1 is the
n+8
least upper bound of S.
 
5n − 1 5
5. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
2n 2
least upper bound of S.
 
n 1
6. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
3n + 1 3
least upper bound of S.
 
2n 1
7. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
4n + 2 2
least upper bound of S.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 59

 
4n 4
8. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
3n + 5 3
least upper bound of S.
 
3n − 5 3
9. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then is the
2n + 1 2
least upper bound of S.
 
7n − 4
10. If S = x ∈ R|x = for some natural number n , then 7 is the
n+2
least upper bound of S.

Lemma 54. If L is a positive real number such that L2 > 2, then there is a
1
natural number n such that 2 < (L − )2 < L2 .
n
Lemma 55. If L is a positive real number such that L ≥ 1 and L2 < 2, then
1
there is a natural number n such that L2 < (L + )2 < 2.
n
Theorem 56. There is a real number x such that x2 = 2.
√
2
Theorem 57. If ε > 0, then there is a natural number n such that < ε.
n
Theorem 58. If 0 < a < b and b − a > 1, then there is a natural number n
such that a < n < b.

Theorem 59. If 0 < a < b and ε > 0 such that b − a > ε, there is a natural
number m such that a < mε < b.

Theorem 60. If 0 < a < b, then there is a rational number between a and b.

Theorem 61. If 0 < a < b, then there is an irrational number between

a and b.

Theorem 62. If S is a nonempty set of real numbers which has a lower

bound, then S has a greatest lower bound.

Theorem 63. If S1 and S2 are two nonempty disjoint sets of real numbers
such that

i.) S1 ∪ S2 = R,

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 60

ii.) if x is an element of S1 , then x < y for every y in S2 ,

then there is a number L which is either the largest element in S1 or the

smallest element in S2 . (This statement is also known as the Dedekind Cut
Axiom)

Definition 22. The set I is called a closed interval if and only if there
are 2 distinct real numbers a and b such that I = {x ∈ R|x = a, x = b, or
a < x < b}. I is also denoted by [a, b], and a and b are called the endpoints
of I.

Theorem 64. If I1 , I2 , I3 , I4 , . . . is an infinite sequence of closed intervals

such that if n is a natural number, then In+1 ⊆ In , then there is a number s
which belongs to every interval in the sequence.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 61

OTHER FORMS FOR A CONDITIONAL OR BICONDI-

TIONAL STATEMENT

Other ways of saying “If p, then q” are:

p implies q when p, then q

q if p q whenever p
p only if q p is sufficient for q
q is necessary for p for q, p is sufficient
for p, q is necessary

Another way of saying “p if and only if q” is “p is necessary and sufficient

for q.”
For example, all of the following statements are equivalent:

If a polygon is a triangle, then it has 3 sides.

A polygon has three sides whenever it is a triangle.
A polygon is a triangle only if it has 3 sides.
A polygon has 3 sides if it is a triangle.
That a polygon is a triangle implies that it has 3 sides.
When a polygon is a triangle, then it has 3 sides.
For a polygon to be a triangle, it is necessary that it have 3 sides.
For a polygon to have 3 sides, it is sufficient that it be a triangle.

Exercise 17.

Write each of the following conditional statements in the “if p, then q” form;
then underline the hypothesis once and the conclusion twice.

1. It always rains whenever we have a vacation.

2. Having a GPA of 2.5 is sufficient for you to enroll in that class.
3. If n is a natural number, then n ≥ 1.
4. You can borrow books from the library only if you have a library card.
5. When it rains, it pours.
6. It is necessary that you have auto insurance in order to renew your car
license.
7. A number is even if it is divisible by 2.
8. That you can reach something on the top shelf implies that you are
over 6 feet tall.

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THE SYSTEM R OF REAL NUMBERS 62

9. In order to be able to vote in the national elections, it is sufficient that

a U. S. citizen be 18 years old.
10. In order not to pay income tax, you must earn less than $5000 per year.

(No specific notes here yet.)

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