Contratação dos serviços de jateamento com gelo seco (CO2) e secagem pelo método de

ventilação com ar quente para serem executados no rotor do compensador síncrono 01K2
instalado na subestação de Recife II.

Contratação dos serviços de limpeza do rotor do compensador síncrono 01K2 SE Recife II através
do método de jateamento com gelo seco (CO2) e posterior secagem através do método de
ventilação com ar quente a .
About 17% of global electricity is generated from hydro power, which is still the only
commercially viable renewable energy produced on a large scale (IEA, 2001). Only about
33% of Earth's hydro potential has been developed so far, and given the increased
environmental awareness and scrutiny, it is most unlikely that much of the available hydro
potential will ever be utilised. The ageing Australian installed hydro generating capacity of
approximately 7600 MW is mostly 30-60 years old and approaching its half-life
refurbishment. Most of the generators of that vintage were generously sized by today's
standards, and offer an opportunity for uprating of their output as part of the refurbishment
process. The understanding and correct specification of hydro generator high voltage (HV)
stator windings is vital to the success of generator renewal process. The high voltage hydro
generator stator windings are exposed to a variety of continuous and transient stresses, all
having deleterious effect on the windings' long-term durability. In general, HV winding life
expectancy will depend on thermal degradation of insulation, electrical degradation of
insulation, mechanical stresses and environmental winding contamination. Most often, the
winding degradation occurs as a result of combined stresses, and is often referred to as
multi-stress or multi-factor insulation ageing. The author has spent his working life
designing and manufacturing high voltage stator windings, and is presenting a series of four
informative papers on hydro generator HV stator windings as an Australian contribution
aimed at the engineers involved with hydro generator refurbishment and uprates. This paper
is the first in this series describing the essential characteristics of hydro generator stator
windings and their degradation mechanisms.

KEYWORDS: Hydro electric generators; high voltage windings; high voltage insulation;
power generation; rotating machines; synchronous generator.

Full Text:

1 HYDRO GENERATOR STATOR WINDING ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 Hydro generator stator windings

The hydro generator stator (armature) winding essentially represents the three-phase
electrical circuit in which the working EMF of correct magnitude is induced, and through
which the electrical energy is supplied to the external power system.

The generated EMF is a consequence of a rotating hetero-polar excitation magnetic field on

the rotor, which induces EMF's of equal peak sinusoidal magnitude and correct time-phase
displacement in different phases of the armature winding.

A stator winding consists of suitably insulated copper wire coils fitted into the stator core
slots, which are distributed and connected for the best electromagnetic advantage.

The majority of hydro generator windings are three-phase star connected, with earthed
neutral. This arrangement imposes line-to-ground voltage between winding conductors and
earth, thus allowing the winding ground insulation to be designed for that particular voltage
level.

Given the relatively slow speed of rotation, the hydro generator windings are multi-polar,
having a large number of coils and pole phase groups in each phase winding. The large
number of coils requires an equal number of stator slots and necessarily large stator bore
diameters.

All larger hydro generator windings are designed for high voltage operation, with line-to-
line voltage levels in Australia mainly varying between 10 to 18 kV.

The modern hydro generator high voltage windings are the double layer, pre-formed type,
and depending on the current magnitude per parallel circuit and machine physical size, they
can be executed as multi-turn coils, or single turn bars.

The connections within each phase winding can be arranged in a single circuit series
connection for smaller machines or multi-parallel circuits for larger machines.

Two basic coil/bar shapes are of lap or wave configuration, with current North American
practice favouring lap construction and European practice leaning more towards wave
shape. General Electric (GE) in the USA was the first to invent double layer lap winding
and subsequent divergence in development was probably influenced by the early patent
rights.

To obtain the waveform of induced voltage as close as possible to the pure sinusoidal ideal,
the hydro generator windings are constructed as double layer balanced fractional slot
windings of distributed type, with fractionally pitched (chorded) coils. Pole phase groups
are always arranged with 60 [degrees] phase belts.
For almost all machines manufactured in the last 60 years, the windings are inserted into
the open type stator core slots.

Reduction of extra strand (eddy current) copper losses is accomplished by subdividing the
turn copper conductor into suitably sized copper strands and extra circulating current
copper losses are mitigated by different types of turn or bar transpositions. More detailed
discussion on the subject of stator winding copper losses and their reduction is presented in
the second paper of this series (Znidarich, 2008a).

Up to about 500 MVA in size, the hydro generator armature windings are indirectly cooled,
where cooling air is directed over the surfaces of the stator windings. For indirectly cooled
hydro generator windings, the cooling medium is always air. There are no pressurised
hydrogen cooled hydro generators. Machines over 500 MVA have directly cooled stator
windings, where the cooling medium (usually deionised water) is passed directly through
the single turn stator bars consisting of hollow copper conductors. There are no directly
cooled hydro generator windings with multi-turn coils (Stone et al, 2004).

The hydro generator winding must satisfy the following functionality requirements (Ames,
1990):

* The number of turns per phase must be such to generate machine rated voltage with
designed flux per pole.

* Copper conductors and winding cooling must be arranged to carry machine rated current
without exceeding designed winding temperature rise.

* The groundwall, turn-to-turn and strand insulation must be capable of withstanding their
rated operational voltages and maximum expected transient over-voltages, and must be
designed and manufactured to minimise internal and external partial discharge (PD)
damage.

* The winding must be designed and constructed to resist or eliminate all operational or
transient mechanical forces such as forces on coil end winding, slot section and end
winding vibrations, and thermo-mechanical forces.

* The winding is expected to provide long-term reliable operation (30-40 years) when
exposed to all above mentioned thermal, dielectric, and mechanical stresses and
degradation factors.

Hydro generator stator windings are the vital part of the machine, and often the focus of
attention and a limiting factor when considering the magnitude of a machine uprate.

1.2 Physical types of hydro generator stator windings

All high voltage hydro generator stator windings are pre-formed (form-wound) multi-turn
coils or single turn bars. The pre-formed term refers to the coils or bars that are fully
formed and insulated before insertion into the stator core slots. Distinction is made between
multi-turn coils, which can only be lap wound, and single turn bars, which can be either lap
or wave wound.

1.2.1 Multi-turn pre-formed (diamond) hydro generator stator coils

Multi-turn diamond coils are of the continuously wound closed loop type, consisting of a
required number of turns (typically two to 12) to suit the machine design requirements. The
term "diamond coil" is derived from the fact that coil end windings resemble a diamond
shape. They are mainly used for small and medium-to-large size hydro generators. Each
turn is normally divided into a number of strands electrically

insulated from each other, primarily to reduce extra strand (eddy current) copper losses, and
to a lesser degree from mechanical forming considerations. The circulating current losses
are mitigated by the turn transpositions in the coil end winding (twisted turn or 180
[degrees] semi Roebel turn inversion). The two coil sides are fitted into different slots: one
as the top coil side (nearest to the machine bore), and the other as the bottom coil side
(furthest from the machine bore). The coil is manufactured by first taking a turn bundle
consisting of a designed-number of insulated strands through the turn taping process
(application of turnto-turn insulation over the turn bundle), followed by looping of the coil
onto the special loop winding machines. The finished loop consisting of a correct number
of insulated turns is then shaped (spread) in the pneumatic or hydraulic coil shaping
machines, followed by application and curing of the coil ground insulation. The main
components of the multi-turn diamond coil insulation system are strand-to-strand
insulation, turn-to-turn insulation, groundwall insulation and surface corona protection
system (Stone et al, 2004). The only time the modern multi-turn hydro generator coil is
manufactured in two halves (as a top and bottom bar) is when the stator core sections are
manufactured and pre-wound in the factory. Following site installation, the ends of these
coils situated at the joints of the core sections are manually jointed (strand by strand),
insulated and impregnated with air curing resins.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Pre-formed coils are always manufactured from rectangular copper conductors, which
allow for the perfect voltage distribution between the coil turns, and make it possible to
achieve ground insulation uniform compaction and density, thereby approaching the ideal
of a void free structure for prevention of PD.

Strand-to-strand insulation requires a good mechanical strength to resist damaging forces

during the coil winding and shaping process. Since strand-to-strand voltages are very low,
dielectric qualities of strand-to-strand insulation are of secondary importance. The most
commonly used strand-to-strand insulations are fused dacron glass or single serving of thin
resin rich mica tape. If mica tape is used for the strand insulation, it can be counted towards
the turn-to-turn insulation allowance.

Turn-to-turn insulation prevents short circuits between the coil turns, which always result in
winding failure. The shorted turn behaves as a shorted secondary of a transformer, and
according to the transformer ratio law, the magnitude of the current in the shorted turn will
be the nominal winding current multiplied with the total number of turns per phase. This
large current inevitably melts the copper conductor, and results in almost instant ground
fault. The normally encountered turn-to-turn voltages range between 10 and 250 V. The
main consideration for the design of turn-to-turn insulation, however, is steep fronted
transient over-voltages imposed on the coil by power system disturbances, lightning strikes,
etc. The turn-to-turn insulation is most commonly manufactured from multiple servings of
mica tapes impregnated with epoxy resins.

Groundwall insulation separates copper conductors from the grounded machine core. It is
manufactured from multiple servings of mica tapes, impregnated with epoxy resins, and
hydraulically pressed to form homogenous void free structure of high dielectric strength.
The design of groundwall insulation is subject to conflicting requirements. Thicker
insulation provides a better and more durable dielectric barrier, but impedes heat
dissipation from the coil causing increased winding temperature rise and accelerated
thermal degradation. The present compromise is to design the ground insulation with the
voltage stress between 2000 and 2600 V/mm. For lower voltages such as 6.6 kV, the
insulation thickness giving 2000 to 2200 V/mm stress is common, as the mechanical
strength of the insulation must also be considered. For voltages of 11 kV and above,
voltage stresses of 2200 to 2600 V/mm are generally employed. The highest end-user
specified ground insulation voltage stress for a replacement hydro generator winding that
the author has encountered so far in Australian and USA markets was 2700 V/mm.

[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]

The surface corona protection system consists of a straight slot section coating with linear
conductivity, and a first slot section bend coating with voltage dependant resistivity (VDR).
These coatings control surface discharges between the coil slot surface and grounded stator
core, and on the coil end winding.

1.2.2 Single turn bars

Single turn bars are employed for the windings of large hydro generators, where the
currents per circuit require large conductor cross sectional areas, and where closed loop
coils become physically too heavy and mechanically too stiff to be inserted into the stator
slots without risking mechanical damage. Two separate bars are normally manufactured to
form a coil in a double layer winding, one for the bottom coil side, and the other for the top
coil side. Given the large size and handling difficulties, they are inserted separately into the
slots, and then joined at both ends by brazing.

The generally adopted method of reducing strand (eddy current) losses is by subdividing
the single turn conductor/bar on height, thereby increasing the number of strands above
each other in the slot, each of them being insulated from others, and connected in parallel.
In order to minimise circulating current losses, the strands are transposed in the slot section.
One of the most commonly used transposition methods for large electrical machines with
single turn bars is 360 [degrees] or 540 [degrees] Roebel transposition. Everything outlined
for the insulation system of multi-turn coils applies, except that there is no turn-to-turn
insulation.

Due to the fact that single turn bars are manufactured in two halves (also known as "half
bars"), they can be manufactured as lap or wave windings.

In most cases both winding types can be made identical in electromagnetic terms.

The principal advantage of wave windings is their relative simplicity of connections, ie. the
absence of pole to pole connections. They are, however, more difficult to produce since
they require dedicated forms and have different bar shape ends within connection pole
phase groups. Due to their shape more bars need to be removed if replacement of the
bottom bar is required.

The opposite is true for the lap bar windings: the connections are more complex and labour
intensive, they are simpler to produce since all top and all bottom bars have an identical
shape, and can be produced two at a time in the adjustable bar spreading machines.
Replacement of failed bottom bar requires removal fewer top bars, hence repairs are easier,
with a smaller number of spare bars required.

[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 5 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 6 OMITTED]

1.3 Stator winding high voltage insulation systems

New HV "resin rich thermosetting" insulation systems, based on mica paper and synthetic
resins, have totally replaced the previous generation of HV insulation systems, based on
mica and organic binders/impregnants. Mica is generally impervious to the thermal,
electrical and mechanical stresses encountered in the operation of electrical machines. None
of the new synthetic materials developed by polymer chemistry can yet compare to the
overall properties of natural mica for HV insulation applications. The major thrust is
therefore towards the development and enhancement of synthetic resins, to give the
optimum characteristics for a particular application (Bonnet, 1993), and the development of
insulation tape carriers, where polyester films are being substituted for fibreglass carriers
(Neal, 1998). An in depth description of the resin rich insulation systems' historical
development, followed by the description of system characteristics and integral components
are given in Stone et al (2004).

[FIGURE 7 OMITTED]

Modern high voltage winding insulation systems utilising mica/synthetic resin based
technology offer many advantages:

* superior dielectric properties

* improved voltage and heat ageing

* improved copper content/slot ratio (the thinner insulations allow higher copper content,
with reduced copper losses)

* void free fully moulded slot cells, with permanent retention of slot section physical sizes

* improved (more efficient) heat dissipation

* capable of operation at temperatures up to Class "F" (155 [degrees]C)

* i ntegrally moulded (taped) corona protection systems.

Two basic systems were developed in recent years --Resin Rich Insulation System and
Vacuum Pressure Impregnation (VPI) Insulation System.
The Resin Rich Process utilises mica based insulation, which already possesses high resin
content and requires no further resin addition. Naturally occurring resins, previously used in
"thermoplastic" insulation systems, have been replaced by synthetic resins, which can be
tailor made to give the optimum characteristics required by a particular application. Epoxy
resins have now almost entirely replaced polyester resins, which were used in the 60s and
70s.

The insulating tapes are supplied with the resins in the so called "B Stage" (pre-catalysed),
which only require a raise in temperature for curing.

Apart from mica paper and "B Stage" resin, resin rich insulating tapes incorporate various
combinations of supporting materials, necessary to provide a "carrier" medium for physical
application (ie. tensile and flexural properties of the tapes). Carrier materials form an
integral part of the insulation system, and often influence the processing mode and final
insulation system characteristics. The most common supporting materials utilised for resin
rich tapes are glass fabrics, dacron mats and polyester films.
Vacuum Pressure Impregnation involves the application of dry insulation tapes, which are
subsequently processed by a vacuum pressure impregnation process, utilising synthetic
resins to impregnate between layers of dry mica insulations.

While both resin rich and VPI systems produce high quality insulations, the final choice in
their selection depends mainly on an initial capital expenditure and the intended
application.

In general, the VPI system requires a large initial capital expenditure, and is more suited for
large scale manufacturing. The resin rich system is better suited to "one off" coil set
manufacturing, refurbishment and rewinds.

Very few large coil manufacturers actually produce their own insulation materials. They are
currently developed and manufactured by a handful of insulation manufacturing companies.
The general composition of the tapes and recommendations for their application and use are
published by the insulation manufacturers. Resin formulations, however, are proprietary
and jealously guarded secrets, not available to the coil manufacturers.

Coil manufacturers are therefore left to purchase insulating materials, which appear to suit
their application. With a wide choice of insulating materials currently on offer,
manufacturers develop their own combinations that produce the best results with their
processing technology. In addition to the initial insulation tape characteristics, the correct
processing methodology largely influences the quality and characteristics of the finished
insulation system. How this is achieved depends on the manufacturer's ingenuity and
expertise, utilising to the fullest the properties and capabilities of modern day materials.

1.4 Copper conductors for hydro generator stator windings

High voltage hydro generator windings are exclusively manufactured from copper. Copper
has an outstanding combination of useful properties such as excellent electrical and thermal
conductivities, good hot and cold ductility, corrosion resistance, and the ability to be joined
readily by soft soldering, brazing and welding. Copper of high purity is commercially
readily available, and in this condition is a better conductor of heat and electricity than any
known substance, except silver.

The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standard for copper resistivity is

0.017241 [micro][ohm]m at 20 [degrees]C, and copper having this resistivity is said to have
a conductivity of 100% IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard). This does not
represent the highest possible conductivity, and copper in the annealed condition frequently
attains a conductivity of 101% or even 102% IACS.

High voltage hydro generator windings are manufactured from oxygen bearing or
electrolytic tough pitch coppers (alloy number 110 (Standards Australia, 1985), or alloy
number C 101 (British Standards Institution, 1987)). These coppers contain sufficient
oxygen to induce good ductility, combined with the highest conductivity (100% IACS or
higher) for electrical conductor applications. Minimum percent copper plus silver (as a
trace metal) is 99.9%. Oxygen bearing tough pitch copper is the copper alloy most common
in the electrical industry where extra special characteristics are not required.

Only annealed copper is used for HV coil application. In the cold worked condition after
drawing and rolling, copper is hard and not easily formed into the coil shape. Further
deformation can only be achieved if the copper is first softened, ie. annealed. The work
hardened copper also looses up to 3% of its conductivity compared to the soft annealed
condition. Thus, copper, which in the annealed condition may conform to the IEC standard
of 100% conductivity, may have only about 97% of that conductivity when hard drawn.
This consideration must be kept in mind when specifying the copper conductors and
designing the windings which require reduction of [I.sup.2]R losses. Poorly annealed
copper may increase these losses by 1-2%.

[FIGURE 8 OMITTED]

2 HYDRO GENERATOR STATOR WINDING DEGRADATION MECHANISMS

2.1 Thermal degradation of insulation

Thermal degradation of insulation is a well researched topic. Every piece of the electrical
equipment loses energy due to the current flowing through its internal resistance. In
electrical machines, internal resistance is mostly made up of the sum of the resistances of
the coils in the windings. The lost energy is referred to as [I.sup.2]R losses, and it appears
in the form of heat. Electrical machines operate with a designed temperature rise, which is a
direct consequence of the thermal energy generated by machine losses encountered during
machine operation. The principal losses influencing the stator winding operating
temperature in the hydro generators are stator and rotor [I.sup.2]R losses, and stator core
losses.
The final operating temperature of the machine depends on the functionality of its cooling
system. The problem increases with the size of the machine, where the surface area
available for heat dissipation increases approximately as the square of dimensions, but the
heat developed by the losses and volume increases approximately as the cube of
dimensions.

The operating temperature is closely associated with the life expectancy of the machine
insulation, because insulation deterioration is a function of time and temperature.

Insulation deterioration is a chemical change involving slow oxidation, polymer

depolymerisation (chain "scission") and cross linking (Stone et al, 2004). At elevated
temperatures the thermally induced molecular vibration on organic insulation components
tends to break the molecular bonds (bond scission), resulting in shorter and weaker polymer
chains (Stone et al, 2004). The insulation suffers from layer delamination and separation,
loss of flexural strength, and brittle hardening, leading to the loss of mechanical durability
and dielectric strength. Often the rate of decay will be exponential. Loss of dielectric
strength will lead to eventual insulation breakdown.

Commonly encountered insulation failure mechanisms due to thermal degradation are

(Stone et al, 2004):

* Separated and loosened layers of ground insulation may allow copper strand vibrations
caused by electromagnetic forces. This may lead to strand insulation abrasion, with
consequential strand to strand, and turn to turn shorts, and resulting winding failure.
* Insulation delamination inevitably results in air voids between the insulation layers.
Destructive PD will be formed in the air voids which will accelerate the rate of insulation
decay.

* The insulation delamination instigates a "snowballing" exponential degradation. This is

caused by reduced insulation thermal conductivity due to the presence of air pockets. The
inability to efficiently dissipate heat generated by the coil copper [I.sup.2]R losses will
cause the winding to operate at increased temperature, thus further accelerating the
degradation process.

Experience shows that the operational temperature of the electrical machine is one of the
major factors governing degradation and life expectancy of the insulation.

In practice it is considered as a long established "rule of thumb" that if the insulation is

operating above its thermal ageing threshold, a 10 [degrees]C increase in operational
temperature of the machine will reduce the insulation life expectancy by 50%. This rule can
be approximated by the following equation, which is based on the Arrhenius Rate Law
(Stone et al, 2004):

[MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (1)

where [L.sub.ins] is the expected insulation life (hours), [T.sub.ins] is the insulation
temperature ([degrees]K), and [A.sub.k] and [B.sub.k] are constants.

The thermal ageing threshold refers to the temperature below which thermal ageing of
insulation material will not occur. Although different for each insulation material, and
hence difficult to define globally, the thermal ageing threshold was the subject of numerous
research efforts relative to insulations thermal ageing. In practical applications, the
insulation engineers consider the thermal ageing threshold to be at the temperature where
insulation weight loss as a function of temperature (as tested by a thermo-gravimetric
analysis test) is barely measurable and becomes insignificant. For early thermoplastic
asphalt impregnated insulations it lies at about 70 [degrees]C, and for later Class B
formulations it was about 90 [degrees]C. For Class F epoxy based insulation the thermal
ageing threshold is between 120 and 130 [degrees]C depending on epoxy formulation and
curing temperature. Below these temperatures the winding will not fail due to thermal aging
even in 100 years.

A high voltage winding designer is faced by conflicting requirements, where thinner

insulation is better for heat dissipation, and thicker insulation provides safer dielectric
characteristics.

Accelerated life (temperature endurance) tests are carried out to classify insulating
materials into temperature classes (Dalal, 1981; Nailen, 2000). The result of the
temperature endurance tests are thermal endurance graphs, which show the relationship
between the insulation test temperature in [degrees]C, and time to failure in hours (Stone et
al, 2004; IEEE, 1986); see figure 9. The material allocated to the particular temperature
class rating will be expected to operate continuously at the maximum temperature for that
temperature class for at least 20,000 hours. The allocation of materials is such that the life
will be adequate under usual industrial conditions. One of the common assessment methods
is to measure material weight loss as a function of time and temperature. The lower the
weight loss, the better the temperature endurance is.

Insulating materials are divided into six temperature classes in accordance with their upper
stable temperature limit, as outlined in the table 1.

Wherever possible, Class F insulations are used for modern winding design, with the
temperature rise limited to Class B, to slow down and reduce thermal degradation of
insulation.

2.2 Electrical degradation of insulation (partial discharges)

The high voltage stresses present in air cooled HV hydro generator stator windings cause
winding degradation due to PD, represented by the localized breakdown of air, when its
breakdown voltage is exceeded. PD can occur in the insulation voids or on the winding
surfaces.

The term "partial discharge" is used because the insulation breakdown is limited to only
part of the insulation (air space), rather than a complete breakdown or breach of insulation.

In air cooled hydro generator windings the heat generated by ionised air particles contribute
to thermal degradation and erosion of insulation. A side effect of the process is the
conversion of oxygen into ozone and the formation of nitrogen oxides in insulation voids
(Nailen, 1999).

[FIGURE 9 OMITTED]

2.2.1 Partial discharges in insulation voids

If the HV coil insulation is not fully void free (a practically impossible aspiration), the air
in the insulation voids will become ionised, and if the voltage is above the air breakdown
threshold (3 kV/mm), PD will result. Given the much lower dielectric constant of air when
compared to the surrounding insulation, and the fact that voltage divides in inverse
proportion to the materials' dielectric constants, the voltage stress appearing across the void
will be much higher than the voltage appearing across the equivalent distance of winding
insulation. Ozone, nitrogen oxides and, under certain circumstances, nitric acid will be
formed. Ozone's strong oxidising action, combined with nitric acid, will attack and
progressively destroy most of the organic insulation materials, causing insulation
decomposition and degradation. PD also produce heat, further contributing to insulation
destruction. Ultimately, PD will propagate the area of the void, forming partially
conducting discharge channels (void treeing), thus further accelerating the insulation
chemical and mechanical degradation, and ultimately leading to insulation failure.

The void discharge repetition rate is not a function of frequency of the applied voltage.
Rather, the PD involves a repeated charging and discharging of the capacitance within the
void. Charging does occur at a rate proportional to supply frequency, but discharge then
follows almost instantly as the void breakdown voltage is reached. At that time, the applied
voltage will still be rising along the same waveform cycle, at the same rate, so the process
occurs again many times per cycle depending on the remaining space charges and electrical
field (typically up to 100/cycle).

The "internal corona" problem was very evident in old type bitumen coils, which would
swell in service, thus creating cavities and air voids in insulation. Total internal coil
insulation degradation would take place, leading to turn-to-turn failure, which would then
cause failure of groundwall insulation.

Internal PD problems can only be eliminated by manufacturing the fully pressed coils,
which are as void free as practicably possible. Correct insulation density and composition
(ratio of resin content to mica), as well as processing, are of critical importance for
insulation system durability and reliability.

Dielectric loss angle (DLA), or tan[delta] testing, is one of the best methods of detecting
and quantifying void content in the insulation during winding manufacture.

2.2.2 Slot surface discharge effect

PD are formed in the small air spaces between the core steel laminations that are normally
at ground potential and the HV coils connected to the line end where the voltage stresses
are higher. The principle of air breakdown between the coil insulated slot section and
grounded slot wall is exactly the same as outlined for the air voids in the insulation
groundwall. Any abrupt discontinuities, such as air vent ducts, will also contribute to the
formation of PD, as sharp corners normally produce high voltage stress points (Weddleton
et al, 1972).

[FIGURE 10 OMITTED]

[FIGURE 11 OMITTED]

The machine's operation with line-to-line voltages below 4 kV normally will not experience
this problem, and do not require surface corona protection. The higher the machine
operating voltage, the more important and necessary it is to provide some form of corona
protection.
The solution to this problem is to apply to the HV coil slot section surfaces a conductive
layer coating (0.5-40 k[ohm]/square surface resistivity), and to make sure this conductive
coating is in good contact with the core steel laminations. Since both surfaces are now at
the same potential, PD can not be formed between them. The surface resistivity of the
conductive layer must be carefully controlled. If it is too low (close to 1 [ohm]), the
shorting out of stator core laminations may occur, causing additional heat losses. If it is too
high, it may not function to effectively bring the slot surface to ground potential (Nailen,
1980). The modern resin rich insulation systems employ conductive tapes that are integrally
moulded with the slot section groundwall insulation during the hydraulic pressing process.
This system has proven to be more durable and have a more uniform surface resistivity than
comparable painted on corona protection systems. The tapes are usually manufactured from
polyester fleece uniformly impregnated with graphite particles.

To ensure positive electrical contact between the coils' slot section conductive surface and
the core slot wall, conductive side fillers or side packing is used. Also to ensure good
contact between the top and bottom coil sides in the slot, HV machines also utilise
conductive vertical slot fillers. Even if there are small breaks between contact points of the
coil surface and slot wall (ie. coil surface is not touching core slot wall continuously), the
resistance limits of the slot surface coating of 0.5-40 k[ohm]/square will be low enough to
keep the complete coil slot surface close enough to ground potential to prevent surface PD.

2.2.3 End winding surface discharges

The slot surface conductive coating is normally extended about 50 mm past the end of the
core to prevent PD between abruptly ended stator core and the coil slot surface (abrupt
changes in shape and sharp corners tend to concentrate the electrical field). The end of very
thin coil conductive coating also gives rise to a very high localised electrical field (Stone et
al, 2004). Referring to figure 12, the small leakage currents pass through the insulation
along the whole end winding area. These currents continue to flow on the surface and they
naturally find their way toward the low potential (ie. the ground), the closest grounded
point being the end of the slot section's conductive layer. These surface currents add
together and their magnitude increases the closer they are to the end of slot section
conductive layer. Although the absolute magnitude of these surface currents is relatively
small, the surface resistivity of good insulation is very high, and close to the stator core,
their IR volt drop product may become high enough to ionise the surrounding air, and cause
PD. The typical "ring of fire" is formed at the end of the slot section conductive coating.

To prevent these PD the special voltage grading conductive layer is fitted, overlapping the
slot section conductive layer, and extending around the first coil slot section bend
(Brammer et al, 1998; Moore et al, 1984). The material consists of silicone carbide and has
VDR. Silicone carbide resistivity is inversely proportional to the voltage, ie. the higher the
voltage, the lower the resistivity, and vice versa. This unique property produces a nearly
uniform voltage distribution around the coil first bend, thus keeping all surface voltages
low enough to prevent PD.
[FIGURE 12 OMITTED]

2.2.4 End winding coil to coil discharges

Correct minimum end winding spacing between adjacent coils is essential for cooling air
circulation and prevention of end winding PD.

Referring to figure 13, two end windings and an air gap between them can be represented
by an equivalent series circuit of three capacitances, capacitance of ground insulation of
coil A, capacitance of air gap, and capacitance of ground insulation of coil B. If the air gap
between the coil end windings is insufficient, or if the insulation of the end winding is thin,
the bulk of the voltage between them will be dropped across the air gap due to the different
dielectric coefficients between air and insulation material, causing PD activity.

Given unfavourable conditions such as air contamination, high humidity or high altitudes,
the air will most certainly break at the calculated voltage stress, causing harmful PD. The
PD in open air will generate poisonous ozone gas and nitric acids, which add chemical
decomposition dimensions to the process. In addition to chemical attack on insulation, the
ozone is a poisonous gas, and cases are on record for some large open ventilated machines
with high levels of PD in the end windings, being rewound on occupational health and
safety grounds. The levels of ozone in power station air were considered too high (above 1
part/million is considered harmful and is readily detectible by smell). According to
Paschen's Law (Stone et al, 2004), the air at high altitudes, being at lower pressure, will
also break down at lower voltages. The electrical machines designed for operation at high
altitudes must, therefore, have increased coil-to-coil gapping in the end winding region.

[FIGURE 13 OMITTED]

Considering that the winding voltage gradient to earth is highest at the HV output end, and
almost zero at the neutral end, the HV end coils will be exposed to the highest deterioration
due to combined PD effects. To prolong the winding life, in some cases it is possible to
reverse (swap) the generator HV and neutral leads after some years of operation (IEEE,
1999). Since the neutral ends of the windings are exposed to exactly the same thermal and
mechanical degradation mechanisms as the HV ends, and considering the relative expenses
and technical difficultly associated with the procedure to change bus work on large
synchronous generator, this practice should only be implemented after ensuring by testing
and inspection that the neutral winding end is in much better condition than the HV end.
The most important decision making factor regarding the reversal of stator leads is the
remaining degree of bonding at the copper insulation interface and any damage to the
surface of the ground insulation as a result of mechanical abrasion at neutral end.

2.3 Mechanical degradation of insulation

In addition to thermal and electrical stresses, the stator windings in rotating electrical
machines are subjected to a variety of mechanical forces that require a suitable means of
wedging, bracing and blocking of the winding if satisfactory service is to be obtained.

The primary forces that occur are the result of the following conditions:

* forces on coil end winding

* coil slot section vibration within core slots

* coil thermal expansion

* stator core vibration.

2.3.1 Forces on coil end winding

Significant forces are exerted onto the coil end windings due to the current flow in adjacent
coils and current carrying members of the electrical machine. These forces tend to either
pull conductors together or separate them depending upon the direction of the current flow.
Coils within the same pole phase group will be pulled together because the direction of the
current is the same, whereas adjacent coils in different pole phase groups will be strongly
repelled because of different current directions. The second acting force pushes the coils
away from the bore. This force appears as a "rotating wave" spinning around the stator
circumference at synchronous speed stressing each coil in turn, as it passes.

The forces between coils are proportional to the current squared, so the machine exposed to
the short circuit resulting in 12-times rated current, will experience attracting or repelling
forces in the overhangs 144 times of the normal full load level. The winding bracing and
blocking system consisting of spacer blocks between coils, winding support rings and end
support arms must be designed to withstand maximum currents resulting from short circuits
imposed on the machine without damage to the windings.

[FIGURE 14 OMITTED]

Due to the 3D geometrical complexity of the end windings and infinite number of possible
failure modes, the end winding forces are difficult to calculate. The designs of presently
employed end winding support mechanisms are based on numerical modelling, finite
element analysis, model type testing and experience with previous designs.

[FIGURE 15 OMITTED]

2.3.2 Coil slot section vibration within core slots

Loosening of the slot contents due to insulation thermal degradation (shrinkage and weight
loss) may lead to in-slot winding vibrations due to slot bar electromagnetic forces, which
are produced by the interaction of a magnetic flux produced by a current flow in the
conductors of coils/bars and cross slot leakage flux. There are also significant in-slot axial
and radial differential thermal expansion effects.

The slot wedge systems used in rotating machines are designed to prevent slot section
bouncing and vibrations, and to ensure that the radial pressure on the coils fitted into the
slot is maintained throughout the insulation life span. They have had considerable attention
over the years and various systems were developed such as spring loaded wedges, two part
tapered wedges and a combination of the two.

Slot side packing within the slot is also important to ensure adequate contact of the corona
suppression system with the core, as well as to prevent bar sideways movement and
vibration. The methods vary from the traditional conductive solid side packing, to
interference fit conductive silicone rubber or conductive slot side springs. The slot
supporting mechanisms (slot wedges, and slot radial and side packing) are discussed in
more detail in the third paper of this series (Znidarich, 2008b).

2.3.3 Coil thermal expansion

Particular problems with coil thermal expansion have been experienced with the large
electrical machines exposed to a severe cyclic duty (ie. rapidly loaded and unloaded),
especially if the machines have long stator cores. Large numbers of hydro generators being
used for peaking duty belong to this category, where full rated load may be applied within a
few minutes from initiation of machine rotation. The rapidly heating copper stack will
expand faster than the surrounding groundwall insulation, which takes a longer time to heat
up. Given copper's higher coefficient of thermal expansion when compared to ground
insulation, a considerable shear stress is imposed at their interface leading to a possible
breakage of the bond, formation of the voids and destructive PD. In recent years, the
thermal cycling test had been developed to ensure newly manufactured windings will be
able to cope with this onerous operating regime (IEEE, 1996). The fourth paper of this
series presents a detailed summary of hydro generator winding type and routine production
testing (Znidarich, 2008c).

Long-term running under load does cause end turns to thermally expand and grow from 0.5
to 2 mm depending on winding temperature and end coil length. The coils within slots will
also expand thermally more than the core (steel thermal coefficient of expansion is
approximately 1/3 less than the copper coefficient). Again, the problem is more pronounced
for the machines with long stator cores.

[FIGURE 16 OMITTED]
Coil bracing systems must be flexible enough to cope with the end winding axial growth,
otherwise potentially dangerous stresses may result.

Historically, attempts were made to design end winding supports so rigid, as to prevent any
axial movement. Experience has proven that to be impossible, and the modern school of
thought is not to restrict end winding axial expansion.

This is usually accomplished by designing in required axial movement for the coil support
mechanism (refer to figure 16).

2.3.4 Stator core vibrations

The rotor of a generator can be regarded as a large rotating magnet, the stator laminations
surrounding this magnet in the form of a ring. The electromagnetic force produced by the
rotating field winding is proportional to the square of the flux density.

There is thus a large electromagnetic force tending to pull the ring into the shape of an
ellipse. This ellipse revolves at twice the speed of the rotor and sets what is known as
"double frequency vibration of the stator core". For example, in a two-pole machine, a four-
node vibration will be set, and an eight-node vibration for the four-pole machine will result.

These vibrations are obviously reflected at the interfaces of the winding and the core, ie. at
the slot section fits and end winding supports, leading to the insulation's mechanical
abrasion.

Various ways have been devised to deal with the problem, such as making the core's
outside diameter larger and stiffer, and increasing mechanical stiffness of the stator frame
(Havley & Richardson, 1970).

2.4 Environmental winding degradation

Environmental ageing is due to the winding exposure to adverse environmental conditions.

Although modern HV insulation systems are designed to meet specified operating
conditions and environmental hazards, a reliable trouble free operation will only be
achieved if the machine is not subjected to more adverse operating conditions and
environmental exposure than is allowed by the machine design.

Contamination is one of the most common causes of HV winding failures.

Dirt, causing winding contamination, can be defined as "matter out of place"--the material
that belongs elsewhere, not on the machine windings.

The major environmental hazards affecting HV insulations are (Nailen, 1983):

* ingress of moisture

* contamination with dirt and harmful chemicals.

Without the corrective maintenance measures, any of the above factors can lead to rapid
mechanical and electrical winding degradation, eventually resulting in insulation failure.

The age old rotating machine insulation maintenance idioms: "Keep it Dry", "Keep it
Clean" and "Keep it Cool" are still very much applicable today, especially when dealing
with the environmental contamination of the HV winding surfaces (Nailen, 1983).

Moisture is an "age old" natural enemy of HV insulations. All insulation materials are to
some degree hygroscopic, and will absorb moisture. The older insulating material based on
organic binders and varnishes are more susceptible to moisture absorption when compared
to the modern systems based on inorganic carriers and synthetic resins.

Internal absorption of moisture can lead to "hydrolysis", which is a mechanism that causes
rupture of the chemical bonds of the insulation (Stone et al, 2004). This process results in
de-lamination and swelling of the insulation, where PD may be initiated. The most common
symptom of moisture presence in the windings is a low insulation resistance to ground that
responds, and can be raised by the dry-out process.

The external wetting of the winding surfaces (which is usually accelerated by the presence
of dust, dirt, salt, oils or chemicals) can lead to surface electrical tracking. The capacitive
charges on the winding surface cause leakage currents to flow on the surface of a
contaminated winding, forming permanent conductive paths, which are manifested as
visible carbonised tracks on the winding surface, extending between winding phases, or
between phase windings and the ground.

The permanent conductive/carbonised paths on the insulation surface often lead to surface
flashovers, causing insulation ground or phase to phase failures.

REFERENCES

Ames, R. L. 1990, AC Generators: Design and Application, 1st Edition, Research Studies
Press Ltd, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Bonnet, P. 1993, "Trends in resin rich type high voltage insulation systems", ISOTEC
Workshop 93, Zurich, November.

Brammer, R., Bengtsson, K. & Rudolfsson, D. 1998, "Coil end corona protection studies",
INSUCON/ ISOTEC 98, The 8th BEAMA International Electrical Insulation Conference,
Harrogate, May. British Standards Institution, 1987, BS 1432:1987
Copper for Electrical Purposes: High Conductivity Copper Rectangular Conductors with
Drawn or Rolled Edges.

Dalal, M. V. 1981, "Thermal stability of micaceous insulation of high voltage machines",

IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, Vol. EI-16, No. 4, February.

Havley, R. & Richardson, P. 1970, "Vibration of large generator stators and windings",
Electrical Times Magazine, July.

IEEE, 1986, ANSI/IEEE Std 1--1986 IEEE Standard General Principles for Temperature
Limits in the Rating of Electric Equipment and for the Evaluation of Electrical Insulation.

IEEE, 1996, IEEE Std 1310--1996 IEEE Trial Use Recommended Practice for Thermal
Cycle Testing of Form-Wound Stator Bars and Coils for Large Generators.

IEEE, 1999, IEEE Std 492--1999 IEEE Guide for Operation and Maintenance of Hydro-
Generators.

International Energy Agency (IEA), 2001, Guidelines for Hydroelectric Generator

Upgrading, Technical Report, The Hydro Power Upgrading Task Force.

Moore, V. A., Mulhall, V. R. & Bernard, J. R. 1984, "Stator bar end arm line discharge--
menace or nuisance?", Presented at Canadian Electrical Association Rotating Machines
Subsection, March.

Nailen, R. L. 1980, "How conducting surface coatings protect high voltage coils",
Electrical Apparatus Magazine, August.

Nailen, R. L. 1983, "How to Recognize--and avoid --chemical damage to electric motors",

Electrical Apparatus Magazine, September.

Nailen, R. L. 1999, "Corona: What it does; how to detect it--Part 1", Electrical Apparatus
Magazine, January.

Nailen, R. L. 2000, "What tests of insulation's thermal life really mean", Electrical
Apparatus Magazine, March.

Neal, J. E. 1998, "Resin rich technology today and trends", INSUCON/ISOTEC 98--The
8th BEAMA International Electrical Insulation Conference, Harrogate, May.

Standards Australia, 1985, AS 1573-1985 Copper and Copper Alloys-Wire for Engineering
Purposes.
Stone, G. C., Boulter, B. A., Culbert, I. & Dhirani, H. 2004, "Electrical insulation for
rotating machines--design, evaluation, aging, testing, and repair", IEEE Press Series on
Power Engineering, 1st Edition, Wiley Interscience, A John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Publication.

Weddleton, R. F., Brown, C. N. & Shields, C. R. 1972, "Corona protection for high-voltage
stator windings", Doble Rotating Machinery Publication.

Znidarich, M. M. 2008a, "Hydro generator high voltage stator windings: Part 2--design for
reduced copper losses and elimination of harmonics", Australian Journal of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering, accepted for publication.

Znidarich, M. M. 2008b, "Hydro generator high voltage stator windings: Part 3--Stator
winding slot support systems", Australian Journal of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
accepted for publication.

Znidarich, M. M. 2008c, "Hydro generator high voltage stator windings: Part 4--type and
routine production testing", Australian Journal of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
accepted for publication.

MM Znidarich ([dagger])

TGE Energy Services, Perth, Western Australia

* Paper E08-657 submitted 22/01/08; accepted for publication after review and revision
11/08/08.

([dagger]) Corresponding author Michael Znidarich can be contacted at

[email protected].

MICHAEL ZNIDARICH

Michael Znidarich graduated with Associate Diploma of Engineering (Electrical) in 1993,

and Associate Diploma of Engineering (Mechanical) in 1995, both from TAFE in Perth,
Western Australia. He received his BTech (Electrical), MTech (E&M), and ME (Electrical)
degrees from Deakin University in Melbourne in 1999, 2001 and 2003, respectively. He is
currently in the final stages of his PhD degree from University of Western Australia related
to design of large synchronous electrical machines.

Michael was born in Croatia, where he completed his electrical apprenticeship in 1968.
Since emigrating to Australia and for the past 32 years he has worked with TGE Energy
Services in Perth, Western Australia. TGE Energy Services (formerly F. R. Tulk and Co) is
a joint venture between Transfield Services Australia and GE Energy Services (Australia).
In the early 1980s, Michael was instrumental in the establishment and development of a
high voltage coil and bar manufacturing facility, which now has clients in 22 countries
around the world. He is currently engineering manager for all three TGE Energy Services
facilities (Perth and Bunbury in Western Australia, and Sydney in New South Wales).
Michael's current interests are focused on design of high voltage windings for large
electrical machines, applied research on high voltage insulations for rotating electrical
machines, and applied engineering for upgrades and uprates of hydro generators.

Michael is a corporate member of Engineers Australia and registered chartered professional

engineer in Australia.

Table 1: Six temperature classes

of insulating materials.

Temperature Temperature limit

class

A 105 [degrees]C
E 120 [degrees]C
B 130 [degrees]C
F 155 [degrees]C
H 180 [degrees]C
C Above 180 [degrees]C

Znidarich, Michael M.

Source Citation (MLA 7th Edition)

Znidarich, Michael M. "Hydro generator high voltage stator windings: part 1--essential
characteristics and degradation mechanisms." Australian Journal of Electrical &
Electronics Engineering May 2008: 1+. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 23 Aug. 2013.
Document URL
http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i