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Unit 3

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Unit 3

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shreyas das
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NUMERICAL ANALYSIS cut D3] 3.0 Solution of Algebraic and transcendental equations INTRODUCTION : problem of great importance in applied mathematics and engineering is fo find the roots of an equation of the form f(x) = 0. The function f(x) = agx" wage 2 tag prtoy Qy Are Constants with ag#0 is known as a polynomial of degree n. The values of 1 making f(x) zero are known as zeroes or roots of the polynomial f(x) and every polynomial of degree ‘n' has ‘n’ roots, (1) where n is a positive integer and Ag. Ay, AQ... The equation of the form {(x) = 0 is called Algebraic or Transcendental accurding as f(x) is Purely a polynomial in x or contains some other functions such as logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions ete, egil) xt42. 3x? 4.45 =0 is am algebraic equation. 2) 2x? +log(x—I)+e* + sin.x =0 is a transcendental equation. Not A transcendental equation may have a finite or an infinite number of real roots and may have no real roots at all, {mn this section, we shall discuss some numerical methods for the solution of equations of the form f(x) = 0. Here f(x) may be algebraic or transcendental or a combination of both. Numerical methods of finding approximate roots of the given equation is a repetitive type of Process known as iteration process, In each step the result of the previous Step is used and the Process is carried out till we get the result to the desired degree of accuracy. All the numerical methods are only approximate techniques for the solution of any problem and computers play an important role in various numerical methods for obtaining the result to the highest deeree of accunicy, 3.10 Initial approximations : Initial approximations to the root are often known from the physical considerations of the problem, Otherwise graphical methods are generally used to -obtain initial approximations to the root. Since the value of x, at which the graph of y= f(x) intersects the x-axis gives the root of f(x) = 0 any value in the neighbourhood of this point may be taken as an initial approximation to the root, If the equation f(x) = 0 ean be conveniently written in the form f(x) =f2(x) then the point of interséction of the graph of y=f\(x) and y= f(x) gives the root of f(x) = 0 and ‘therefore any value in the neighbourhood of this point can be taken as an initial approximation to the root. Another commonly used method to obtain the initial approximation to intermediate value theorem which states : If f(x) is a continuous function on some interval fa, b] and f(a) f(b) <0, then the equation f(x) = 0 has at least one real root or an odd number of real roots in the interval (a, b). We study the following methods of finding solution of Algebraic and transcendental equations : the root is based upon the ue theorem. ‘The 3 of locating the root of the equation f(x) = 0 between ‘a’ and 'b’ (a0 +. the root lies in (2, 2.25) III Stage : (3 approximation ): x3 = —(2+2.25)=2. 125 2 (x3) = £(2.125) = (2.125) -2(2.125)-5 = 0.346>0 ‘the root lies in (2, 2.125) IV Stage (4" approximation ) : x4 = se +2.125)= 2. 0625 f(x4) = £ (2.0625) = (2.0625)>-2(2.0625) ~5 =-0.35<0 -.the root lies in (2.0625 , 2.125) V Stage (S" approximation ): x5 = 32.0625 +2.125) = 2.00375 Hence the required approximate root correct to three decimal places =2. 094, Note : Suppose we substitute the approximate root 2.094 in f(x) = x3-2x-5, we get — 6.1534 which is small enough (tending to zero). Each approximation will be better than the previous ones and obviously more number of iterative steps will lead to better accuracy in the solution, Example 3 : Use bisection method in six stages to obtain a root of the equation f(x) = cosx-xe* =0 Solution : Let f(x) = cosx—xe* 2.1780<0 0) =12 9,4) e and f(1) is negative, the Toot lies in the interval (0, 1) gince f(0) is posi y*stage: (1" approximation) ; n=to+y=o. 5 2 . Now f(a1) = F(0.5) = cos(0.5) -(0.5) e-5 = 0.053250 Now f(1) =~ 2.1780 <0 and £(0.5) =0.0532>0 Which implies there exists a root between 0.5 and 1 {1 Stage : (2 approximation ) : n=s05 +1) =0.75 f(xy) = £(0.75) = cos(0.75)-(0,75) e-75 = 0.8561 <0 Thus (0.5) >0 and £(0.75) <0 = aroot of f(x) =0 lies between 0.5 and 0.75 Ill Stage : (3" approximation ) : x35 Fos +0.75) = 0.625 £(x3) = f (0.625) = cos0.625 ~(0.625) e®-5 = ~0,3566 <0 Thus f(0.5) > 0 and £(0.625) <0 => aroot of f(x) = 0 lies between 0.5 and 0.625 IV stage : (4" approximation): x4= 705 +0.625) = 0.5625 f{xq) =£(0.5625) = cos(0.5625) - (0.5625) e565 = 0.1396 <0 {(0.5)>0 and £(0.5625) <0 => aroctof f(x) =0 lies between 0.5 and 0.5625 E V Stage : (5! approximation ) : x5= os +0.5625) = 0.53125 f(x5) = £(0.53125) = cos(0.53125) - (0.53125)e9!75 = -0.04151<0 {(0.5)>0 and (0.53125) <0 => aroot lies between 0.5 and 0.53125 So x= 4.(0.5 +0.53125) = 0.515625 which is taken as the approximate root, 2 Example 4: Find the positive root of f(x) = x- cosx = 0 by bisection method correct to 3 places of decimals. Solution: Let f(x) =x-cos x, f(0)=0-1=-1 =—ve f(1) = 1-cos(1) = 1-0.5403 = 0.45969 = +ve : 1 Hence the root lies between Oand 1. +,.41 = (O#N)=0.5 f(x) =1(0,5) = 0.5 -0.87758 = - 0.37758 = ve <0 {(1) is +ve and £(0.5) is - ve. the root lies between 0.5 and 1 2 =F(05+0 =0.75 f(x) = £(0.75) = 0.75 — €0s(0.75) = 0.018311 = + ve>0 qi and 0.75 (0.5) is - ve and £0.75) is + ve. « the root lies between 0. 5 and (0.540.75) = 0,625 (0.625) = 0.625 -cos (0.625) = -0.18596 =-ve <0 1045 £(0.75) is +ve and £(0.625) is—ve. .. the rot lies between 0.625 and 0. 1 . ES (0.625 +0.75) = 0.6875 (0.6875) = 0.6875 — cos (0.6875) = -0,85335 <0 (0.75) is +ve and (0.6875) is— ve... the root lies between 0.6875 and 0.75 1 ‘ K (0.6875 +0.75) = 0.71875 (0.7185) = 0.7185 - cos(0.7185) = -0.033879 = —ve <0 (0.75) is + ve and (0.7185) is—ve. <. the root lies between 0.7185 and 0.75. % = (0.7185+0.75) = 0.73438 : f(x6) = £(0.73438) = 0.73438 — 668(0.73438)< 0 | (0.75) is + ve and (0.73438) is— vex +, the root lies between 0.73438 and 0.75 > (0.73438+0.75) = 0.742190 x7 (x7) = £ (0.742190) = 0.742190 - cos(0.742190) = 0. 0051999 > 0 £(0.742190) is + ve and £(0.73438) is ve. - the root lies between 0.73438 and 0.742190 5 (0.73438+0.742190) = 0.73829 f(xg) = £ (0.73829) = 0.73829 - cos (0.73829) = - 0.0013305 <0 X= ; (0.73829 + 0.742190) = 0.7402 f(x) = f (0.7402) = 0.7402 -. cos(0.7402) =0.0018663>0 0.73829+ 0.7402 WR eg f(x19) = f (0.73925) = 0.73925 —cos(0.73925) = 0.00027593 > 0 xy = (0.739254+0.73829) = 0.7388 = 0.739 = 0.73925 “+ the root is 0.739 Example 5: Use the bisection method in four stages to find the real root of the equation Solution : Let f(x) = xlogigx~102 , £(1)=1, 1ogi91-102 = 102 <9 f (2) = 2logig2 -102 = -101.4<0, £(3)=-100.57<0 ete We observe that the values of f(x) are reducing slowly and 3t some higher value of x greater than 50 (say) £(55) = 55logi55 102 =-6.28< 0, £(57) =-1.91 <9 58) =+0-28>0 -. the real root of the equation lies in (57, 58) pstage: 4) = 707458) =57.5 f(xy) = A = 57.5 login 57.5 -102=-0,82<0 +. the root lies in (57.5 , 58) [Stage : x2 = 767.5458) = 57.75 f(x) = 67.75) =-0.27<0 +. the root lies in (57.75, 58) 1 UI Stage : x5 = > (57.75458) = 57.875 f(x3) = £657,875) =0.004> 0 +. the root lies in (57.75 , 57.875) 1 IV Stage: 4 = 7 O7-15+57.875) = 57.8125 Hence the required. approximate root is 57,8125 \ Example 6: Using bisection method find a real root of x logy x= 1.2 lying between 2 and 3 perform three iterations. Solution : Let f (x) = x logigx—1.2, observe that f (2) = 2logj92—1.2<0 and £(3)= 3logyg3-1.2>0 .. the root lies in (2, 3) F iteration : x, =+ (24+3)=2.5 f(x) =f (2.5) = 2.5logig2.5-1.2=-02<0 + the root lies in (2.5, 3) I iteration : x, =5 (2.5+3)=2.75 F(x) = f (2.75) = 2.75logyg2.75- 1.2 = 0.008 <0 “the root lies in (2.75, 3) . Uiertions 13 = 2.7543) =2875 Hence the required approximate root is 2.875 after 3 iterations. Note: Suppose the number of stages (or iterations) is not stated in any problem, we have ‘0 continue this iterative process till we get consistency in two consecutive values of x. EXERCISES . (1) Perform five iterations of the bisection method to obtain the smaltest positive root of the equation f(x) = x3 -5x+1=0 Ans: 0.203125 ) Use bisection method in five stages to obtain a real root of the following equations correct ‘0 three decimal places 4 ; () B_3,-5=0 (i) xe"-1=0 (iii) °-x-1=0 (iv) xlog.x =12 Ans: (i) 2.281 di) 0.594 (iii) 1.34375 (iv) 6.469 —~ Newton Raphson Method”™""" 2 f(a +h) = fx) thE" (xy) + rca) tees Since h is a small Quantity, h?,.h3,, . being still smaller can be neglected. Thus we have (x9) FOr) thf (xg) = O>h= F'"(xq) Using this in ay = 94h, we obtain X= 49- al (Provided f'(x9) #0) which is the first approximation Xo. Similarly starting with x, we get a better approximation i, F(a) ie neighbourhood of the root. 2) Hf we choose x9 close to the root then we get the Toot of the equation more rapidly 3) If £'() is very large, ie when the graph of the function when it crosses the x-axis nearly vertical then this method is very useful, 3.18 WORKED EXAMPLES : 1 0 correct to three decimal places, Solution : Let f(x) =x9-2x-5, f(y =1-2-S=-6 <9, £2) =8~4-52-1<0, £(3)= 27~6~$=16>0. ‘Therefore a-teal root lies in Q, 3), neighbourhood of 2 and let the approximate root xp = 2. The root will be in the The first approximation is given by x, = x0- rea 0. £(2) ie x we have f(x) =23—2e—5, ga) — 8-4-5 £"(2) f'(x) =3x?-2, £2) =12-2=10 ) diel oy ' oh MURA e Bet T oss aa F(a) F(2.1 imati by ay =y-4Q0 24) | Fey 2" approximation is given by x2 =x, Poy) 2! roy f2.1)= (2.3 - 2(2.1) = 5 = 0.061 é 3 “approximation : 2x4 = *3 Fas) peed -2 5 2) = 302,12 9 Salis 0.061 =2. . 2 21— Toy =21~ 0.00543 = 2.0946 approximation is given by xy = yp - fon = 2,0946 ~ £(2:0946) 3 £%) ¥°(2.0946) £(2.0946) = 2.0946)" ~ 2(2, 0946) -5 =o, nee "(2.0946) =3(2.0946)? - 2 =1 1.1620 0.00054155 5 = 2.0946 — 2:00054155 _ a 1.1620 = 20946 ~ 0.000048517 5 = 2.0946 Hence the required approximate hee Correct to 3 decimal places is 2.095 Example 2: Find a reallroot of the equation xe *-2= 0 correct to three decimal places using Newton-Raphson method. Solution : f(x) = xe*-2, f(0) =-2<0, f(I) =e-2=0.7183>0 +, areal root lies in (0, 1) and let x9 =1 f'(x)=xe*+e*, f'(1) =e +e=2e = 5.4365, ae F(x) _ > f@) _ 0.7183 UO to) 2 et Wigs eee First approximation : x; = xo FC) 0) ~ 5.4365 ie x =1-0.1321 = 0.8679 ne f(x) : ™ approximation : x2 = x1 — proximation + 9 =~ 02 f(x) = £(0.8679) = 0.8679 e857 -2 = 0.0672 £"(x) = £'(0.8679) = (0.8679+ 1) 9°” = (1.8679) 98679 ~ 4, 4499 “x = 0.8679 - - ore S067? = 0,8679-0,01510 =0.8528 x iinatl F(x) proximation : +3 = x2 — Fa) at . 0.8528 _9 = 0,0008453 F(x) = (0.8528) = 0.8528 € 0.8528 — 4.3471 £'(xp) = £"(0,8528) = (1.8528) € 3 = a3 = 0.8528 - ones 0. 8528 - 0.001945 = 0.8526 e Fs) £(x3) = £(0.8526) = 0.8526 e9-8526 -2 = - 0,00002391 __ F*(x3) = £"(0.8526) = (1.8526) €°85%8 = 4.3457 a —0.00002391 _ 0.00002391 N95 0.8526 — gy 08526 +3457 = 0.8526 + 0000005501 = 0.8526 33 and x4 are same correct to 4 decimal places. Hence the real places is 0.853. , 1 Example 3: Use Newton-Raphson method to find a real root of xsinr + cosr = 0 near x=a correct to three decimal places. Solution: f(x) =xsinx+cosx +. f'(x) =xcosx+sinx—sinx = xCOSx Also x9 = 7 (in radian measure) f(m) =msinn + cost =-1 and f'(m) =ncosn =-7% =I 1 fo) _ ff), oY) 1 root correct to three decimal 1 approximation : xy = x — FG) @ (=n) m x, = 2.8246 < imati f(x) 2" approximation : x9 = x) -— + ‘pp 2 1 Ta) f (x;) = £(2.8246) = 2.8246 sin(2.8246) + cos(2.8246) = — 0.06971 f'(x) = f'(2.8246) = 2.8246 cos(2.8246) = -2.6839 xy = 2.8246 — €0.06971) _ 4 goqg _ 0.06971 —2.6839 2.6839 = 2.8246 - 0.0259 = 2.7987 ~ £02) 3% approximation : x3 = x2 - = c f°) £(x2) = £(2,7987) = 2.7987 sin(2:7987) + cos(2.7987) =0.00082742 £"(x9) = £'(2.7987) = 2.7987 cos(2.7987) = — 2.6358 =0.00082742. _ 4.7987 — 9-00082742 2.6358 2.6358 = 2.7987 - 0.003139 =2.7983 +. The required root is 2.798 Example 4: use Newton - Raphson method to find 937 Solution : Let x= 937 = 2°=37 or 'x3~37 =0 | a f(x) = 8-37, (G)=27-37=-10 <0, £(4) = 64-37 =27 39 areal root lies in (3, 4). Let x9 =3 be the initial approximation» x3 = 2.7987 - correct to 3 decimal places. oo fo) £@) 1 approximation : 1= 40 — F.C) ne sen f@)= -10 and f'(x)=3,? | £3) =27 op OS 54 0 9 Bp. attop ope = 3303 | pPapprosimation : xy=.x, £0. _ 3 5993 £8.3703) Pa) (3.3703) | 1.3703) = (3.3703)° ~37 = 1.2830 1163703) = 3(3.3703)? = 34.0767" ; 1.2830 : 3 ay 233703-5 7 = 3.3703~ 0.03765 = 3.3327 3 approximation :, x3= x - f() = 3.3327 £33327) F(x) “= £*(3,3327) + £83327) = 8.3327) -37 = 0.01592 , £83327) = 3(3.3327)? = 33.3206 ou nites 2 ards oe = 3.3327 0.000478 = 3.3322 =3.3327- 4 - correct to,3 decimal places is 3.332 earl: 5: Applying Newton - Raphson method to find the real root of the equation x4~x-10=0 which is neat to x = 2 correct to 3 places of decimal. | Solution : f(x) =x*-x-10 given ay=2 © (x)=4x3-1 fx) =£(2)=16-2-10=4,, and, f'(%o)=£'(2)=31 2 fO0) 29 -£@ a 58. =2-—Sis2-= ie, x= 31.871 FG) FQ f(a) _ gn £08) } F(x) 1.871) t(.gmi) =(1.871}* -(1.871)-10=03834 ( 987 ky =1.871- 0.3834 1 g71- 000152 = 1 871) =4( (1.971) -1=25.1 ok 251987 .0152 = 1.8558 id pei ral f(a), a g — £18558) 3" approximation: x3= 2 — em 1.855857 g558) (1.8558) f(1.8558) =(1,8558)* - (1.8558) -10= 0.005292 F(.8558) =4( 1.8558) -1 = 24,5654 1 ays 1.asse ~ 2.005292 1,858 0,0002154 = 1.8556 24.5654 From xp and x3 we find that the value of the root is 1.855 1 approximation’! “x= 2 approximation : xy =x) — EXERCISES Using Newton — Raphson method find a real root of the foll three decimal places 1) x? -Sx42=0 Ans : 4.561 3) xt 4dsinx=0 Ans : - 1.933 5) ¥22 Ans : 2.802 1) ¥24 Ans : 2,884 9) 2 _x-3=0 in(2,2.5) Ans : 2.130 11) x4 433-71? — x45 =0 in (2,3) Ans : 2.061 lowing equations correct to 2) x3-3x-5=0 Ans : 2.279 4) xlogigx-1-2=0 Ans : 2741 6 Vi7 Ans : 4.123 8) tanx-x=0 Ans : 4.493 10) x3-5x+1=0 in (0,1) Ans:0.201 12) e* -4x=0 in (2, 3) Ans : 2,153 We have so far discussed root-finding methods which require an interval in which the root lies. We now describe methods which require one or more approximate values to start the solution and these values need not necessarily bracket the root. The first is the iteration method which requires one starting value of x, To describe this method for finding a root of the equation F(%) = 0, (2.1) we rewrite this equation in the form x= 9) (2.8) There are many ways of doing this. For example, the equation et+e-2=0 can be expressed in different forms = [2 ase = (2- #3 “lay * 2-x*, x= (2-7) etc. Now, let xp be an approximate root of Eq. (2.8). Then, substituting in Eq. (2.8), we get the first approximation as x1 = 9 (0) Successive substitutions give the approximations = OC), 3 = O02), --5 Example 1, Solve e* ~3x=0 by the method of iteration. Solution..Let f(x) =e*-3x=0 fOsrhat ves [Maze Tsar ve . a root lies between 0 and 1. Let xt 2=66) goede and $(0)=1/3,0U) =O(x) o 2 1 (x) = 2. ——___ ¥O53 (2x45) 1 o’@) | <1 for all x in (2, 3). Take xy=2-0 x, = (2x9 + 5)'7 = 9" = 2.0801 xy = (91602) = 2.0924 ; x3 = (9:1848)' = 2-0942 x4= (91884) = 2.0945 ; x5 = (9-1890)' = 2.0945: Therefore the root is 2-0945. Example 6. Find a positive root of 3x- v1 + sinx =0 by iteration method. Solution. Writing the given equation as x=qVirsing = 60), oy = 6V1 + sinx The root of given equation lies in (0, 1) since f(0) =— ve and f(1)=+ve In, 1), | 6@) | <1. for all x So, we can use iteration method. Taking x)=0-4, 4 a i+ sin (0-4) = 0-39291 =F T+ sin (039291) = 0.39199 %3= ; V1 + sin (039199) = 0-39187 x4= 039185 x5 = 0:39185 The root is 0-39185. Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887-1920) described an iterative procedure* to determine the smallest root of the equation f@) = 0, QD where f(x) is of the form LQ) = 1 = (ax + ax? + ay +) (2.32) Tae ie (a, a tO at O° 4+) bee Ob +O, bo bo bt O by bg. Ob, +h by tO, b +O. L,- tb 7 ba. Ob +O. b+ Ob, a, bp tO, be sacs be Ronan outs Comver gaat a be The ratios - called the convergents, approach, in the limit, the smallest 7 root of f(x) = 0. The method is demonstrated in the following examples. Example 2.21, Find the smallest root of the equation f(x) = 9 — 97 + 26x — 24 = 0 We have Fj=1- 8 74 2 2 -1s 24° 24” 2A Here Now, b=1 13 = a =~ = 1.0833, bra Therefore, hi A= _0923 b 1B bs = aby + andy 13 3 == (1.0833) —= (1) = 0.7986 R ( ) 3” Therefore, by = aby + aby + ashy - + (2 )\nosp e 2 = 1.0833 (0.7986) + {5 |(1.0833) + 54 (0) = 0.5007 Therefore, bs 3 = 1.595 by By = aby + aghy + ayy = 1.0833(0.5007) + (-3) (0.7986) + yil.0833) = 0.2880 Therefore, by _ 0.5007 by 0.2880 By = abs + aghy + aghy =0.1575 41 g286. 4 7382. Therefore, by = 0.0835 Therefore, AL 8862. by 1 . by = 0.0434 Therefore, be Fen} 920. by = 0.0223 Therefore, AL pone. The roots of the given equation are 2, 3 and 4 and it can be seen that the successive convergents approach the value 2. Example 2.22. Find a root of the equation xe* = 1. Let xeX = 1 @ Expanding e* in ascending powers of x and simplifying, we can rewrite Eq. (i) as Gi) which is of the form of the right side of Eq. (2.32). Here, 1 1 a=l, a=1, a= 5, a= 7, as 2 6 We then have b= 1, by = a =1, bs = ayby + aby = 1 +1 =2 by = aybs + ayy + ayb) = 2414 nie bs = ayby + anb3 + azby + aghy = 7 +24 7 + . 2 2 6 -—2 6.1667, 6 261 = =10.8750; & 24 Hence, we obtain Bylby = 1, by/b3 = 0.5, bylby = 0.5714, bylbs = 0.5676, bslbg = 0.5670. It can be seen that Newton’s method (see Example 2.17) gives the value 0.5671433 to this root. Example 2.23 Find the smallest root, correct to 4 decimal places, of the equation f(x) = 3x — cose -1=0. We have f(x) =1-3x+ cos x Ao¥ ar 6! x x =2-3y-2 42% oan a a lero atc nel w1-3x41-2 + 2! 2 4 48 1440 80640 a ee ae 1-(Jot- 2] =D + byxt bx +. =3 = a =0, a=-4 2 Bg BRN Mae 1 1 =0, =, a =0, 4=-—L.... SN = Tyg’ 7 = 9 =~ EOGI ‘we then obtain, 1 25, 4.125, 6.79167, 11.18750, 18.4278, 30.35365 ‘The successive eonvergents are A be p-ocaa67: i e.c0000 b by 2 =0.60608: = 0.00738, cy b & by 2 = 0.00708; peo.so7t0, & 4 by Z=oso7102 a Hence the required root, correct to four decimal places, is 0.6071. Example 2.24 Using Ramanujan's method, find a real reat of the equation aot en oF aye a? Let o wwe have “9 “The successive convergens are: 4408, where the last result is correct to three significant figures. gins : neous Linear Solution of Simulta ; : Algebraic Equations DIRECT METHODS at hn oe 2-1 Introduction . . We come across, very often, simultaneous linear algebraic eee for s ji i 5 wer. its solutions, especially, in the fields of science and See (Getermineth classes, we have solved such equations by Cramer’s ee ten i methods) or by matrix methods. These methods become tedi : number of unknowns in the system is large. After the availability 0! eal we go to numerical methods which are suited for’ computer seen ese. numerical methods are of two types namely : (i) direct (ii) iterative. We will study a few methods below: ion of Simultaneous Linear Algebraic Equations 22 Ganson Met (ex method). This is a direct metho e elimination of the unknowns by combining equations such that the n equations in n unknowns are reduced to an equivalent upper triangular system which could be solved by back substitution. Consider the n linear equations in n unknowns, viz. pry t Aye + + Ay X= dy Aa1Xy + gg +o + Aa Xy = by ) Anh + Oya Xy + Oak = Dy ij and b; are known constants and x;'s are unknowns. The system (1) is equivalent to where a, Ax=8 0 41142 ay, x by where Azn| 921922" Gq, he 2 ie b, thee = n = Fn Ba a, 1. Solve the system of equations by (i) Gauss elimination method x+2ytz=3, 2xt+3y+3z=10; 3x-y+2z=13. Solution. (By Gauss method) The given system is equivalent to 1 2 1\(x 3 2 3 3]/y |=} 10 3-1 2)lz 13 A X= B 1 21/3 (A,B)=|2 3 3 |10 3d 62 113 (MKU 1981) wl) Now, we will make the matrix A upper triangular. 1 21/3 (A,B)=|2 3 3 | 10 3° i 22 13 fo 2 LIB) mee ak te, Re 0-7-1 |4 Ry+(-3)R, ie, Ry (-3) Now take b2=— 1 as the pivot and make by, as zero. 2 3 (4,B)~}0 -1 1 4| Ry(-7) ++(2) 0 oO -8 |-24 From this, we get x+2y+z2=3 z=3,y=-1,x=2 by back substitution. ie, x=2,y=-1,2=3 by Gauss-Elimination method Example 2. Solve the system 3 and 2x—3y+20=2. (MKU 1980] 2x+3y-z=5; 4xt4y—3e= facani 0 Solution. The system is equivalent t 2). 3nc1 \px 5 4 4 -3i}ly l=] 3 2-3 2)z2 2 A X=8B 2+.3 -1°]5 (A,B)=|4 4 -3 |3 2-3 2 {2 Step 1. Taking ay, = 2 as the pivot, reduce all elements below that to zero. 2:3, -l 5 (A,B)~| 0 -2 -1 al OF 6 Sie k 3 Ry (- 2), Ra 1) Step 2. Taking the element — 2 in the position (2, 2) as pivot, reduce all elements below that to zero. 2inigcceay 5 (A,B)~| 0 -2 -1 [-7] Rx(-3) 0 oO 6 18 Hence 2xt+3y-z=5 -2y-z=-7 6z= 18 . 2=3,y=2,x= 1. by back substitution. Ges system equations is 2x =e a xeayer © bre ye et ‘The augmented matrix of the above system is [A}B] = [1 2-1] 3 ‘Transforming augmented matrix to echelon form ve get [2-2 2/27 mom, [! tla ee * 5 | Fines i ii pS rye 3 et -y 2 : -O > youo4 Substeuting y= 4 in equation (5) we get W6xdetr 2 nd 20 4 Substituting y = 4 and z= 4 im equation (1) we get rated-d 8 3 3 xeB-4 6 3 SB re aed 1, The required solutions of the system is x = —1, y given system of equations ise + Ay 4 6. = weetye st exe yeh 2 2 24 6/27 ‘The augmented mats to the above system is [AJB] = | 3 8 9 *| safe ‘Transforming augmented snattx to echelon form we got | ‘The given system of equations using row - echelon form reduces to xeyyeoe 2 on yoo = “Mn = 44 Substituting 2 = 2 in equation (S) we get y4+9%2=> 19 3 y= 9-8 = 1 Substituting 2 = 2 and y = 1 in equation (4) we get kA DHL oan? " ee2e6 © 5 wens wo ‘The roquired solution b x= 3, ya i algebraic 3.19 Numerical Solutions of non-homogencous systems of linear alg equations in 3 variables. Introduction : Sinwultancous linear algebraic equations oct er’s hile-aiid “imam; engineering, In lower classes, we have solved such equations by cram is method. But these methods are found to be impracticable for large asta the calculations are tedious. To solve such equations there are other numerical met ss which are particularly suited for computer operations. These numerical methods are of two types i) direct and ii) iterative wns occur in various fields of science and We study the following iterative methods of solving, non — homogeneous system of linear algebraic equations in three variables. 1) Jacobi’s m ss -seidel method Consider the system of equations ayx +byy+eyz = dy agx+bzy+c9z = do a3x +b3y-+c3z = dy in which the numerically large coefficients are along the leading diagonal of the coefficient matrix. Such a system is called a diagonally dor int system. Some times we may have to rearrange the given system of equations to-meet this requirement. If this condition is satisfied, the solution exists as the iteration will converge.” ; (1) 1 From the given system, wehave x =—(4,—biy—cy2) . 1 1 y= dy -agx-c22) sessed (2) 5 — (d3-a3x—-b3y) 2.0...) by c3 ¢ Initially we give the values x=x9, y=Yo, 229 using these values: (first iterative) in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we have, ti 4 ati biyo-c1z9) ; MF amg 72 ; 21= (sata bao) siniay the second iterative values of the unknowns can be ima by substituting f first iterative values in (1). (2) and (3), we have 7 ay-by eas Pree 5 ante cy) 5 = 7 (d3—a3%-b3y1) The above process is repeated until two consecutive iterative values are same. The solutions are obtained from the values in the last iteration, Note : In the Jacobi’s iterative method, we start with some initial approximation x9. Yo. 2 for the values of the unknowns. This initial value usually chosen as x= 0, yo= 0, 29= 0 if initial approximation is not given, WORKED EXAMPLES : Example 1 : Solve by Gauss-Jacobi method 10x+2y+Z=9, x+10y-z=-22, +2x + 3y+10z = 22 Solution : Here we see that the diagonal elements are dominant. Hence the iteration method can be applied. Solving for x, y, 2 we obtain 1 1 “1 = (9-2y 2) sree 1) 5 YS (22-242) QQ) ¢ 2=— (2242x-3y) «.-+B) x 0° YZ) eve(1) sy nv XZ) evee(2) 5 Z 10° 73y: First iteration : Let the initial values be (0, 0, 0) using these values in (1) , (2) and (3), we get ij 1 1 =—(9)=0.9, =—(-22)=-2.2, 2=—(22)=2.2 eerie n= 79) 417 79) Second iteration : Using x, yy, 2) in(1) ,(2) and (3), we get gp -2(-2.2)-2.2)=112 : va=pL-22-0.9+2.2]=-2.07 ty =pbe+ 2(0.9) — 3(-2.2) ]= 3.04 Third iteration : Substituting these values in (1), (2) and (3) , we get the third approximations % = pb-2(-2.07 -3.04]=1.01 ; y3 = 22-1112 +3.08]= 2.008 23 = thes 2(1.12) - 3(-2.07) = 3.045 Fourth iteration : : 1 %4=119-2(-2.008) ~3.045]=0.9971 5 y= wpbz2-1.01 +3.045] = -1,9965 1 Zs 2 + 2(1.01) ~ 3(-2.008) ]=3.004°, continuing the above process, we get Fifth iteration: x5 = 0.9989 , ys =-1.9993, 25 =2.998 Sixth iteration: x6 =1.0000 , yg=-2.000 , zg = 2.999 Seventh iteration: x7 =1.0000, yy =-2.000, 27 =3.000 The values in the 6" and 7" iterations are almost same so, we can stop the iterations and thus the solution is x= 1, y=—2 and 2=3 Example 2 : Solve the following system of equations by Jacobi’s method correct to three decimal places x +y+54z=110, 27x + 6y-z =85, Gx + 15y + 22=72 g Solution : As the coefficient matrix is not diagonally dominant we re-write the equation as follows so that the coefficient matrix becomes diagonally dominant. 2Ix+6y-2=85 ; 6x+lSy+2z2=72 ; x+y+54z=110 Solving for x,y,2 we get = (85 ~6y42) sessed a 1 1 ‘ ¥= 75 (72 -6x-22) some 2= 57 (110 -x-y)........3) First iteration : Starting with initial value x=0,y=0, z=0 in(1), (2) and (3) we get the Hi 1 first approximation x, = 57 65) = 3.1481, yy = 4 (n= 48> m= (110) = 2.0370 Second iteration : Using x, =3.1481, y =4.8, 2)=2.0370 in (1) ,(2) and (3) we obtain x2'= [email protected]) + 2.0370) = 2.1569 y2 = Hl2-00.1481) — 2(2.0370) ) = 3.2691 zy = 2(110-3.1481- 4.8) = 1.8898 54 a Third iteration : Substituting x, = 2.1569, y=3.2691, 29 = 1.8808 In (1), (2) and (3) we get 2x3 = F7(65-603.2601 + 1.8898) = 2.4916 y3 = Fylt2-6(2.1569) 21.8898) ) = 3.6852 23 = st 10 ~ 2.1569 ~ 3.2691) = 1.9365 continuing the above iterative process, we obtain Fourth iteration : x4 = 2.4009, yg 5451, z4= 1.9226 Fifth iteration : x5 = 2.4315, ys =3.5833, z5=1.9269 Sixth iteration : xg = 2.4232, yg = 3.57048, 26=1.9256 Seventh iteration : x7 =2.426, y7 = 3.573, 26=1.926 Fight iteration ; xg = 2.425, yg =3.573, zg=1.926 ; ih ths e values In the 7° and 8" iterations are a je terations and thus the solution is x= 2. a Sarre aoe “ . » y=3.573, z=1.926 gg Gauss — Seidel Method : ris is another numerical iterative method giving approximate solution. ‘This method is a seplcable when the numerically large coefficients are along the leading diagonal of the qoefficient- matrix (as in the case of Gauss-Jacobi's method) . Here also we may have to arrange the given system of equations to meet the above condition: This method is a nodification to Jacobi’s iteration method. The method is illustrated as below Consider the system of equations qyrtbyy tei = 41» age bay +en2 = dy, agxtbsy tex = 3 From the given system, we have , 1 .Q) (dy-byy- 12) 1 4 Al) oy = 5, Gemee) ae 3) 1 —Gs-ast—bay) : 3 zo respectively, ues for the unknown x, y» 2 as Xo, Yor To start with we give the initial val (2) and (3) becomes using these values the equations a), 1 Yt = (dy —agxj-62%0) 3 21 bg 1 ay =— (dy -byyo-€120) 5 —(d3—a3x1— bs) ay 63 ‘As soon as the new value of the immediately in the following equation. This is the modification d to Gauss-Jacobi’s method which is studied ‘The reader should carefully, observe the above equations. variables is found, it is used in the Gauss-Seidel method as compares earlier. alculated by substituting first Simitarly the second iterative values of the unknowns can be wane values in (1), (2) and (3). weave n = Lea,-bon-er ; 2 = paren : ra consecutive iterative values of Yo ae same. resser number of iterations when compared to ue for a variable immediately in the following 1 225 sg a3 x9 —b3 ¥2) ‘The above process is repeated until s Note : Gauss - Seidel method converses in Gauss-Jacobi method as we use the new val equation. WORKED EXAMPLES : Example 1: Solve by Gauss-Seidel S2x'+ 3Y +10 z= 22 Solution : Solving for x,y,z we have “ay, yep yt) method 10x +2y+#2=9, x4 10y-2 (2) 1 neq Or-2 ; th his oat qhe values in the 7" and 8" iterations are ‘ almost same to the 3" decimal place, so we can stop the iterations and thus the solution is 2.425, y=3.573, 2=1.926 3.21 Gauss-Seidel Method : jother numerical iterative method giving approximate solution. This method is also le when the Numerically large coefficients are along the leading diagonal of the coefficient- matrix Cas in the case of Gauss-Jacobi's method) . Here also we may have to rearrangs the given system of equations to meet the above condition, This method is a modification to Jacobi’s iteration method. The method is illustrated as below Consider the system of equations axtbyy te = dy, agxtbyytegz =dy, agx+b3y+eyz = dy From the given system, we have . 1 1 (dy -byy-C12) Dy ay applic (dy -agx-c9z) .. 2.3) 1 2=—(d3—aga—bay) ... c3 To start with we give the initial values for the unknown x, y,Z a8 X9, Yo. Zo respectively, using these values the equations (1) , (2) and (3) becomes 1 1 1 4 = (di byyo-c12o) 5 ¥1 = (dy -apxj-egz9) 3 21 =—(d3—agx -byy,) ay be 6 The reader should carefully, observe the above equations. As soon as the new value of the variables is found, it is used immediately in the following equation. This is the modification in the Gauss-Seidel method as compared to Gauss-Jacobi’s method which is studied earlier. Similarly the second iterative values of the unknowns can be calculated by substituting first iterative values in (1), (2) and (3), we have 1 1 1 %=—(dy—byyy C24) Y2 =~ (dg-aQxy C224) § 2 =—(d3—a3.x9 —b3 yo) ay by 3 ‘The above process is repeated until two consecutive iterative values of x, y, z are same, Note : Gauss — Seidel method converges in lesser number of iterations when compared to Gauss-Jacobi method as we use the new yalue for a variable immediately in the following equation, WORKED EXAMPLES : Example 1: Solve by Gauss-Seidel method 10x + 2y+z=9, x+l0y-z2=-22, y = (12-6 0.14815) -200) = 3.54074 = a (110 -3.14815 -3.54074) = 1.91317 Second iteration : x) = = (85 - 6(3.54074) + 1.91317) = 2.4321 y2 “4 (72 ~6 (2.43218)-20.91317) = 3.5720 = = (110 -2.4321 -3.5720) = 1.9258 Third iteration : x3 = = (85 - 6(3.5720) + 1.9258) = 2.4256 y3= = (72 -6 (2.4321) -2(1.9258)) = 3.5729 23 4 (110 -2.4256 -3.5729) = 1.9259 Fourth iteration : x4 = s (85- 63.5729) + 1.9259) = 2.4254 yg= = (12 -6 (2.4256) ~2(1.9259)) = 3.5730 = = (110 -2.4254 3.5730) = 1.9259 x=2.4256 y=3,573 2=1.926 EXERCISES Solve the system of equations by i) Gauss-Jacobi method and (ii) Gauss-seidel 1..chod 1) lOxty+2=12, x+l0ytz=12, xty+10z=12 Anstx=1, y=1, z=1 2) Set2ytz=12, xt4y+2z=15, x+2y+52=0 Ans:x=0,995, y=195, 2=3.15 3) 28x+4y 2x4 Ty tdz = 35, x 3y+102 = 24 Ans rx = 0.994, Y=1507, z= 1.849 2) Sem 2ytz=-4, ve 6y-22=-1, xt y452=13 Ansix=-1.001, y=0.999, 2=3 5) x-2y+10z = 30.6, 2x+y-2=10.5, 3xty+z=9.3, Ans 1.2315, y=2.2618, 2=3,3823 6) 30x-2y+3z =75, 2x+2y+18z=30, 3x+17y—22z = 48 Ans: x=2.579, y=2.797, 221.069 7) 9x+2y+4z =20, x+1l0y+4z=6, 2x-4y+10z =-15 Ans : x = 2.7333, y = 0.986, 652 8) Sx—-3y+2z=20, 6x+3y+122=35, 4xt1ly—-2=33 Ans:x=3.02, y=1.99, 2=0.91 9) 8x+y+z=8, Qxt4ytz=4, x+3y+5z=5 Ans: x= 0.876, y=0.419, 2=0.574 10) 10x-2y+z=12, x+9y-z=10, 2x-y+1lz =20 Ans : x =~ 8.2989, y = 14.3995, z= 0.10039 JI) 10x+y+z=12, 2x+10y+z = 13, 2x+ 2y+10z =14 Ans:x=1, y=-1, z=1 ~- 12) 20x+2y+6z=28, x+20y+92=-23, 2x-7y-20z =-57 Ans: x=0.5149, y= -2.9451, z=3,9323 CG) sole Re Ogle 2 by Goto Cdsdnadion Wollod — + LAGE TEV qo BU Beka 23 . D2 dha arguinted wali Re open tp » (ars) = ye ( -2 4 ? & 21nr?3 Hoy—m 4 fF ™ 5 v4 caste | a o 3 hi ct Oo -\ -83 NF 348 Biot, 7 “4-2 \ pus-\ e G- prvrvee 4 a & o-3 2 i-tl 6 0 WN ae tis Sy v 2qunaine 18° cageeet © apts @ He ee, © 2 af74h «lh. = @.9 72g top Osa ab 24 sy 2 oh e271 a — $F “A 3) Sau ke : iy 4 om bg haw f @x,-2 italy vd % +2% AGoly 216 om ox, — 8% + 6% lo %Xy2 6 @® 3X, — 1S A V4y ASK = —I4 a te & Xe — Jan, = 34 > 6 > (6:3) . e aoe o 4° \G \o 4 q te + 26) 3-1 qa git _6 a » ee “5 a7 Ro/y {p:s)- a tari’ 6 4 3 ® Ue 4-6 qa3c4 ot pg 7 8H . oR N, Be? LA - Ryo Bo Res eg 72 a > MG © 2 yie -% ott «2 | 5% O38 44: 18 > Wy : ap a (6 iW 8] << > 2 ' { 27d oe -\@ g ii 2 8 ate Example 2, Solve the following system of equations by using Gauss-Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel methods (correct to 3 decimal places) : 8x- 3y+2z=20 4x+ lly-z=33 6x + 3yt 12z7=35. are dol 3 Solution. Since the diagonal elements inant in the coefficient matrix, we write x, y, 2 as follows sot [20 + 3y - 22] Ae ye 7 (33-4x+2) (2) ay [35- 6x - 3y] =) Gauss-Jacobi method : First iteration: Let the initial values be x=0, y= 0, z=0 Using the values x=0, y=0, z=0 in (1), (2), (3) we get, We 3 [20 + 3(0) — 2(0)] =2:5 yO =e (33-40) +01=30 WL i 7 135 - 6(0) — 3(0)] = 2.916666 Second iteration : Using these values x, y, 2 again in (1), 2) (3), we get Mea 7 [20 +3 (3-0) — 2 (2-916666)] = 2895833 y= aR [33 —4 (2-5) + (2:916666)] = 2:356060 (2) 3 [35-6 (2-5) - 3 (3-0)] = 0-916666 Third interation : Oat g [20 +3 (2:356060) — 2 (0-916666)] = 3-154356 9) = [33 - 4 (2-895833) + (0.916666)] = 2.030303 3) 1 29 = 5 [35 - 6 (2895833) — 3 (2.356060)] = 0879735 Fourth iteration : Ome x0" = [20 + 3 (2.030303) ~ 2 (0.879735)] = 3.041430 4 y= 77 (33-4 (3-154356) + (0.879735) = 1.932937 (4) _ 1 2°" = 7q7 5 ~ 6 B-154359 — 3 (2.030303) = 0.831913 Fifth iteration : x= : [20 + 3 (1.932937) — 2 (0:831913)] = 3-016873 1 y? = 7 83 - 4 3.041430) + (0-831913)] = 1.969654 1 = Jz 35 - 6 (3:041439 - 3 (1.932937) =0912717 Sixth iteration : i 1 x= 4g [20+ 3 (1-969654) — 2 (0.912717)] = 3.010441 1 y= 7 33 - 4 (3.016873) + (0.912717) = 1.985930 Oa + [35 - 6 (3.016873) - 3 (1-969654)] = 0.915817 Seventh iteration : ad [20 + 3 (1-985930) - 2 (0-915817)] = 3015770 y? =+ [33 - 4 (3-010441) + (0-915817)] = 1988550 = 4 [35 — 6 (3-010441) — 3 (1-985930)] = 0.914964 Eigth iteration : Os ‘ [20 + 3 (1-988550) - 2 (0-914964)] = 3-016946 yOu + [33 - 4 (3-015770) + (0-914964)] = 1.986535 ® =4 [35 - 6 (3.015770) ~3 (1-988550)] = 0.911644 He al Ninth iteration : Ma ‘ [20 + 3 (1.986535) ~ 2 (0-911644)] = 3017039 y ot [33 - 4 (3:016946) + (0-911644)] = 1.985805 2 =$ (35 — 6 (3-016946) — 3 (1-986535)] =0911560 _ Tenth iteration : x 4 [20 +3 (1-985805) — 2 (0-911560)] = 3-016786 82 [33 —4 (3.017039) + (091 15601 = 1.985764 20 24 35 ~ 6 (4.017039) ~ 3 (1985805) = 0911696 In Sth, Oth and 10th iterations the values of x, y, Z are same correct to 3 decimal places. Hence we stop at this level. Gauss-Seidel method : We take the initial values as y=0,2=0 and use equations (1) First iteration + x = 2043) -2O1=25 We + [33-4 (2:5) + 0] = 2090909 Me oS [35 — 6 (2:5) — 3 (2:090909)} = 1143939 Second iteration : Me i [20 + 3 (2:090909) — 2 (1:143939)] = 2998106 a [33 - 4 (2998106) + (1-143939)] =2:013774 me) ot [35 — 6 (2998106 — 3 (2:013774] = 0914170 Third iteration : x= a [20 +3 (2013774) — 2 (0-914170)] = 3026623 1 9° = 77 [33 — 4 (6-026623) + (0.914170)] = 1.982516 @ 1 1 w= [35 — 6 (3-026623) — 3 (1-982516)] = 0907726 Fourth iteration : 1 x =~ [20 +3 (1-982516) ~ 2 (0:907726)} = 3.016512 oot aT (33 - 4 (3-016512) + (0-907726)} = 1.985607 ot eng (35 - 6 (3016512) -3 (1-:985607)] = 0912009 Fifth iteration : wil Mas {20 + 3 (1:985607) -2 (0912009) = 3-016600 1 ys Tz 83 ~ 4 G-016600) + (0-912009)] = 1.985964 = s [35 ~ 6 (3-016600) ~ 3 (1-985964)] = 0-911876 Sixth iteration : We : (20 +3 (1-985964) — 2 (0-911876)] = 3:016767 1 y = [33 - 4 (3-016767) + (0-911876)] = 1:985892 o -3 [35 - 6 (3-016767),- 3 (1-985892)] = 0911810 (The values of x, y, z got by Jacobi method correct to 3 decimal places are got even in the 6th iteration by Gauss-Seidel method.) Seventh iteration : Mm =; [20 + 3 (1.985892) - 2 (0911810)] = 3.016757 ya + [33- 4 (3016757) + (0:911810)] = 1-985889 ao at [35 - 6 (3016757) — 3 (1-985889)] = 0911816 Since the seventh and eighth iterations give the same values for x, y, z correct to 4 decimal places, we stop here. “ x=3-0168, y= 1-9859, z=0-9118 Coouls Helio . 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Sat, 9G Mg 7 q Bo, + 20, FAG © \|. 2a fe LY Una: Yes d Cm \ a4 \ . en Sua 0 : ie 3 2 4 Qa, Son “84 =| dv Ly Mig ® Lys Sot Shay Uyeha yy Vig Bao “os day dow ere fg, Uiertae ees A 23. <5, dey = 2a lo ehiv day a dw y7% 2D qn Ai Yoo z | p si fen : Las 2) 3 Say Uy Lae Yao! a ° ; 2 day 22. 9g) * GH) t sg f a tals - Ae |S a: Yo Wa By Say Ur Fe Ugg Ser <4 7S a tan 4. 4E)G) Hot = & = .-4 mr 2ad. danh= 2 418 3.7 a s (e4—- 34415 216 - bp ° . 26 > 2 L=-/, 2% ° & Hy) oe te 5h 8 o 1 %e ° sz, : 02s Sz ~ 3% rcs _-} 2 92-7) 2 2-74 82a -\l 8% Gta +S , _2g \ +42 BF ee) 3 - 3. (“e) 1s 2 D -—2 FNS fume ll z= 2d) ie Wwe Zy =\\ ian eas +8 ) + ie 2 ( 3. 3e 2 aS 4 ie oll (8) \4s=38 2 4E% ey bee 4 oie AB yg a we Ox-+Z2 ae a a Oo 1 Nef | te he O° ° 7 a 2%) 4304 1% y = “A 2 Be Ma Fag a 7 a 9 5 Kye 2 | ~e () Xe 28 Ie aa UW 4+ st a 16 6 = a 44 252% Lig, By, Helbodl 4 Tate quleaigeion Holled 4 Frcheriqa ror - en wettod . Lo Leowposs Thin weld nv ved Aud Values Sky f => do 4, t spi > LU=4 Sep Ly. WpAV Um=eY | ( By Ka’ wwollol t Dooldte LO Ler eagesitnn, | Bre Sa 24 esd, Foy ~5258 5 Ba ty tA = lo 7 Ss -2- | aw | 4 st \ -S 4 a 3 + 4 Zz jo Tew diss c4 po 8 |. fe Se “ig pI uw | ? 5 Ue ts (IF um Wbe ° a 2 Un Mio ig oy th Jain Yoo doy Uys sro ; Vs te ie ers Joy Wig aa Yea 344 2 Un dese Wee oe iy Une 2, hi 7 a Yay Wigton? A -s-n. (gear! 2 var Bee ee] 3 Ss dey Urs + yp Uns *4s5 = 2) 04) Ma 7 4 3 + gle s (9) © dy Wa Xoo Uso 2% yen + da CP Agr? G +4) () Jo = 2b - z : 5 Ato — SHH Ie. a3? eam My -S2- 5 Do 2 4 Way = \2 432 (434) 2 942g + (G42 1 9396. See ga 324: Zen bs gate SEE Gx Se 4 - kG Yo (224) oS % = Fo BS Ge Dd He \eoe-46 +868 866 7 = 424. | G45 <« 46 , e= Ae, Xe 866, Ye 2R4 304 gar got 2) Sdv by Delite arqulrizaddn wel NXap+z =), yt+0y—-Z=6 ¢ J » Ste By ter of, 2 fx = pvt : | | 3 -l y |r] : 3 * a G& Lvs { o Uy Ue Us \ \ g 0° ° Una Vos alee A 358 Qgy Soe | a 0 Oe 2 Un We ig Say Bu fo Mie Uae Nyy Yig FYbg aU Jag, Wa h2 Uae Ja Uae Mog a 3d 5s 3]. Peau Uw =\ Mya el eo # Say Wea tae = » # hay Ug Hes = 7 pe] De da Ve + ets oo 7 a dey Ure be Ye + Uys = 3 Ugg = W— 3 He) (2- Ug, = - 4° s LY=s $ 4 eo ° a ( & ; ° Se. -le¢ s 2 | 4s 4 |, 2 hz) We 6-44, 2 2 =o SY — hth Uy <4 at 7 &er2)-3 = © “he a \ ouxey onl a wets ® » fe- | —tes a+5(~%2)* -A—-S 34[9-) az a0 a toed 3 |.) 4 - 4 2 6 Z 2 =| oO —& a—Ste? > ot aytees \ he we LL \X=B 2 CLY)x- g 4 LE x) =t a) LZ=-3 Vee Pe a A- LIT s (‘i io, |e Boy Aoi | By Ae o & 2 Lo Mor Ass. aoe | FA la A Ry, Bay Man, Ley Lar 4 hes - Pe AM Lez sg. 2-(= a @ Ah ved Zs za &%, = SS ix =2 ke f% Aud vee oe Ad Amy ds ') Solve Mle aly 4 Caan “4 Clobasleg wold * MH 4+ 2%, FW =S It 4 &% + 22G,56 SX, 120A, be 824,25 “lo =) \x2 8 (25 ay 5 a a | Ae % 22 $2 Xy bp = ae Az LLT Po \ 2 3 hy db O° Qu Qe Qa Otay me en ed |e epee oan) cetera 3% BL Asp der dea, © 0 ky 2 z {My dy Yer c hy Sw Gn Aye gy ha ay Sea Xsidu Le dutlets Nay +l 2G bal Qo Lin = 8 5 lye & 4 [ha 2 dn bv= 3 Qe 2% 2 "a dy Lay + Yar Sar = 2 = Lg, = 22= GM). ear . o : Nae BAM 82-84-49 = 1 3 Teg hy 2M, 4M = 5 Xe > SA, - IN = 5+3-6 = 5-352 ° eel Verh caen , Gl A % AA & DA, +BA_ + VLG = 4 IA—22 = 6 28-2256 6-64 22, --lo— 8%, -32, F—to-2€2) —3(s) Be = Nee is = ola =) hy EN ATIG ay 4 Ct ry oy Sy 1 4 6\ * \ 2 6 24 Asi L = Su 2 ea ‘ Jy hau » Gol Gaal ee 1 Sor= bel 9 dn <4 29 L : . i carne br \\o ty den ar esl fo © 4g 0 Oo | dat Ay fu Su Doran Saa ad _s du Say Nigra Ye Qaytdybos Soy hor + Sa In 6 2 Seo ace Lv ~ = As a Ls 4S = 29 3 Nag? 2 a io 3 >) is \ 4 A 2 ue ? Sas {lY, é Lo WV Lzs 8 1 §& oO < 3 : ye : -l 3 2 ad > 2-2 = -S8 4, ieee - Js \W Gay: @& BG + & x fo Se B or 7 SS J3x%, 2 5 cS oe ~t® or. > Ree 4S & iS mr Gauss — Sachia todlod _ Corse Me SySken { Cauechena AVN 4 by +0 Zs dy SK Hey gee dy A Hho +G Zsdy. > X= He “af 4, “hy t -GZ) be we. - Qa &% 7) Ze fk bs -—a,0) i toa BE Morathion } : on Stasi csitth had Ned. = == Xso, tS 450 , Zso a C4 -b 4—< 2) te De (de ~ yp —o2) HS-t (4, &, ~ bsif -a,9), D oh XIpre Kmechion : Usha, Ly £4 Value X= a (4, — &Y - “Z) he ghC as - an, -a2) OT ee m& es agyexbetion : Udy we, % Ke ee Ny = ae CA, —by So Gir2,) @ ts = Bb (An — a, % -C5%) etalon CA, — ba hh — WK) 3 un Hporimien 7 Hsiey Ms, Ly LZ Valve Bee Le (Ay by g- CZ) A ty = + Cd -O % - GX) % Zy= 4 A — bs Gy, —A0%s) S oh AMPK merhda: Use he, ty Xtq Ve Ss Ca — bv Gy — Ze) Ms = -L- “Ay Bee be Cd — Hy —G wy) Zy = + = SC te = bs, — As KA) - aA > ‘ Cu poni hes * Mie 2s (A, ~ bids ~ 4 Zs) oy Ea Ve ot (dy ~ O, es — G 2g} Lge S (&- bs 4 - Ag Us), uh CPX Mahon | Xa = (dy —b 5-4 76) Gee Le (da % Xe — CZe) Bye (a, - bs te— G20) LY Soke SY Gaur — Tani wellood. lon Rot 2s WU K+ loy-Z = —22, eb z| —UX +34 +loz=s 22 2 tat - 24 —2); Ga Cae teal) Qe ok (22 +2-%) ; oO Ze 1 ( 20-34 4a), * tderahna ! a0, Yeo, TO = 1. Ca-o-s) = 0-f to Ge te G22) = 2-2 py ww Ke ay Gawy = Stidet ered Conrl hae Syste 4 Guahem AX + Sh 4G zed, Ark thay +Gzed, Ayr+e bs y +Gz2ds. DJ x2 “x Far 4-92) bo = Ca, - A,4 —Gz) 2D ae ie Cd - Ot —b5 4), UF iuabre : ore, B=, T=. A= L (a,-b) % —% 20) aA ne i (A, = aX, - Gd Zi= ro CAs = Og 1 — be th) 3 mA ead | a eG “as Ui bi}, —1 24) 2 ne (4, - GK - G4) “1 = (ay - 5X2 - by,). a & =!@Fzs OL rn Xzc — (a- Loitf \ 1) 3 iRtahion © q Q \ -Gz: he LL. (dy - 5 - O73) : bo £, —&h) Zs ede = M5 3 3 - Giza WS Haber : X= 2 Ud “bf, 025) ol (ay - hy — SZ) Mta> +O 2 My = 1 ( dy — Oy ty bs ty) G 5 tkeahen : Xe eee —b Y,, -Si24) sy te = a Ca, ~% 45 -G%) Zee + (hy Oy Xs — ky Ys}. \ Kia t) Sole Mf Gav» — ae lok +oy +224, 4+ lOY-Z= -It49y Flo 7 22 FP xe as ( % 23%) ge (22 42-42) z= 1 (22 - sut2d : total op prentiraher Short sith wt heo tero- “F) 1 etebon % et eLa. 2 (eyo), 0-4 ‘hh eee —is C22 - 0-9 40) = 2.29 © F924 2 (0-4) —3-2-29) 2 3 964 i ol ac Ve (a 2 62.24) -3.064) = (051g. ‘ba te ( 20 = 1.0513 + 3.064) . -1.99%¢4, 225 te (22 + 2Ctosig — 3(-1-%4x4)) = 3.00998 ot eushin ‘M2 | | | | as (9-2 C1970) 2.0614) v 0-148 ‘by = Zz L ( -g2— 0-981 + 3.0099) =~ !989 2 L( 2+ 2(0-99¢F) —2(- 19988) = 2-199. 2 O a Machin ee 47 + F—2 (-1-2989) — 2M) 5 drew 0-198 4 ae = (12, GAY +25744) = —2-00@ lo Zqe (24 $+ 2Co Aare) —3(-2 0029) = 2-994 4 = to 5H Mabie toy 2 4 (4-2. (-2) -2- > 10 ye & (22-142 er ae Zs = ra X= |sooo Ye —2- 059 ca Not = fe Gantigind & Realen -4144) 4 a7) 1-000 —2 00a (02 +2( L-v0m) =3(-2 9809) = 34. BOSOe® ZA Hh Gantry — Aertel che, Lom pared 40 Gaus —Jaceb) . > ) os Kis Shes tty Ft S4zsyo 4 Ota +6y-Zses, G+ SY +2242. Iy2 3 Hoty Z, > t-UZ IE Kae D621 bo 2Sho0 42, = arse, Xz= 2-62ss Jg23-53¢0 Eg -1 Ansq Ng = 240g” 9.53-S430 = 1-9259, As 24255 | 4az.sago , Ze (9259) |

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