Q1. What is encapsulation?

Ans Encapsulation is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming (OOP) that involves

bundling data and the methods that operate on that data into a single unit called a class. It is one of
the core principles of OOP, along with inheritance and polymorphism.

Encapsulation helps in organizing and structuring code by hiding the internal implementation details
of an object and providing a well-defined interface to interact with it. The data and methods within a
class are encapsulated together, forming a cohesive unit. The data is typically declared as private or
protected, restricting direct access from outside the class, while the methods, also known as
member functions, provide controlled access to the data.

By encapsulating data, an object's internal state is protected from unauthorized modifications or

direct access, ensuring that it can be manipulated only through the defined methods. This
mechanism helps to maintain data integrity, control access rights, and enforce business rules or
logic. It also allows for easier modification and maintenance of the code, as changes to the internal
implementation of a class don't affect other parts of the program that rely on the class's interface.

In many programming languages, encapsulation is achieved through access modifiers such as

private, protected, and public. Private members are only accessible within the class itself, while
protected members can also be accessed by derived classes. Public members are accessible from any
part of the program.

Overall, encapsulation provides data hiding, abstraction, and access control, promoting modular and
secure programming practices. It contributes to the principles of encapsulated data, modular design,
and separation of concerns, making code more manageable, reusable, and maintainable.

Q2. Define Early Binding?

Ans Early binding, also known as static binding or compile-time binding, refers to the process of
linking a method call to its implementation during the compilation phase of a program. In
programming languages that support early binding, the association between a method call and its
corresponding function or procedure is determined and fixed before the program is executed.

During the compilation process, the compiler analyzes the code and resolves the method calls based
on the declared types of the variables or objects involved. It determines the specific implementation
of a method based on the static type of the object or variable at compile-time. The compiler
generates the appropriate instructions or machine code to directly invoke the associated method.

The advantage of early binding is that it allows for efficient method invocation because the compiler
can directly generate the necessary instructions without needing to look up the method dynamically
at runtime. This results in faster execution since the method call is resolved in advance.
Early binding is commonly associated with statically-typed languages, where the type of variables is
known and checked at compile-time. Examples of languages that employ early binding include Java,
C++, and C#. In these languages, the specific method to be called can be determined during
compilation, optimizing performance.

However, early binding has limitations. It restricts flexibility because the method resolution is fixed
at compile-time, and changes in the implementation or type hierarchy require recompilation. It also
lacks the dynamic dispatch capabilities provided by late binding, where the specific method to be
called can be determined at runtime based on the actual type of an object.

In summary, early binding is a compilation-time process that associates method calls with their
implementations based on static type information. It offers efficiency in method invocation but lacks
the flexibility and dynamic dispatch features of late binding.

Q3. Define Late Binding?

Ans Late binding, also known as dynamic binding or runtime binding, refers to the process of
determining the specific implementation of a method or function at runtime rather than at compile-
time. In contrast to early binding, where the method call is resolved during compilation, late binding
allows for the selection of the appropriate method based on the actual type of the object or variable
at runtime.

During the execution of a program, when a method call is encountered, the decision of which
implementation to invoke is made dynamically based on the actual type of the object or variable at
that moment. The determination is typically performed using a virtual method table (vtable) or a
similar mechanism that maps method calls to their respective implementations.

Late binding enables polymorphism, a key concept in object-oriented programming, where different
objects of related types can respond differently to the same method call. This allows for flexibility
and extensibility, as new classes can be added without modifying existing code as long as they
conform to the required interface or inheritance hierarchy.

Languages that support late binding typically have features like virtual methods, interfaces, or
abstract classes. These constructs define a contract that specifies the methods that must be
implemented by derived classes, but the specific implementation is determined at runtime.
Examples of languages that employ late binding include C++, Java (with the use of the "virtual"
keyword), Python, and C# (with the use of the "override" keyword).
The advantages of late binding include increased flexibility, modularity, and the ability to create
generic code that can operate on different types. It allows for the implementation of complex
runtime behaviors and enables frameworks that rely on dynamic dispatch.

However, late binding can introduce a small performance overhead compared to early binding, as
the method resolution needs to be performed at runtime. Additionally, errors in method calls or
missing implementations may only be detected at runtime, leading to potential runtime exceptions
or bugs.

In summary, late binding is the process of selecting the appropriate method implementation at
runtime based on the actual type of an object or variable. It enables polymorphism and dynamic
dispatch, providing flexibility and extensibility in object-oriented programming languages.

Q4. What is inline function?

Ans An inline function is a programming construct in which the code of a function is inserted directly
into the calling code at the point of function invocation, rather than being executed as a separate
subroutine. It is a form of code optimization technique used in many programming languages.

When a function is declared as "inline," the compiler replaces the function call with the actual code
of the function during the compilation process. This eliminates the overhead of a function call, such
as the stack frame setup and tear-down, and improves the overall performance of the program.

The inline function is typically defined within a class or in a header file, making the function code
available at multiple call sites. The compiler decides whether to honor the "inline" keyword based on
various factors, including the size and complexity of the function, optimization settings, and
compiler-specific rules. In some cases, the compiler may choose not to inline a function even if it is
declared as "inline."

The use of inline functions is beneficial in scenarios where small, frequently called functions are
involved. By avoiding the function call overhead, it can lead to faster execution and reduced code
size. However, using inline functions extensively or inappropriately can result in larger executable
files and may not always provide performance improvements.

It's important to note that the "inline" keyword is a suggestion to the compiler and doesn't
guarantee that a function will be inlined. The compiler has the final decision on whether to inline a
function or not.

In summary, an inline function is a programming construct that suggests to the compiler to replace
the function call with the actual code of the function at the call site. It is used for performance
optimization by reducing the overhead of function calls. However, the decision to inline a function is
ultimately determined by the compiler.

Q5. Explain get() and put () function?

Ans The `get()` and `put()` functions are commonly used in programming to retrieve or store values
in data structures such as arrays, lists, dictionaries, or objects. The specific behavior and usage of
these functions may vary depending on the programming language or data structure being used.
Here's a general explanation of their purpose:

1. `get()`: The `get()` function is used to retrieve or access the value associated with a specific key or
index in a data structure. It allows you to retrieve data stored in a collection by providing the
identifier or index that corresponds to the desired value.

For example, in an array, `get()` can be used to access a particular element at a specified index. In a
dictionary or map, it retrieves the value associated with a specific key. The `get()` function typically
returns the value if found or a default value or `null` if the key or index does not exist in the data
structure.

2. `put()`: The `put()` function is used to store or insert a value into a data structure, associating it
with a given key or index. It allows you to add or update data in a collection by specifying the
location where the value should be placed.

For instance, in an array, `put()` is used to assign a value to a specific index. In a dictionary or map, it
associates a value with a particular key. The `put()` function may overwrite an existing value if the
key or index already exists, or it may insert a new entry if the key or index is not present in the data
structure.

It's important to note that the exact syntax and usage of `get()` and `put()` functions can vary across
programming languages and data structures. Some languages may use alternative function names or
provide different methods for accessing and modifying data structures. Therefore, it's recommended
to refer to the specific documentation or programming language's guidelines to understand the
precise usage and behavior of these functions in a particular context.

Q6. what is stream?

Ans In computer programming, a stream is a sequence of data elements that are continuously
generated, processed, or consumed. It is a concept used to handle input and output operations in a
flexible and efficient manner.

A stream can be thought of as a flow of data that can be read from or written to. It provides a way to
abstract the underlying details of data transfer, such as the source or destination of the data, and
allows programmers to work with data in a unified and consistent manner.
Streams are commonly used for various I/O operations, such as reading from or writing to files,
network communication, or interacting with input/output devices. They provide a high-level
interface that simplifies reading and writing data, regardless of the specific data source or
destination.

Streams are typically categorized as either input streams or output streams:

1. Input Streams: An input stream represents a source of data from which information can be read. It
allows reading data sequentially, often one element at a time. Input streams provide methods for
reading different types of data, such as bytes, characters, or objects, from the stream.

2. Output Streams: An output stream represents a destination to which data can be written. It allows
writing data sequentially, often one element at a time. Output streams provide methods for writing
different types of data to the stream, such as bytes, characters, or objects.

Streams can be used to handle data in a buffered or unbuffered manner. Buffered streams read or
write data in chunks, improving performance by reducing the number of I/O operations. Unbuffered
streams, on the other hand, read or write data one element at a time, without intermediate
buffering.

Streams are integral to many programming languages and libraries. For example, in Java, you have
`InputStream` and `OutputStream` classes for handling input and output streams respectively. In
C++, you have `iostream`, `ifstream`, and `ofstream` classes from the standard library that deal with
input/output operations.

In summary, a stream represents a flow of data that can be read from or written to. It provides a
high-level interface for working with input and output operations, abstracting the underlying details
of data transfer. Streams are used to handle various I/O tasks, such as reading from or writing to
files, network communication, or interacting with devices.

Q7. Define Friend function?

Ans In object-oriented programming, a friend function is a function that is granted special access to
the private and protected members of a class. It is a construct that allows a non-member function to
access the private or protected data of a class as if it were a member of that class.

A friend function is declared inside a class, but it is not a member of that class. It is typically declared
in the class definition using the `friend` keyword, and its prototype is provided. By declaring a
function as a friend, the class explicitly grants that function the ability to access its private and
protected members.

The key characteristics of a friend function are as follows:

1. Access to private and protected members: A friend function can access and manipulate the
private and protected data members of the class that granted it friendship. It can directly access the
private and protected members without going through the public interface of the class.

2. Not a member of the class: Unlike regular member functions, friend functions are not part of the
class they have access to. They are defined and implemented outside the class scope. However, they
can be declared inside the class to indicate their friendship.

3. Independent of object instances: Friend functions can be invoked without an object instance of
the class. They can operate on the class's data using the object instances passed as arguments or
through other means.

Friend functions are useful in situations where a function needs to access the private or protected
members of a class for specific operations or computations but doesn't necessarily need to be a
member of the class. They can provide external functions or operators with privileged access to the
internals of a class without compromising encapsulation.

It's worth noting that the use of friend functions should be limited to cases where there is a genuine
need to access private or protected members, as it can potentially break encapsulation and hinder
code maintainability if used excessively.

In summary, a friend function is a non-member function that is granted special access to the private
and protected members of a class. It allows external functions or operators to work with the private
or protected data of a class as if they were part of that class.

Q8. Explain the use of new operator state the syntax?

Ans The `new` operator is used in many programming languages to dynamically allocate memory for
objects or data structures at runtime. It is primarily used when creating objects on the heap, as
opposed to the stack, and is often paired with the `delete` operator to deallocate the memory when
it is no longer needed.

The syntax of the `new` operator varies slightly depending on the programming language, but the
general form is as follows:
```

new type

```

Here, `type` refers to the data type of the object being created. It could be a built-in type, such as
`int` or `float`, or a user-defined class type.

When the `new` operator is used, it performs the following actions:

1. Allocates memory: The `new` operator allocates memory from the heap to store the object or
data structure. The amount of memory allocated is determined by the size of the specified type.

2. Constructs object: If the `type` is a user-defined class type, the `new` operator calls the
constructor of that class to initialize the object's state. The constructor is responsible for initializing
the member variables and performing any necessary setup.

3. Returns pointer: The `new` operator returns a pointer to the allocated memory, which can be
assigned to a pointer variable. This pointer allows access to the dynamically allocated object or data
structure.

Here's an example in C++ that demonstrates the usage of the `new` operator:

```cpp

int* myNumber = new int; // Allocate memory for an integer

*myNumber = 42; // Assign a value to the dynamically allocated integer

```

In this example, the `new` operator is used to allocate memory for an integer on the heap. The `new`
operator returns a pointer to the allocated memory, which is stored in the `myNumber` pointer
variable. The `*myNumber` dereferences the pointer, allowing you to assign a value of `42` to the
dynamically allocated integer.
It's important to note that when using the `new` operator, you are responsible for releasing the
memory once it is no longer needed. This is typically done using the `delete` operator, which
deallocates the memory and calls the destructor of the class if applicable.

```cpp

delete myNumber; // Deallocate the dynamically allocated integer

```

In this case, the `delete` operator is used to free the memory allocated for the integer. The `delete`
operator takes a pointer to the dynamically allocated memory as an argument.

It's crucial to match each `new` operation with a corresponding `delete` operation to avoid memory
leaks and ensure proper memory management.

Please note that the specific syntax and behavior of the `new` operator may vary in different
programming languages. It's important to consult the documentation or guidelines of the particular
language you are using for precise details on the usage of `new` and `delete`.

Q9. State the need of virtual keyword?

Ans The `virtual` keyword is used in object-oriented programming languages, such as C++ and Java,
to define a virtual function or method. It serves an essential purpose in enabling polymorphism and
dynamic binding, allowing for flexible and extensible code.

Here are the key reasons for using the `virtual` keyword:

1. Polymorphism: Polymorphism allows objects of different types to be treated as objects of a

common base type. By declaring a function as `virtual`, you can achieve polymorphic behavior,
where the appropriate function implementation is determined at runtime based on the actual type
of the object. This enables code to be written that works with a variety of derived classes, providing
flexibility and code reusability.

2. Dynamic Binding: Virtual functions enable dynamic binding or late binding. When a function is
declared as `virtual`, the method call is resolved at runtime based on the actual type of the object
rather than the static type. This means that the specific function implementation to be executed is
determined dynamically based on the object being referenced or pointed to, rather than being
determined at compile-time. Dynamic binding allows for runtime flexibility and enables overriding of
functions in derived classes.
3. Inheritance and Overrides: The `virtual` keyword is commonly used in conjunction with
inheritance. When a function is declared as `virtual` in a base class, it can be overridden in derived
classes, providing the ability to provide specialized implementations. This allows derived classes to
modify the behavior of the base class's function while still adhering to the base class's interface.

Here's an example in C++ that demonstrates the usage of the `virtual` keyword:

```cpp

class Base {

public:

virtual void foo() {

// Base class implementation

};

class Derived : public Base {

public:

void foo() override {

// Derived class implementation

};

```

In this example, the `foo()` function in the `Base` class is declared as `virtual`. This allows the `foo()`
function to be overridden in the `Derived` class by using the `override` keyword. When the `foo()`
function is called on an object, the appropriate implementation (either the base or derived class) is
determined based on the actual type of the object.

Without the `virtual` keyword, the function would be resolved based on the static type of the
pointer or reference, resulting in static binding and potential loss of polymorphic behavior.

In summary, the `virtual` keyword is used to define virtual functions or methods in object-oriented
programming languages. It enables polymorphism, dynamic binding, and function overriding in
derived classes, providing flexibility and extensibility to the code.
Q10.State User Defined data types in C++?

Ans In C++, user-defined data types allow programmers to create their own custom data types by
combining built-in data types or other user-defined types. These user-defined data types provide a
way to represent and manipulate complex data structures or objects. Some common forms of user-
defined data types in C++ include:

1. Structures: Structures in C++ allow you to group multiple variables of different data types under a
single name. They provide a way to create a composite data type that can store related data
together. Structures are defined using the `struct` keyword, and the variables within the structure
are referred to as members.

```cpp

struct Person {

std::string name;

int age;

float height;

};

```

In this example, the `Person` structure is defined with three members: `name`, `age`, and `height`.
You can create instances of the `Person` structure to store data for individual persons.

2. Classes: Classes are a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming. They allow you to
define a blueprint or template for creating objects that encapsulate both data and behavior. Classes
can have member variables and member functions, enabling you to represent real-world entities as
objects with their own properties and actions.

```cpp

class Rectangle {

private:

double length;

double width;

public:
 void setDimensions(double len, double wid) {

length = len;

width = wid;

double calculateArea() {

return length * width;

};

```

In this example, the `Rectangle` class has private member variables `length` and `width`, and public
member functions `setDimensions()` and `calculateArea()`. Objects of the `Rectangle` class can be
created to store and manipulate data related to rectangles.

3. Enumerations: Enumerations allow you to define a set of named constant values. They provide a
way to create a user-defined data type that represents a discrete set of values. Enumerations are
defined using the `enum` keyword.

```cpp

enum Color {

RED,

GREEN,

BLUE

};

```

In this example, the `Color` enumeration is defined with three named constants: `RED`, `GREEN`, and
`BLUE`. These constants can be used to represent colors in a program.

These are just a few examples of user-defined data types in C++. By combining built-in data types,
structures, classes, and enumerations, programmers can create custom data types that suit their
specific needs. User-defined data types help in organizing data, improving code readability, and
facilitating the development of complex systems.
Q11. Explain the use of scope resolution operator?

Ans The scope resolution operator (::) in C++ is used to access members (variables or functions) that
belong to a particular namespace, class, or structure. It allows you to explicitly specify the scope in
which the member is defined, helping to disambiguate between identically named members in
different scopes.

Here are the main uses of the scope resolution operator:

1. Namespace access: In C++, namespaces are used to organize and group related entities together
to avoid naming conflicts. The scope resolution operator allows you to access variables, functions, or
types defined within a namespace.

```cpp

namespace MyNamespace {

int myVariable = 42;

void myFunction() {

// Function implementation

int main() {

int myVariable = 10;

MyNamespace::myVariable = 20; // Accessing the variable in MyNamespace

return 0;

```

In this example, the scope resolution operator (::) is used to access the `myVariable` defined in the
`MyNamespace` namespace, distinguishing it from the `myVariable` defined in the local scope of the
`main` function.

2. Class member access: The scope resolution operator is commonly used to access members
(variables or functions) of a class from outside the class or from within the class itself.
```cpp

class MyClass {

public:

static int myStaticVariable;

void myMethod() {

// Method implementation

};

int MyClass::myStaticVariable = 100; // Definition of the static member variable

int main() {

MyClass::myStaticVariable = 200; // Accessing the static member variable

MyClass obj;

obj.myMethod(); // Accessing the member function

return 0;

```

In this example, the scope resolution operator is used to access the static member variable
`myStaticVariable` and the member function `myMethod()` of the `MyClass` class.

3. Nested class access: If a class is defined within another class, the scope resolution operator can be
used to access the nested class from the outer class or outside the class hierarchy.

```cpp

class OuterClass {

public:

class InnerClass {

public:

void innerMethod() {

// Method implementation
 }

};

};

int main() {

OuterClass::InnerClass obj; // Accessing the nested class

obj.innerMethod(); // Accessing the member function of the nested class

return 0;

```

In this example, the scope resolution operator is used to access the `InnerClass` from the
`OuterClass` and invoke the `innerMethod()` member function.

By using the scope resolution operator, you can precisely identify the scope in which a member is
defined, preventing naming conflicts and providing explicit qualification when accessing members in
different scopes, namespaces, or classes.

It's important to note that the scope resolution operator is not limited to namespaces, classes, and
structures. It can also be used with other entities, such as enumerations, global variables, or
functions defined outside a class or namespace.

Q12. List different type of constructor Explain any constructor with example.?

Ans In C++, constructors are special member functions that are used to initialize objects of a class.
They are called automatically when an object is created. Here are the different types of constructors:

1. Default Constructor: A default constructor is a constructor that is automatically generated by the

compiler if no other constructor is defined. It does not take any arguments and provides default
initialization for the object's member variables.

```cpp

class MyClass {

public:

MyClass() {

// Default constructor
 }

};

```

2. Parameterized Constructor: A parameterized constructor is a constructor that takes one or more

parameters. It allows you to initialize the object's member variables with specific values provided
during object creation.

```cpp

class MyClass {

public:

int value;

MyClass(int n) {

value = n;

};

```

3. Copy Constructor: A copy constructor is a constructor that creates a new object by copying the
values of another object of the same class. It is used to initialize an object with the same values as an
existing object.

```cpp

class MyClass {

public:

int value;

MyClass(const MyClass& other) {

value = other.value;

};
```

4. Constructor Overloading: Constructor overloading is a technique where multiple constructors with

different parameter lists are defined in a class. This allows objects to be created with different sets
of arguments, providing flexibility in object initialization.

```cpp

class MyClass {

public:

int value;

MyClass() {

value = 0;

MyClass(int n) {

value = n;

MyClass(int n1, int n2) {

value = n1 + n2;

};

```

In this example, the class `MyClass` has three constructors: a default constructor, a constructor with
one parameter, and a constructor with two parameters.

5. Delegating Constructor: A delegating constructor is a constructor that calls another constructor of

the same class to perform some or all of the initialization. It allows for code reuse and avoids
duplication of initialization logic.

```cpp
class MyClass {

public:

int value;

MyClass() : MyClass(0) {

// Delegating constructor

MyClass(int n) {

value = n;

};

```

In this example, the default constructor delegates the initialization to the parameterized constructor
by using the member initializer list.

These are the main types of constructors in C++. Constructors play a crucial role in object
initialization and allow objects to be created with specific initial values or copied from existing
objects. By using different types of constructors, you can customize the initialization process to meet
your specific requirements.

Let's take an example of a class called `Person` that represents a person's name and age. We'll
define a parameterized constructor that takes the name and age as input and initializes the
corresponding member variables of the class.

```cpp

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

class Person {

public:

std::string name;

int age;
 // Parameterized constructor

Person(const std::string& n, int a) {

name = n;

age = a;

};

int main() {

// Create an instance of the Person class using the parameterized constructor

Person person1("John Doe", 25);

// Access and display the member variables

std::cout << "Name: " << person1.name << std::endl;

std::cout << "Age: " << person1.age << std::endl;

return 0;

```

In this example, the `Person` class has two member variables: `name` of type `std::string` and `age`
of type `int`. The parameterized constructor of the `Person` class takes a name (`n`) and an age (`a`)
as parameters. Inside the constructor, the `name` and `age` member variables are initialized with the
provided values.

In the `main()` function, we create an instance of the `Person` class named `person1` using the
parameterized constructor. We pass the name "John Doe" and age 25 as arguments to the
constructor. The constructor initializes the `name` and `age` member variables of `person1` with the
provided values.

Finally, we access and display the `name` and `age` member variables of `person1` using the dot
operator (`.`). The output will show the name and age of the person:
```

Name: John Doe

Age: 25

```

In this example, the parameterized constructor allows us to initialize the `Person` object with specific
values at the time of its creation. It provides a convenient way to set the initial state of the object
without the need for separate setter methods or manual assignments.

Q13. What is function overloading Explain with suitable example?

Ans Function overloading is a feature in C++ that allows multiple functions with the same
name but different parameter lists to coexist in the same scope. It provides a way to define
multiple functions that perform similar operations but with different argument types or
different numbers of arguments.

Here's an example to illustrate function overloading:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

// Function to add two integers

int add(int a, int b) {

return a + b;

// Function to add two floating-point numbers

float add(float a, float b) {

return a + b;

int main() {

int result1 = add(3, 4); // Calls the first add() function

 float result2 = add(2.5f, 3.7f); // Calls the second add() function

std::cout << "Result 1: " << result1 << std::endl;

std::cout << "Result 2: " << result2 << std::endl;

return 0;

```

In this example, we have defined two functions named `add()` with the same name but
different parameter lists. The first `add()` function takes two integers as parameters and
returns their sum, while the second `add()` function takes two floating-point numbers as
parameters and returns their sum.

In the `main()` function, we demonstrate the use of function overloading by calling the
`add()` function with different argument types. When we call `add(3, 4)`, the compiler resolves
the call to the first `add()` function that takes two integers as parameters. Similarly, when we
call `add(2.5f, 3.7f)`, the compiler resolves the call to the second `add()` function that takes
two floating-point numbers as parameters.

The output of the program will be:

```

Result 1: 7

Result 2: 6.2

```

Function overloading allows us to write more concise and flexible code by providing
different versions of a function that can handle different types or numbers of arguments. It
improves code readability and reduces the need for creating multiple functions with different
names to perform similar operations.
Q14. Describe different types of inheritance?

Ans Inheritance is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming that allows a class to

inherit properties and behaviors from another class. C++ supports different types of inheritance,
which are explained below:

1. Single Inheritance: Single inheritance involves deriving a new class from a single base class. The
derived class inherits all the members (variables and functions) of the base class and can add its own
members or override inherited members.

```cpp

class Base {

public:

void baseMethod() {

// Base class method

};

class Derived : public Base {

public:

void derivedMethod() {

// Derived class method

};

```

In this example, the `Derived` class inherits the `baseMethod()` from the `Base` class and also
introduces its own `derivedMethod()`.

2. Multiple Inheritance: Multiple inheritance enables a class to inherit from multiple base classes.
The derived class inherits members from all the base classes and can access and use them.

```cpp

class Base1 {
public:

void baseMethod1() {

// Base class method 1

};

class Base2 {

public:

void baseMethod2() {

// Base class method 2

};

class Derived : public Base1, public Base2 {

public:

void derivedMethod() {

// Derived class method

};

```

In this example, the `Derived` class inherits both `baseMethod1()` from `Base1` and `baseMethod2()`
from `Base2`, in addition to its own `derivedMethod()`.

3. Multilevel Inheritance: Multilevel inheritance involves deriving a class from another derived class,
forming a hierarchy of inheritance. The derived class at one level becomes the base class for the next
level.

```cpp

class Base {

public:

void baseMethod() {
 // Base class method

};

class Derived1 : public Base {

public:

void derived1Method() {

// Derived class 1 method

};

class Derived2 : public Derived1 {

public:

void derived2Method() {

// Derived class 2 method

};

```

In this example, the `Derived1` class inherits the `baseMethod()` from the `Base` class, and the
`Derived2` class inherits both the `baseMethod()` from `Base` and `derived1Method()` from
`Derived1`, forming a multilevel inheritance hierarchy.

4. Hierarchical Inheritance: Hierarchical inheritance involves multiple derived classes inheriting from
a single base class. Each derived class inherits the members from the same base class independently.

```cpp

class Base {

public:

void baseMethod() {

// Base class method

}
};

class Derived1 : public Base {

public:

void derived1Method() {

// Derived class 1 method

};

class Derived2 : public Base {

public:

void derived2Method() {

// Derived class 2 method

};

```

In this example, both `Derived1` and `Derived2` inherit the `baseMethod()` from the `Base` class
independently and can have their own additional members and behaviors.

These are the main types of inheritance in C++. Each type provides a different way of reusing and
extending the functionality of existing classes, allowing for code reuse, modularity, and
polymorphism in object-oriented programming.

Q15. Explain Virtual base class with suitable diagram?

Ans Virtual base class is a concept in C++ that allows for the creation of a diamond-shaped
inheritance hierarchy without encountering the "diamond inheritance problem" or "dreaded
diamond." The diamond inheritance problem occurs when a derived class indirectly inherits
from a base class through multiple paths, causing ambiguity in member access and leading
to potential issues.

To resolve this problem, the virtual base class mechanism is used. A virtual base class ensures
that only one instance of the base class is inherited, regardless of how many paths there are
to reach it.
Here's an example to illustrate virtual base class and the diamond inheritance problem:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

class Base {

public:

int data;

};

class Derived1 : public Base {

public:

void display() {

std::cout << "Derived1: " << data << std::endl;

};

class Derived2 : public Base {

public:

void display() {

std::cout << "Derived2: " << data << std::endl;

};

class Derived3 : public Derived1, public Derived2 {

public:

void display() {

std::cout << "Derived3: " << data << std::endl;

 }

};

int main() {

Derived3 obj;

obj.Derived1::data = 10;

obj.Derived1::display();

obj.Derived2::data = 20;

obj.Derived2::display();

obj.display();

return 0;

```

In this example, we have a base class `Base`, and two derived classes `Derived1` and
`Derived2`, both inheriting from `Base`. Then we have `Derived3`, which inherits from both
`Derived1` and `Derived2`. This forms a diamond-shaped inheritance hierarchy.

The problem arises when accessing the `data` member variable and the `display()` function
through the `Derived3` class. Without the use of a virtual base class, there would be two
instances of `data`, one from `Derived1` and another from `Derived2`, leading to ambiguity
and potential conflicts.

To resolve this, we can make `Base` a virtual base class by using the `virtual` keyword during
inheritance:

```cpp

class Derived1 : virtual public Base {

// Rest of the class definition

};
class Derived2 : virtual public Base {

// Rest of the class definition

};

```

By making `Base` a virtual base class, only one instance of `Base` is shared among `Derived1`
and `Derived2`. This ensures that `Derived3` has only one `data` member and one `display()`
function, removing ambiguity and conflicts.

Here's a visual representation of the diamond-shaped inheritance hierarchy without and with
virtual base class:

```

Base

/ \

Derived1 Derived2

\ /

Derived3

```

Without virtual base class, `Derived3` would have two instances of `Base`, resulting in
ambiguity and conflicts. With virtual base class, `Derived3` has only one instance of `Base`,
resolving the diamond inheritance problem.

Using the virtual base class mechanism, the code will produce the following output:

```

Derived1: 10

Derived2: 20

Derived3: 10
```

In this example, `Derived3` inherits the `data` member and the `display()` function from both
`Derived1` and `Derived2` through the virtual base class `Base`. Accessing the member
variables and functions works seamlessly without conflicts, ensuring correct behavior in the
diamond-shaped inheritance hierarchy.

Q16. Write a c++ program to copy contents of one file to another file?

Ans Certainly! Here's a C++ program that copies the contents of one file to another file:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

#include <fstream>

int main() {

std::ifstream inputFile("input.txt"); // Open input file

std::ofstream outputFile("output.txt"); // Open output file

if (!inputFile) {

std::cout << "Error opening input file." << std::endl;

return 1;

if (!outputFile) {

std::cout << "Error opening output file." << std::endl;

return 1;

char ch;

while (inputFile.get(ch)) {

outputFile << ch; // Write character to output file

 }

inputFile.close(); // Close input file

outputFile.close(); // Close output file

std::cout << "File copied successfully." << std::endl;

return 0;

```

In this program, we use the `<fstream>` library to work with files. We create two file stream
objects: `inputFile` for reading the content from the input file, and `outputFile` for writing the
content to the output file.

We first check if the input and output files are successfully opened. If any of the files cannot
be opened, an error message is displayed, and the program exits.

Then, we use a `while` loop to read each character from the input file using `inputFile.get(ch)`.
The loop continues until the end of the file is reached.

Inside the loop, we write each character (`ch`) to the output file using the `<<` operator with
`outputFile`.

Finally, we close both the input and output files using the `close()` function.

After executing the program, the contents of the `input.txt` file will be copied to the
`output.txt` file. If the copy is successful, the program displays the message "File copied
successfully."
Q17. write a program to calculate area and circumference of a circle using inline
function?

Ans Here's a C++ program that calculates the area and circumference of a circle using an
inline function:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

inline double calculateArea(double radius) {

return 3.14159 * radius * radius; // Inline function to calculate area

inline double calculateCircumference(double radius) {

return 2 * 3.14159 * radius; // Inline function to calculate circumference

int main() {

double radius;

std::cout << "Enter the radius of the circle: ";

std::cin >> radius;

double area = calculateArea(radius);

double circumference = calculateCircumference(radius);

std::cout << "Area of the circle: " << area << std::endl;

std::cout << "Circumference of the circle: " << circumference << std::endl;

return 0;

In this program, we define two inline functions: `calculateArea()` and

`calculateCircumference()`. Both functions take the radius of the circle as a parameter and
return the calculated area and circumference, respectively.

The `main()` function prompts the user to enter the radius of the circle. It then calls the
`calculateArea()` and `calculateCircumference()` functions, passing the entered radius as an
argument. The returned values are stored in variables `area` and `circumference`, respectively.

Finally, the program displays the calculated area and circumference of the circle on the
console.
By using inline functions, the code for calculating the area and circumference is inserted
directly at the call site during compilation, avoiding the overhead of function calls. This
improves performance for small, frequently called functions like these.

Note: It's important to mention that the `inline` keyword is only a suggestion to the compiler,
and it's up to the compiler to decide whether or not to inline the function. Modern compilers
often make such optimizations automatically based on their own heuristics.

Q18. Declare a class of vehicle. Derived classes are two wheelers, three wheelers and four
wheelers. Display the properties of each type of vehicle using member function of class?

Ans Certainly! Here's an example of how you can declare a base class `Vehicle` and derive three
classes `TwoWheeler`, `ThreeWheeler`, and `FourWheeler` from it. Each derived class will have its
own member functions to display the properties of the respective type of vehicle:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

class Vehicle {

protected:

std::string type;

int numWheels;

public:

Vehicle(const std::string& vehicleType, int wheels) : type(vehicleType), numWheels(wheels) {}

void displayProperties() {

std::cout << "Type of Vehicle: " << type << std::endl;

std::cout << "Number of Wheels: " << numWheels << std::endl;

};

class TwoWheeler : public Vehicle {

public:
 TwoWheeler() : Vehicle("Two Wheeler", 2) {}

void displayProperties() {

Vehicle::displayProperties();

std::cout << "Additional Two Wheeler properties..." << std::endl;

};

class ThreeWheeler : public Vehicle {

public:

ThreeWheeler() : Vehicle("Three Wheeler", 3) {}

void displayProperties() {

Vehicle::displayProperties();

std::cout << "Additional Three Wheeler properties..." << std::endl;

};

class FourWheeler : public Vehicle {

public:

FourWheeler() : Vehicle("Four Wheeler", 4) {}

void displayProperties() {

Vehicle::displayProperties();

std::cout << "Additional Four Wheeler properties..." << std::endl;

};

int main() {

TwoWheeler twoWheeler;

ThreeWheeler threeWheeler;
 FourWheeler fourWheeler;

std::cout << "Properties of Two Wheeler:" << std::endl;

twoWheeler.displayProperties();

std::cout << std::endl;

std::cout << "Properties of Three Wheeler:" << std::endl;

threeWheeler.displayProperties();

std::cout << std::endl;

std::cout << "Properties of Four Wheeler:" << std::endl;

fourWheeler.displayProperties();

std::cout << std::endl;

return 0;

```

In this example, the `Vehicle` class serves as the base class, and the `TwoWheeler`, `ThreeWheeler`,
and `FourWheeler` classes are derived from it.

The `Vehicle` class has two protected data members: `type`, which represents the type of the
vehicle, and `numWheels`, which stores the number of wheels the vehicle has. The constructor of
`Vehicle` initializes these members.

The `displayProperties()` function in the `Vehicle` class is used to display the common properties of
any vehicle, such as the type and number of wheels.

Each derived class (`TwoWheeler`, `ThreeWheeler`, and `FourWheeler`) inherits from the `Vehicle`
class and overrides the `displayProperties()` function to display additional properties specific to each
type of vehicle.
In the `main()` function, we create instances of each derived class and call their respective
`displayProperties()` functions to display the properties of each type of vehicle.

The output of the program will be:

```

Properties of Two Wheeler:

Type of Vehicle: Two Wheeler

Number of Wheels: 2

Additional Two Wheeler properties...

Properties of Three Wheeler:

Type of Vehicle: Three Wheeler

Number of Wheels: 3

Additional Three Wheeler properties...

Properties of Four Wheeler:

Type of Vehicle: Four Wheeler

Number of Wheels: 4

Additional Four Wheeler properties...

Each type of vehicle displays its specific properties along with the common properties inherited from
the Vehicle base class.

Q19. Write a c++ program to use setfile () and setiosflags () manipulator?

Ans Certainly! Here's a C++ program that demonstrates the use of `setfill()` and `setiosflags()`
manipulators:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

#include <iomanip>

int main() {

std::cout << "Using setfill() and setiosflags() manipulators:" << std::endl;

 // Set fill character to '*'

std::cout << std::setfill('*');

// Display numbers with width 10, right-aligned, and fill character '*'

std::cout << std::setw(10) << std::setiosflags(std::ios::right) << 123 << std::endl;

std::cout << std::setw(10) << std::setiosflags(std::ios::right) << 4567 << std::endl;

std::cout << std::setw(10) << std::setiosflags(std::ios::right) << 89 << std::endl;

// Reset fill character to default (space)

std::cout << std::setfill(' ');

return 0;

```

In this program, we use the `setfill()` and `setiosflags()` manipulators from the `<iomanip>` library to
control the formatting of output.

The `setfill()` manipulator is used to set the fill character for output. In this example, we set it to `'*'`
using `std::setfill('*')`.

The `setiosflags()` manipulator is used to set formatting flags for the output stream. We use
`std::ios::right` to right-align the output.

Inside `main()`, we demonstrate the usage by displaying numbers with a width of 10, right-aligned,
and filled with the fill character (`'*'`). The `std::setw()` manipulator sets the width of the output.

Finally, we reset the fill character to the default (space) using `std::setfill(' ')`.

The output of the program will be:

```

Using setfill() and setiosflags() manipulators:

*******123

****4567

*******89

In this output, the numbers are displayed with a width of 10, right-aligned, and filled with the `'*'`
character.

Q20. Write a C++ program to compare two strings using overload operator"=="?

Ans Certainly! Here's a C++ program that compares two strings using the overloaded `==` operator:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

#include <string>

bool operator==(const std::string& str1, const std::string& str2) {

return (str1 == str2); // Compare the strings using the "==" operator

int main() {

std::string str1, str2;

std::cout << "Enter the first string: ";

std::getline(std::cin, str1);

std::cout << "Enter the second string: ";

std::getline(std::cin, str2);

if (str1 == str2) {

std::cout << "The strings are equal." << std::endl;

} else {

std::cout << "The strings are not equal." << std::endl;

 }

return 0;

```

In this program, we define an overloaded `==` operator outside the `main()` function. The
`operator==` function takes two `std::string` references as parameters and compares the strings
using the `==` operator. It returns `true` if the strings are equal and `false` otherwise.

Inside the `main()` function, we prompt the user to enter two strings, `str1` and `str2`. We use
`std::getline()` to read the input, allowing spaces in the strings.

Then, we compare the strings using the overloaded `==` operator by writing `str1 == str2`. If the
strings are equal, we display the message "The strings are equal." If the strings are not equal, we
display the message "The strings are not equal."

Note that C++ already provides a built-in `==` operator for comparing `std::string` objects. The
purpose of this program is to demonstrate how you can overload the `==` operator if you want to
define a custom comparison behavior for strings or other types.

Q20. Explain try, catch and throw in exception handling?

Ans Exception handling is a mechanism in C++ that allows you to handle and manage exceptional
situations or errors that can occur during program execution. It helps you to gracefully handle errors
and prevent program termination. The three main components of exception handling are:

1. **Try**: The `try` block is used to enclose the code that might throw an exception. It is followed
by one or more `catch` blocks. If an exception occurs within the `try` block, the program jumps to the
appropriate `catch` block to handle the exception.

2. **Catch**: The `catch` block is used to catch and handle specific types of exceptions. It follows
the `try` block and can be followed by one or more `catch` blocks. Each `catch` block specifies the
type of exception it can handle. If an exception matches the type specified in a `catch` block, the
code within that `catch` block is executed. If no `catch` block matches the thrown exception, the
exception is propagated to the caller or terminates the program if unhandled.

3. **Throw**: The `throw` statement is used to throw an exception explicitly. It is typically used
within the `try` block when an error or exceptional situation is encountered. The `throw` statement
specifies the type of exception to be thrown. It can be either a built-in type or a user-defined type.
When an exception is thrown, the program searches for a matching `catch` block to handle the
exception.

Here's an example that demonstrates the use of `try`, `catch`, and `throw`:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

int divide(int numerator, int denominator) {

if (denominator == 0) {

throw "Division by zero is not allowed.";

return numerator / denominator;

int main() {

int numerator, denominator;

std::cout << "Enter the numerator: ";

std::cin >> numerator;

std::cout << "Enter the denominator: ";

std::cin >> denominator;

try {

int result = divide(numerator, denominator);

std::cout << "Result of division: " << result << std::endl;

} catch (const char* errorMessage) {

std::cerr << "Exception caught: " << errorMessage << std::endl;

}
 return 0;

```

In this program, we have a `divide()` function that performs division between two integers. Inside
the function, we check if the denominator is zero. If it is, we throw an exception of type `const
char*` with the error message "Division by zero is not allowed."

In the `main()` function, we prompt the user to enter the numerator and denominator. We then
enclose the call to the `divide()` function in a `try` block. If an exception is thrown during the division
operation, the program jumps to the appropriate `catch` block.

The `catch` block specifies the type of exception it can handle, which is `const char*` in this case. If
the exception matches this type, the error message is printed to the standard error stream
(`std::cerr`).

If the division operation completes successfully without any exceptions, the program continues
executing the code after the `try`-`catch` block.

In the given example, if the user enters a denominator of zero, the exception is thrown within the
`try` block. The program then jumps to the `catch` block, which handles the exception and prints the
error message "Division by zero is not allowed."

Output:

```

Enter the numerator: 10

Enter the denominator: 0

Exception caught: Division by zero is not allowed.

```

Exception handling allows you to gracefully handle errors and provide appropriate actions or
messages to the user instead of abruptly terminating the program. It helps in writing robust and
reliable code.
Q21. Design C++ class which contain function display () write a program to count number of time
display () function is called (use static data member)?

Ans C++ class that contains a function `display()` and uses a static data member to count the number
of times the function is called:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

class Counter {

private:

static int count; // Static data member to count the number of function calls

public:

static void display() {

count++; // Increment the count

std::cout << "Display function called. Count: " << count << std::endl;

};

int Counter::count = 0; // Initialize the static data member

int main() {

Counter::display(); // Call display function

Counter::display(); // Call display function

Counter::display(); // Call display function

return 0;

In this example, we have a class `Counter` that contains a static data member `count` to keep track
of the number of times the `display ()` function is called.

The `display ()` function is declared as static, meaning it belongs to the class rather than any specific
object of the class. Inside the function, we increment the `count` static data member and display the
current count.

In the `main ()` function, we call the `display()` function three times using the scope resolution
operator `::` with the class name `Counter`. Each time the function is called, the `count` static data
member is incremented and displayed.
Output:

```

Display function called. Count: 1

Display function called. Count: 2

Display function called. Count: 3

```

In this output, we can see that the `display ()` function is called three times, and the count is
incremented accordingly. The static data member retains its value across multiple function calls.

Q22. what is destructor and State the importance of destructor with example?

Ans A destructor is a special member function in a C++ class that is automatically called when an
object of the class is destroyed or goes out of scope. Its name is the same as the class name but
preceded by a tilde (`~`).

The destructor is primarily responsible for releasing resources held by an object before its lifetime
ends. This can include freeing dynamically allocated memory, closing open files or database
connections, releasing locks, or performing any other necessary cleanup operations.

The importance of a destructor lies in ensuring proper resource management and preventing
resource leaks or dangling references. It allows you to define the cleanup logic specific to your class
and guarantees that it will be executed whenever an object is destroyed, regardless of the reason for
destruction.

Here's an example to illustrate the importance of a destructor:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

class ResourceHolder {

private:

int* data;

public:
 ResourceHolder() {

data = new int[100]; // Acquire some resource (dynamically allocated memory)

std::cout << "Resource acquired." << std::endl;

~ResourceHolder() {

delete[] data; // Release the acquired resource

std::cout << "Resource released." << std::endl;

};

int main() {

ResourceHolder holder; // Create an object of ResourceHolder

// Use the acquired resource

// ...

} // The object holder goes out of scope here

return 0;

```

In this example, we have a class `ResourceHolder` that acquires and holds a resource represented by
a dynamically allocated integer array (`data`).

In the constructor of `ResourceHolder`, we allocate memory for the array using the `new` operator.
This acquisition of a resource can be considered as part of the object's initialization.
The destructor of `ResourceHolder` is responsible for releasing the dynamically allocated memory
using the `delete[]` operator. This cleanup operation ensures that the acquired resource is properly
deallocated before the object is destroyed.

In the `main()` function, we create an object `holder` of the `ResourceHolder` class. Inside a block,
we use the acquired resource (not shown in the example). When the block ends, the object `holder`
goes out of scope, and its destructor is automatically called.

Output:

```

Resource acquired.

Resource released.

```

As seen in the output, the constructor of `ResourceHolder` is called when the object `holder` is
created, and the destructor is called when the object goes out of scope. This guarantees that the
acquired resource (dynamically allocated memory) is properly released and prevents memory leaks.

By defining an appropriate destructor, you ensure that necessary cleanup operations are performed,
resources are released, and your code follows good resource management practices.

Q23. What is tokens in C++ and explain in detail?

Ans In C++, a token is the smallest individual unit of a program that the compiler recognizes. It serves
as the building block for constructing valid C++ code. Tokens can be classified into several categories
based on their types and purposes. Here are the main types of tokens in C++:

1. **Keywords**: Keywords are reserved words that have predefined meanings in the C++ language.
Examples include `int`, `double`, `if`, `for`, `class`, `return`, etc. These words cannot be used as
identifiers (variable names, function names, etc.) because they have a special significance in the
language.

2. **Identifiers**: Identifiers are names given to various entities in a C++ program, such as variables,
functions, classes, and labels. An identifier is a sequence of letters (both uppercase and lowercase),
digits, and underscores, but it must start with a letter or an underscore. Examples of identifiers are
`count`, `myFunction`, `studentRecord`, etc.
3. **Literals**: Literals are fixed values that are directly used in the program. They represent specific
values of various types. Examples include numeric literals (e.g., `42`, `3.14`, `0xFF`), character literals
(e.g., `'A'`, `'b'`, `'\n'`), string literals (e.g., `"Hello"`, `"C++"`), and Boolean literals (`true` and `false`).

4. **Operators**: Operators perform various operations on operands to produce a result. Examples

include arithmetic operators (`+`, `-`, `*`, `/`), assignment operators (`=`, `+=`, `-=`, etc.), comparison
operators (`==`, `!=`, `>`, `<`), logical operators (`&&`, `||`, `!`), etc.

5. **Punctuators**: Punctuators are symbols used to punctuate or structure the code. They include
characters such as parentheses `()`, braces `{}`, brackets `[]`, commas `,`, semicolons `;`, colons `:`,
etc.

6. **Comments**: Comments are not actual tokens, but they are ignored by the compiler and serve
to provide human-readable explanations within the code. Comments can be either single-line
comments starting with `//` or multi-line comments enclosed between `/*` and `*/`.

Tokens are significant in C++ because they define the structure and syntax of the language. The
compiler tokenizes the source code by breaking it down into individual tokens, which are then
analyzed and processed to generate the corresponding executable code.

For example, consider the following C++ code snippet:

```cpp

int main() {

int x = 5;

if (x > 0) {

cout << "Positive number";

} else {

cout << "Non-positive number";

return 0;

```
In this code, some of the tokens and their types are as follows:

- Keywords: `int`, `main`, `if`, `else`, `return`.

- Identifiers: `x`.

- Literals: `5`.

- Operators: `=`, `>`, `<<`.

- Punctuators: `(`, `)`, `{`, `}`, `;`.

- Comments: There are no comments in this code snippet.

Understanding and correctly using tokens is essential for writing valid C++ code. It helps in
recognizing and resolving syntax errors, following the language rules, and ensuring the code is
properly structured and meaningful to both the compiler and other programmers.

Q24. Short note on call by value and call by reference?

Ans Call by value and call by reference are two different ways of passing arguments to a function in
C++. Let's understand them in detail:

1. **Call by Value**:

In call by value, a copy of the argument is passed to the function. Any modifications made to the
parameter within the function do not affect the original argument. The value of the parameter is
local to the function, and changes made to it are confined within the function's scope.

```cpp

void increment(int num) {

num++;

cout << "Inside function: " << num << endl;

int main() {

int number = 10;

increment(number);

cout << "Outside function: " << number << endl;

return 0;

}
```

Output:

```

Inside function: 11

Outside function: 10

```

In this example, `number` is passed by value to the `increment()` function. Within the function, the
value of `num` is incremented, but it doesn't affect the original `number` variable. When we print
`number` outside the function, its value remains unchanged.

2. **Call by Reference**:

In call by reference, the memory address of the argument is passed to the function. Any
modifications made to the parameter within the function will affect the original argument because
they refer to the same memory location. The changes made to the parameter are reflected outside
the function.

```cpp

void increment(int& num) {

num++;

cout << "Inside function: " << num << endl;

int main() {

int number = 10;

increment(number);

cout << "Outside function: " << number << endl;

return 0;

```

Output:
```

Inside function: 11

Outside function: 11

```

In this example, `number` is passed by reference to the `increment()` function by using the `&`
symbol. Any modifications made to `num` within the function directly affect the original `number`
variable. When we print `number` outside the function, its value has been modified.

Call by reference is useful when you want to modify the original argument within the function or
avoid the overhead of copying large data structures. It allows you to pass variables by reference and
directly manipulate their values.

In summary, call by value passes a copy of the argument, while call by reference passes the memory
address of the argument. Call by value doesn't affect the original argument, whereas call by
reference allows modifications to the original argument within the function.

Q25. What is Data abstraction?

Ans Data abstraction is a fundamental concept in object-oriented programming that allows the
creation of abstract data types. It involves representing complex real-world entities as classes,
abstracting away the implementation details and exposing only the essential features and behaviors
to the user.

Abstraction helps in managing the complexity of a system by providing a simplified and high-level
view of the data and operations associated with it. It focuses on what an object does rather than
how it does it.

In the context of data abstraction, an abstract data type (ADT) defines a blueprint for a class,
specifying the behavior and operations that can be performed on its objects. The internal
representation and implementation details of the data are hidden from the user, who interacts with
the data through a well-defined interface.

The key components of data abstraction are:

1. **Class**: A class is a blueprint for creating objects that encapsulates the data and the operations
that can be performed on that data.
2. **Encapsulation**: Encapsulation is the process of bundling data and related methods (functions)
together into a single unit, i.e., a class. It hides the internal details of the class and provides access to
the data through public methods, ensuring data integrity and security.

3. **Data Hiding**: Data hiding, also known as information hiding, is the principle of hiding the
internal details and implementation of a class from the user. Only the public interface, consisting of
methods, is exposed to the user for accessing and manipulating the data.

4. **Abstraction**: Abstraction refers to the process of representing essential features and

behaviors of a class while hiding unnecessary details. It allows the user to focus on the relevant
aspects of an object and simplifies the complexity of the underlying implementation.

By using data abstraction, programmers can create classes that model real-world entities, define
their behaviors, and provide a clean and intuitive interface for working with the data. It promotes
modularity, code reusability, and separation of concerns, making the code easier to understand,
maintain, and extend.

For example, let's consider a class called `BankAccount` that represents a bank account. The class
may have private member variables such as account number, balance, and owner's name. Public
member functions can be defined to perform operations like deposit, withdrawal, and balance
inquiry. The user interacts with the `BankAccount` object through these public functions, without
needing to know the internal details of how the account is managed.

Data abstraction helps in creating well-designed and modular code, promotes code reusability, and
enhances code maintenance and scalability. It allows programmers to focus on the essential aspects
of the problem domain and provides a clear separation between the interface and implementation
of a class.

Q26. What is Default Argument in C++?

Ans In C++, a default argument is a value provided for a function parameter that is used when the
argument is not explicitly passed during a function call. It allows a function to be called with fewer
arguments by providing default values for some or all of its parameters.

Default arguments are specified in the function declaration or definition, and they are assigned to
the corresponding parameters when no argument is provided for those parameters during the
function call.

Here's an example that demonstrates the use of default arguments:

```cpp

#include <iostream>

void greet(const std::string& name, const std::string& greeting = "Hello") {

std::cout << greeting << ", " << name << "!" << std::endl;

int main() {

greet("Alice"); // Uses default argument "Hello"

greet("Bob", "Hi"); // Overrides default argument with "Hi"

return 0;

```

Output:

```

Hello, Alice!

Hi, Bob!

```

In this example, the `greet()` function is defined with two parameters: `name` and `greeting`. The
`greeting` parameter has a default argument of `"Hello"`. When the `greet()` function is called, if the
second argument is not provided, the default argument `"Hello"` is used.

In the `main()` function, we call the `greet()` function twice. The first call `greet("Alice")` does not
provide a second argument, so the default argument `"Hello"` is used. The second call `greet("Bob",
"Hi")` provides a second argument `"Hi"`, which overrides the default argument.

Default arguments are specified in the function declaration or prototype. If a function is declared
with default arguments in a header file, it is important to ensure that the default argument values
are visible to the callers of the function.
Default arguments can be used for any type of function parameter, including built-in types, user-
defined types, and even pointers or references. It is common to place default arguments at the end
of the parameter list to avoid ambiguity in function calls.

The use of default arguments provides flexibility and convenience in function calls, allowing you to
define functions that can be called with different numbers of arguments without requiring the caller
to provide all the arguments.