Fundamental of electrical engineering lab –I 2019

2. Circuit analysis
Introduction
Chapter 1 introduced basic concepts such as current, voltage, and power in an electric circuit. To
actually determine the values of these variables in a given circuit requires that we understand
some fundamental laws that govern electric circuits.

These laws, known as Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws, form the foundation upon which electric
circuit analysis is built.

In this chapter, in addition to these laws, we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied in
circuit design and analysis. These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel,
voltage division, current division, and delta-to-wye and wye-to-delta transformations. The
application of these laws and techniques will be restricted to resistive circuits in this chapter. We
will finally apply the laws and techniques to real-life problems of electrical lighting and the
design of dc meters.

2.1 Ohm’s Law

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This
physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by the
symbol R. The resistance of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A depends on A
and its length l , as shown in Fig. 2.1(a).

We can represent resistance (as measured in the laboratory), in mathematical form,

Where ρ is known as the resistivity of the material in

ohmmeters. Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum, have low resistivities, while

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insulators, such as mica and paper, have high resistivities. Table 2.1 presents the values of ρ for
some common materials and shows which materials are used for conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors.

The circuit element used to model the current-resisting behavior of a material is the resistor. For
the purpose of constructing circuits, resistors are usually made from metallic alloys and carbon
compounds. The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown in Fig. 2.1(b), where R stands for the
resistance of the resistor. The resistor is the simplest passive element.

Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German physicist, is credited with finding the relationship
between current and voltage for a resistor. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law
states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i flowing through
the resistor.

That is,

Ohm defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be the resistance, R. (The resistance
is a material property which can change if the internal or external conditions of the element are
altered, e.g., if there are changes in the temperature.) Thus, Eq. (2.2) becomes

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Which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law. R in Eq. (2.3) is measured in the unit of ohms,
designated Ώ . Thus, The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of
electric current; it is measured in ohms (Ώ ).

We may deduce from Eq. (2.3) that,

So that

1 Ώ =1 V/A

To apply Ohm’s law as stated in Eq. (2.3), we must pay careful attention to the current direction
and voltage polarity. The direction of current i and the polarity of voltage v must conform with
the passive sign convention, as shown in Fig. 2.1(b). This implies that current flows from a
higher potential to a lower potential in order for v = iR. If current flows from a lower potential to
a higher potential, - v=iR .

Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we consider the two
extreme possible values of R. An element with is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(a).
For a short circuit,

Showing that the voltage is zero but the current could be anything. In practice, a short circuit is
usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect conductor. Thus,

A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.

Similarly, an element with R=ω is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). For an open
circuit,

Indicating that the current is zero though the voltage could be anything.

Thus,

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An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

A useful quantity in circuit analysis is the reciprocal of resistance R, known as conductance and
denoted by G:

The conductance is a measure of how well an element will conduct electric current. The unit of
conductance is the mho(ohm spelled backward) or reciprocal ohm, with symbol , the inverted
omega.

Although engineers often use the mho, in this book we prefer to use the siemens (S), the SI unit
of conductance

Thus,

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is measured in mhos ( ) or

siemens (S).

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2.2 Nodes, Branches, and Loops

Since the elements of an electric circuit can be interconnected in several ways, we need to
understand some basic concepts of network topology. To differentiate between a circuit and a
network, we may regard a network as an interconnection of elements or devices, whereas a
circuit is a network providing one or more closed paths. The convention, when addressing
network topology, is to use the word network rather than circuit. We do this even though the
words network and circuit mean the same thing when used in this context. In network topology,
we study the properties relating to the placement of elements in the network and the geometric
configuration of the network. Such elements include branches, nodes, and loops.

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

In other words, a branch represents any two-terminal element. The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has five
branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A current source, and the three resistors.

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A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

Anode is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit. If a short circuit (a connecting wire) connects
two nodes, the two nodes constitute a single node. The circuit in Fig. 2.10 has three nodes a, b
and c. Notice that the three points that form node bare connected by perfectly conducting wires
and therefore constitute a single point. The same is true of the four points forming node c. We
demonstrate that the circuit in Fig. 2.10 has only three nodes by redrawing the circuit in Fig.
2.11. The two circuits in Figs. 2.10 and 2.11 are identical. However, for the sake of clarity, nodes
band care spread out with perfect conductors as in Fig. 2.10.

A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

A loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and
returning to the starting node without passing through any node more than once. A loop is said to
be independent if it contains at least one branch which is not a part of any other independent
loop.

Independent loops or paths result in independent sets of equations.

It is possible to form an independent set of loops where one of the loops does not contain such a
branch. In Fig. 2.11, abca with the resistor is independent. A second loop with the 3Ω resistor
and the current source is independent. The third loop could be the one with the 3Ω resistor in
parallel with the 2Ω resistor. This does form an independent set of loops.

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A network with b branches, n nodes, and l independent loops will satisfy the fundamental
theorem of network topology:

As the next two definitions show, circuit topology is of great value to the study of voltages and
currents in an electric circuit.

Two or more elements are in series if they exclusively share a single node and consequently
carry the same current.

Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes and
consequently have the same voltage across them.

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2.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws

Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient, powerful set of tools for analyzing a large variety of
electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887). These laws are formally known as

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL).

Kirchhoff’s first law is based on the law of conservation of charge, which requires that the
algebraic sum of charges within a system cannot change.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node (or a
closed boundary) is zero.

Mathematically, KCL implies that,

Where N is the number of branches connected to the node and in is

the nth current entering (or leaving) the node. By this law, currents entering a node may be
regarded as positive, while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.

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From equation 2.17 the sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed
path (or loop) is zero.

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that,

Where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop) and vm is
the mth voltage.

To illustrate KVL, consider the circuit in Fig. 2.19. The sign on each voltage is the polarity of the
terminal encountered first as we travel around the loop. We can start with any branch and go
around the loop either clockwise or counterclockwise.

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Thus, KVL yields,

This may be interpreted as,

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2.4 Series Resistors and Voltage Division

The need to combine resistors in series or in parallel occurs so frequently that it warrants special
attention. The process of combining the resistors is facilitated by combining two of them at a
time. With this in mind, consider the single-loop circuit of Fig. 2.29. The two resistors are in
series, since the same current i flows in both of them.

Applying Ohm’s law to each of the resistors, we obtain

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Thus, Fig. 2.29 can be replaced by the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.30.

The two circuits in Figs. 2.29 and 2.30 are equivalent because they exhibit the same voltage-
current relationships at the terminals a-b. An equivalent circuit such as the one in Fig. 2.30 is
useful in simplifying the analysis of a circuit. In general,

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.

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Notice that the source voltage v is divided among the resistors in direct proportion to their
resistances; the larger the resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called the principle of
voltage division, and the circuit in Fig. 2.29 is called a voltage divider.

In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors(R1,R2, …Rn) in series with the source voltage v,
the nth resistor (Rn ) will have a voltage drop of

2.5 Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Consider the circuit in Fig. 2.31, where two resistors are connected in parallel and therefore have
the same voltage across them.

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From Ohm’s law,

Thus,

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The equivalent resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of their
resistances divided by their sum.

It must be emphasized that this applies only to two resistors in parallel. From Eq. (2.37), if
R1=R2 , then Req=R1/2 We can extend the result in Eq. (2.36) to the general case of a circuit
with N resistors in parallel. The equivalent resistance is

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Experiment 5 - Series-Parallel Circuits

Objectives:

1. Calculate and measure the voltage, current and resistance characteristics of complex
series parallel circuits.

Materials and Equipment:

1. DC Power Supply
2. 2 DMMs (one for measuring voltage, one for current)
3. Protoboard (breadboard)
4. Various Standard Resistors

Procedure:

1. Given Figures 1 to 4, draw a pictorial diagram of the circuit as it will appear on your

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protoboard (see lab notes). Before doing so, note the orientation and layout of the board.
2. Calculate and measure all values for the circuit in Figure 1 and indicate them
in Table1.

3. Calculate and measure all values for the circuit in Figure 2 and indicate them in Table
1.

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4. Calculate and all values for the circuit in Figure 3 and indicate them in Table 1.

1. Calculate and measure all values for the circuit in Figure 4 and indicate them
2. in Table 1.

Note: You may want to do the calculations for each circuit before coming to lab.

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Questions and Analysis:

Your answers to the questions below should show some thought. There may not be a
simple answer to each question. For questions 2 through 4, you may want to verify your
answers by measuring the effect. Include your answers as part of your report.

1. In general, compare measured results with calculated results and suggest reasons for differences
(greater than 5%)

In general, all of my results were pretty accurate. That is I did not have any that were greater then
five percent off from the calculated answer. In fact the largest percent error I had was 3.38% off of
the calculated answer.

2. What would happen if R7 were removed from circuit 3 in Figure 3?

If R7 were removed from the circuit the total resistance would lower while the total current and
current flowing through all of the other resistors would increase.

3. What would be the effect in circuit 3 if R1 were open?

The effects on circuit three that R1 would have on it, would be that the circuit would become an open
circuit and that current would no longer be able to flow through it.

If circuit 3 was on a PC board or soldered such that no connections could be removed,

what tests would you make to determine if R1 were open as in part 3?

One of the tests that you could perform to test if R1 was open or not would be to hook up
the circuit to aDMM and measure the total resistance or even the resistance of R1
because if it was open then it would have an infinite resistance. However, you would not
be able to hook up a DMM and try to test the current because since all of the ends are
soldered down you would be able to check it because current must be checked in series
with a circuit.

Conclusion:

The main discovery I learned from this lab was the right and wrong way to measure current in

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a circuit. I first tried to measure the current across the circuit instead through it. Immediately I
realized the error, and with some help I was able to figure out what was being done wrong.
All my calculations and measured values were generally pretty accurate as noted in Tables 1 -
4. For example, the calculated value on circuit 1 for the value of R2 was 11.544V and the
measured value was 11.55V, thus making the percent error 0.052%; found by using the
equation (measured value - (calculated value / calculated value)) x 100.
.
Introduction
 A major advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws as we did in Chapter
2 is that we can analyze a circuit without tampering with its original configuration. A
major disadvantage of this approach is that, for a large, complex circuit, tedious
computation is involved.
 To handle the complexity, engineers over the years have developed some theorems
to simplify circuit analysis. Such theorems include Thevenin’s and Norton’s
theorems.
 Since these theorems are applicable to linear circuits, we first discuss the concept of
circuit linearity. In addition to circuit theorems, we discuss the concepts of
superposition, source transformation, and maximum power transfer in this chapter.
The concepts we develop are applied in the last section to source modeling and
resistance measurement.
3.1 Linearity Property
 Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between cause
and effect. Although the property applies to many circuit elements, we shall limit its
applicability to resistors in this chapter. The property is a combination of both the
homogeneity (scaling) property and the additivity property.
 The homogeneity property requires that if the input (also called the excitation) is
multiplied by a constant, then the output (also called the response) is multiplied by
the same constant. For a resistor, for example, Ohm’s law relates the input i to the
output v,

V= iR ……………………………………………………………….3.1

 If the current is increased by a constant k, then the voltage increases correspondingly

by k; that is,
 KiR = kv
3.2
 The additivity property requires that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the
responses to each input applied separately.
 Using the voltage-current relationship of a resistor, if

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
 We say that a resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship
satisfies both the homogeneity and the additivity properties.
 In general, a circuit is linear if it is both additive and homogeneous. A linear circuit
consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and independent sources.
 A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly proportional) to
its input.

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Electronics Safety Bulletin

Strange as it may seem, most fatal electric shocks happen to people who should know
better. Here are some electro medical facts that should make you think twice before
taking that last chance.

It's The Current That Kills: ?

It would seem that a shock of 10,000 volts would be more deadly than 100 volts. But
this is not so. Individuals have been electrocuted by appliances connected to ordinary
household circuits of 110 volts and by electrical apparatus in industry using as little
as 42 volts direct current. The real measure of shock's intensity lies in the amount of
current (amperes) forced through the body, and not the voltage. Any electrical device
used on a house wiring circuit can, under certain conditions, transmit a fatal current.

While any amount of current over 10 milliamps (0.01 amp) is capable of producing
painful to sever shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA (0. 1 to 0.2 amp) are lethal.

Currents above 200 milliamps (0.2 amp), while producing severe bums and
unconsciousness, do not usually cause death if the victim is given immediate
attention. Resuscitation, consisting of artificial respiration, will usually revive the
victim.

From a practical viewpoint, after a person is knocked out by an electrical shock, it is

impossible to tell how much current passed through the vital organs of his body.
Artificial respiration must be applied immediately if breathing has stopped

As shown in the chart, shock is relatively

The Physiological Effects of Electrical Shock:
more severe as the current rises. At values as
low as 20 milliamps, breathing becomes
Table 1 shows the physiological effect of
labored, finally ceasing completely even at
various current densities. Note that voltage is
values below 75 milliamps.
not a consideration. Although it takes a voltage
to make the current flow, the amount of shock
As the current approaches 100 milliamps,
current will vary, depending on the body
resistance between the points of contact.

As shown in the chart, shock is relatively more

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severe as the current rises. At values as low as

20 milliamps, breathing becomes labored,
finally ceasing completely even at values below
75 milliamps.

As the current approaches 100 milliamps,

ventricular fibrillation of the heart occurs, an
uncoordinated twitching of the walls of the
heart's ventricles.

Above 200 milliamps, the muscular contractions

are so severe that the heart is forcibly clamped
during the shock. This clamping protects the
heart from going into ventricular fibrillation,
and the victim's chances for survival are good.

Danger, Low Voltage:

It is common knowledge that victims of high

voltage shock usually respond to the artificial
respiration more readily than the victims of low
voltage shock. The reason may be the merciful
clamping of the heart, owing to the high current
densities associated with high voltage. However,
lest these details be misinterpreted, the only
reasonable conclusion that can be drawn is that
75 volts are just as lethal as 750 volts.

 The actual resistance of the body varies depending upon the points of
contact and the skin condition (moist or dry). Between the ears, for
example, the internal resistance (less the skin resistance) is only 100 ohms,
while from hand to foot it is closer to 500 ohms. The skin resistance may vary
from 1,000 ohms for wet skin to over 500,000 ohms for dry skin.

When working around electrical equipment, move slowly. Make sure your feet are
firmly placed for good balance. Don't lunge after falling tools. Kill all power, and

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ground all high voltage points before touching wiring. Make sure that power cannot
be accidentally restored. Do not work on ungrounded equipment.

Don't examine live equipment when mentally or physically fatigued. Keep one hand
in pocket while investigating live electrical equipment.

Above all, do not touch electrical equipment while standing on metal floors, damp
concrete, or other well-grounded surfaces. Do not handle electrical equipment while
wearing damp clothing (particularly wet shoes) or while skin surfaces are damp. Do
not work alone! Remember, the more you know about electrical equipment, the more
heedless you're apt to become. Don't take unnecessary risks.
What to do for Victims:

Cut voltage and/or remove victim from contact as quickly as possible but without
endangering your own safety. Use a length of dry wood, rope, blanket, etc., to pry or
pull the victim loose. Don't waste valuable time looking for the power switch. The
resistance of the victim's contact decreases with time. The fatal 100 or 200
milliampere level may be reached if action is delayed. If the victim is unconscious
and has stopped breathing, start artificial respiration at once. Do not stop
resuscitation until medical authority pronounces the victim beyond help. It may take
as long as eight hours to revive the patient. There may be no pulse, and a condition
similar to rigor mortis may be present; however, these are the manifestations of
shock and are not an indication that the victim has succumbed.

Printed through the courtesy of Field Control Co., Inc., Cliffside, New Jersey,
University of California, Information Exchange Bulletin and Safer Oregon.
Physiological Effects of Electrical Currents.
Digital Multimeter Basics

Overview:

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is used to read voltage, current, and resistance. A

knob or button is used to select the function (volts, amps, ohms) and the range (2,
20, 200 etc.). The selector often has DC VOLTS, AC VOLTS, AC mA, DC mA,
OHMS, and TEMP settings. Within each of these settings is the range. For
instance, on the DC VOLTS setting, there is 200mV, 2V, 20V, 200V, and 1K
(1000V). These are the ranges. The range determines the maximum reading the
DMM can display. If the reading goes above that value, the display flashes and
the reading is meaningless.

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The display is an LED readout that shows what the measurement is. The display
often has 3 full digits of resolution, plus a 4th digit (on the left) that can be a 1 or
blank. This is called a 3 1/2 digit display. The decimal point is inserted depending
on what range the DMM is set to. This allows the meter to read from 0.000V to
1.999V on the 2V range, or from 0.0mV to 199.9mV on the 200mV range. The last
digit on the right determines the minimum value that can be distinguished. This is
called the resolution of the meter. For instance, on the 2V range, the last, or least
significant, digit is the 1 millivolt digit. So the resolution is 1mV and the meter
can distinguish 1.495V from 1.496V. On the 20V scale, however, the least
significant digit (and thus the resolution) is the 10mV place. So on the 20V scale,
the meter cannot distinguish between 1.495V and 1.496V. The meter reads 1.49V
or 1.50V instead. For this reason (and others), you should usually make your
readings on the lowest range possible. The resolution is determined the same way
for current, resistance, and voltage.
In addition to the resolution of the meter, there are two other important
parameters: internal resistance and accuracy.

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Resistance:

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the element you are testing, while an
ammeter is connected in series. This is shown below.

Ideally, a voltmeter should have infinite parallel resistance and an ammeter

should have zero series resistance. The series resistance for the current scales
depends on the range. The DC ammeter resistance is found using the formula

R = (0.2V / Range Setting) + 0.1Ω

If the meter is set to read 20mA full scale, the resistance of the meter would be

R = (0.2V / 20mA) + 0.1Ω = 10Ω + 0.1Ω = 10.1Ω The meter resistance is an

important parameter and can affect the reading. While it can be neglected at
times, a good engineer will take it into consideration before making the
measurement.

Accuracy:
Accuracy is often confused with resolution. It is possible to have a meter that will
read values to microvolt resolution, but only have millivolt accuracy. This is
because accuracy is determined by the components used inside, and not just the
display. The DM502 has a formula for determining the meter accuracy (excluding
any errors due to the resistance mentioned above).

On DC VOLTS, the accuracy for the 20V scale is 0.1%, plus or minus 1 count,
where 1 count means the least significant digit or resolution for the range it is set
to. As an example, let us take a reading of 5.23V on the 20V range. The
resolution on the 20V range is 0.01V (10mV). The accuracy is

0.1%(5.23V) + 10mV = 5.23nV + 10mV = 15.23mV

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This is an overall error of

%Error = (15.23mV / 5.23V) • 100% = 0.291%

A reading of 1.67V on the 20V scale yields

0.1%(1.67V) + 10mV = 1.67mV + 10mV = 11.67mV or 0.7%

It is interesting to note that on the 2V scale, a measurement of 1.67V gives an

error of only 0.16%. So, not only do we get better resolution on a lower range, we
get better accuracy. This is usually the case. Typically, your measurements will
be limited by the 5% accuracy of resistors used and not the accuracy of the meter.
But it is a good idea to check, just in case.
 Resistor Basics and Electrical Resistance

1. Definition:

A resistor is a circuit element designed to reduce or limit current flow in a circuit.

All conductors of electricity offer opposition to the movement of electrons and,
therefore, possess resistance. A resistor offers a certain amount of opposition and
is used for this purpose.

2. Rating of Resistors:

a. Resistance value in OHMS

b. Value tolerance in percent
c. Power handling capability in WATTS

The resistance value may vary from a fraction of an ohm to several million ohms.
The tolerance ranges from 0.1% to 20%. The power rating of various resistors
varies from 1/4 watt to several hundred watts and is determined by the physical
size of a particular type.
3. Construction:
a. Composition: 1. fixed value 2. Variable

b. Wire wound: 1. fixed value 2. Variable

Composition resistors are made of very fine carbon powder, and formed with a bonding agent

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into the desired shape, with connecting wire attached. The fixed types are then enclosed in a
bake lite casing. Variable composition types have a thin layer of the carbon compound
applied to a strip of insulating material and a sliding or wiping contact is made to travel along
the surface to permit variations in the amount of resistance inserted in the circuit.

Wire wound types are constructed of very fine, high resistance wire, often enameled, wound
around an insulating core. If close spacing is required, enameled wire must be used to provide
insulation between turns. A sliding contact is used to obtain variation in resistance values.
Enamel must be removed from the outer surface of the turns to permit contact with the sliding
contact.

4. Temperature Effect:

Since the flow of electrons through any medium will develop heat, all resistors will be subject
to changes in temperature. The effect of these temperature variations will depend upon the
type of construction and is known as the Temperature Coefficient.

Temperature coefficient indicates how temperature changes affect the resistor's value and may
be either positive or negative. In general, composition resistors have a negative temperature
coefficient and metallic or wire wound resistors have a positive coefficient. This means that
composition resistors will decrease in resistance with an increase in temperature, while
metallic types will increase in resistance with an increase in the temperature. A LOW
temperature coefficient indicates that the change in resistance per degree of temperature
change is slight. High quality resistors have a low temperature coefficient; some even zero.
These, of course, are most desirable, especially in precision work.

5. Color Code:

Most composition resistors have their ohmic value indicated by a series of colored bands
around the body of the unit. The colors used are those designated by the Electronic Industries
Association (E.I.A.), and have been universally adopted. You must become familiar with this
code.

Specific Information:

1. Composition Resistors:

This type is most commonly found in electronic circuits. The element's resistive material is

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molded into a small rod or deposited upon an insulating core. Wire leads are coaxially
attached to each end of the element and an outside covering of natural bakelite is applied for
insulation. The resistance value is marked on the body, using the E.I.A. color code.
Resistance values range from a fraction of an ohm to several million ohms. Exact values are
difficult to manufacture and usually are not required, therefore, tolerance limits of 5% and
10% are often used. In each tolerance group only certain preferred values are made so no
overlapping of values is possible due to normal manufacturing variation. Exact value
precision resistors are available for applications where extreme accuracy is required.
Common power ratings are in the range from 1/4 watt to 2 watts, physical size increasing with
required wattage. Actual power dissipation in service should not exceed 50% of the rating for
good stability. Since power is dissipated in the form of heat this is a good rule to follow,
because excessive heat will result in a decrease in resistance. Overheating may cause
permanent damage to the resistor. Care must be exercised in soldering these units in place to
prevent their being over heated. Excessive heating will cause discoloration of the resistor
body and the color code stripes. For precision applications, a low wattage I% composition
type made of pure carbon deposited in a spiral groove on a ceramic rod is also made.
Resistance values are generally marked on the body in English. The physical size of these
precision resistors may vary between manufacturers and may often be misleading as they are
somewhat larger for a given rating than the common composition type. Their cost is several
times that of the ordinary composition resistor.

2. Wire Wound Resistors:

This type is generally used when a considerable amount of power is to be dissipated, as for
example, in power supplies as voltage dividers and bleeder resistors. They are constructed by
winding the required number of turns of high resistance wire upon an insulating core of the
desired shape and dimensions and then covering the exterior with an insulating material such
as vitreous enamel, cement, asbestos or molded bakelite. The core material may be bakelite,
mica, ceramic, glass or other high quality insulating materials. Some types, such as the
Candohm are enclosed in tight fitting metal containers which may be riveted to the equipment
chassis to facilitate the dissipation of heat. Some wire wound resistors are provided with a
non insulated section along one side to permit a sliding contact to be used to select any
desired value of resistance. Other types are permanently tapped at the required points. A
resistor of this type may have several connection points along its length. Resistance values in
ohms are usually printed on the body. Wire wound resistors are made in values ranging from
a fraction of an ohm to several thousand ohms, but due to their relatively large physical size,
cost and other manufacturing problems, high values are not made. Power ratings up to several
hundred watts are possible, the size increasing in proportion to the increase in power rating.
Wire wound resistors have a positive temperature coefficient, which means that the resistance

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increases as the resistor becomes heated. This change in resistance is quite small; but care
should be exercised to keep any resistor as cool as possible for best stability of resistance.
They should be mounted in a well ventilated position and should be at least capable of twice
the power dissipation required. In other words, if the calculations show that 5 watts will be
dissipated, the resistor used should be rated at no less than 10 watts. This rule should be
followed invariably, although overheating is more likely to result in permanent damage to the
composition resistor than to a wire wound unit.

3. Potentiometers and Rheostats:

These units are adjustable, or variable resistors, constructed so that the resistance may be
varied continuously or in pre determined steps without opening the circuit. The resistive
element may be either the wire wound or composition type, depending upon the purpose
for which it is intended. This element is enclosed in a circular housing, and a contacting
arm attached to a rotatable shaft is arranged so that it can be moved over the surface of
the element to select the desired resistance value. The potentiometer has three terminals,
one at each end of the element and the third for connection to the rotating arm. This unit
is used when variable voltage changes are required in a circuit. Volume controls, tone
controls, contrast and brightness controls are examples of application of the
potentiometer. Potentiometers which use composition elements frequently have "tapered"
resistance values. Tapering means that resistance variations per degree of rotation of the
arm may be greater at some points than at others. Tapered units have the resistance
material lumped at low resistance positions and spread out in high resistance areas.
Different tapers are available for several particular requirements. The reasons for this
will become apparent later in your studies. Resistance values of composition
potentiometers may be as high as 10 megohms. Safe power dissipation ratings are
generally low, so the current flow must be kept at the lowest possible value.

 Rheostats have only two terminals for connection, one at one end of the element,
the other to the control arm. They are used to control current flow in circuits and
due to the higher amounts of current and resultant higher power, are of wire
wound construction. Resistance values are seldom in excess of a few thousand
ohms. Power ratings are available to meet any reasonable requirement. Care must
be exercised in the use of rheostats that their power rating is not exceeded just as
in the case of other types of wire wound resistors.

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