Internet of Things

Module 3
Syllabus

Choice 1 (20 marks) Choice 2 (20 marks) Important (Priority

wise)

Things in IoT Competitive technologies Standard alliances

Sensors, Actuators, MEMS Overview only of IEEE LTE Cat 0

and Smart objects 802.15.4g, 4e, IEEE LTE-M

1901.2a NB-IoT
Sensor Networks
Standard alliances
WSN
LTE Cat 0
Communication protocols
LTE-M
for WSN
NB-IoT
Communications Criteria
IoT Access technologies:
IEEE 802.15.4

Things in IoT
Sensors
Sensors are fundamental building blocks of IoT networks. They are the foundational elements
in smart objects. “Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded technology to
sense and/ or interact with their environment in a meaningful way by being interconnected and
enabling communication among themselves or an external agent”.
Definition: A Sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement
reading into a digital representation which is typically passed to another device for
transformation into useful data that can be consumed by intelligent devices or humans
Nowadays, sensors can measure anything worth measuring. This makes the physical world an
incredibly valuable source of information. Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical
objects that are easily connected to the internet, thus facilitating intelligent decision-making.
Sensor classification/ categories [AICAAHW - AIT, CAA, Home Minister]
1. Active or Passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an
energy output and require an external power supply (active) or whether they simply
receive energy and require no external power supply (passive)
2. Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether the sensor is
part of the environment it is measuring or external to it
3. Contact or no contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require
physical contact with what they are measuring or not
4. Absolute or relative: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an
absolute scale or relative scale
5. Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the vertical where they are
being used
6. How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism
used to measure sensory input (electric, optic, thermoelectric)
7. What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on what physical variables
they measure
8. Sensors can also be classified based on material, cost, design, and other factors
Sensor types (Based on what is being measured) [Fahadh Faasil goes to TCB, looks left and
right, then up, sees POP, and thinks I will first Verify: FAHTCBLRPOPFV]

Sensor type Description Example

Flow Detects rate of fluid flow Water meter

Acoustic Measures sound levels and converts to digital or analog Microphone

data signals

Humidity Detects humidity in the air or a mass Humistor

Temperature Measure the amount of heat or cold present in a system Thermometer

- Contact and non-contact

Chemical Measure the concentration of chemicals in a system Breathalyzer

Biosensors Detect biological elements like organisms, tissues, ECG

cells, antibodies, and so on
 Light Detect the presence of light, visible or invisible IR sensor

Radiation Detect radiation in the environment Neutron detector

Position Measures the position of an object either in absolute or Proximity sensor

relative terms

Occupancy Occupancy sensors detect the presence of people and Radar

and Motion animals in an area, while motion sensors detect
movement

Pressure Measures force applied by liquids or gases Barometer

Force Detects whether a physical force is applied and Force gauge

whether the magnitude of force is beyond a threshold

Velocity and Velocity sensors measure speed of motion, either linear Accelerometer
Acceleration or angular. Acceleration sensors measure changes in
velocity

Scope of IoT in wireless technology

The scope of IoT in wireless technology is vast as there are sensors that can practically
measure anything. A fascinating use case to highlight the power of sensors and IoT is precision
agriculture. Herein, GPS and satellite imagery are used for determining field viability, robots
for high-precision planting, harvesting, irrigation, and so on. Real-time analytics and
artificial intelligence can be used to predict optimal crop yield, weather impacts, and soil
quality. The most significant impact of precision agriculture lies in sensing soil characteristics,
such as soil quality, pH levels, salinity, toxicity levels, moisture levels for irrigation
planning, nutrient levels for fertilization planning, and so on. These insights will lead to
profitable actions resulting in increased productivity and crop yield. The smaller size, form
factor, and low cost make sensors technically and economically feasible. This can be made
even more effective if sensors and actuators can work together in an intelligent, strategic, and
complementary fashion. For example, the smart sensors used to evaluate soil quality can be
connected with electrically controlled valve actuators that control water, pesticides, fertilizers,
and so on. Intelligently triggering a high-precision actuator based on well-defined sensor
readings is truly smart farming.
One more use case is Smartphones. More than a billion smartphones are sold each year, and
each one has well over a dozen sensors (Camera, Microphone, Light Sensor, Touchscreen, NFC,
Proximity, Accelerometer, Humidity, Gyroscope, Moisture, Fingerprint, Pedometer, GPS,
Thermometer, Pressure Sensor, Magnetometer). Nowadays IoT has a major foothold in Smart
homes. A trillion-sensor economy is around the corner, which says a lot about the power of IoT.

Actuators
Actuators are natural complements to sensors. Actuators receive some type of control
signal (electrical or digital) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion,
force, and so on. Parallels can be drawn between the working of sensors, actuators, and humans.
The interaction between sensors, actuators, and processors and the similar functionality in
biological systems is the basis for various technical fields. Eg: Sipping very hot coffee

Analogy - Sensors: Human Sensory organs; Microprocessor - Brain; Actuators: Legs and Hands
Actuators can be classified based on: [BPAME: BP for AMD+1 processors]
1. Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce
(linear, rotary, one/two/three-axes)
2. Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (high power, low power,
micropower)
3. Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state
outputs
4. Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or
vertical where they are used
5. Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type
a. Mechanical Actuators: Lever, Screw jack
 b. Electrical Actuators: Diode, Transistor
c. Electromechanical Actuators: AC Motor, DC Motor, Stepper Motor
d. Electromagnetic Actuators: Electromagnet
e. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Actuators: Pressure control valves
f. Smart material Actuators: Shape memory alloy (SMA)
g. Micro and Nano Actuators: Microvalve

Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)

MEMS can integrate and combine electric and mechanical elements, such as sensors and
actuators on a very small scale (millimeter or less). One of the keys to this technology is
microfabrication which allows mass production at very low costs. The combination of tiny
size, low cost, and the ability to mass produce makes MEMS an attractive option for a huge
number of IoT applications.

Smart Objects
Smart objects are the building blocks of IoT. The real power of smart objects in IoT comes
from being networked together. This ability to communicate over a network has a
multiplicative effect and allows for very sophisticated correlation and interaction between
disparate smart objects. In precision farming, we can integrate sensors and actuators to make
intelligent decisions. Extending this even further, if a coordinated sensor/actuator set is
intelligently interconnected with other sensor/actuator sets, intelligent automation can be
achieved. Smart objects revolutionize an existing IoT system.
Definition: A smart object is a device that has at a minimum four defining characteristics -
Processing unit, Sensor (s) and/or actuator (s), Communication device, and Power source
1. Processing unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data,
processing and analyzing information received by the sensors, coordinating control
signals to actuators, controlling various aspects of communication and power
systems. The most commonly used processing unit is a Microcontroller because of its
small form factor, flexibility, programming simplicity, low cost, and low power
consumption.
 2. Sensor (s) and/or Actuator (s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the
physical world through sensors and actuators. A sensor measures its environment,
whereas an actuator is able to produce some change in the physical world.
3. Communication device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart
object with other smart objects. Communication devices can be wired or wireless,
although wireless is preferred because of the cost and ease of deployment.
4. Power Source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered. The most
significant power consumption comes from the communication unit. Typically, smart
objects are limited in power, are deployed for a very long time, and are not easily
accessible. This makes most smart objects rely on battery power. Some of the crucial
design elements herein are Power efficiency, Judicious power management, sleep modes,
ultra-low power consumption hardware, and so on.

Trends in Smart Objects [SPPCC: SP Sir handling PCS]

1. Size is decreasing: Reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday
objects
2. Power consumption is decreasing: Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years
without battery replacement
3. Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and
smaller
4. Communication capabilities are improving: Wireless speeds are continually increasing
so is range. IoT is also driving the development of specialized communication
protocols.
5. Communication is being increasingly standardized: Open standards for IoT
communication protocols are becoming common.

Sensor Networks
[SANET - What?, Example, Why Wireless?, Design Constraints, Data Aggregation]
SANET (Sensor/Actuator network) is a network of sensors that sense and measure their
environment and/or actuators that act on their environment. Effective and well-coordinated
communication and cooperation is a prominent challenge as sensors and actuators in SANETs
are diverse, heterogeneous, and resource-constrained. Eg: Smart Home. Smart homes can
have temperature sensors that are strategically networked with HVAC actuators. When a
sensor detects a specified temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action and heat or cool
the home as needed.
Advantages of wireless-based solution:
1. Greater deployment flexibility
2. Simpler Scaling to a large number of nodes
3. Lower implementation costs
4. Easier long-term maintenance
5. Effortless introduction of new sensor/ actuator nodes
6. Better equipped to handle topology changes
7. Wireless allows much greater flexibility, is inexpensive, and is reliable which is why
SANETs are the ubiquitous networking technology for IoT
Disadvantages of wireless-based solution
1. Potentially less secure
2. Lower transmission speeds
3. A greater level of impact by environment

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)

Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, referred to as
motes.
Design Constraints (Limitations) for wireless smart objects:
1. Limited Processing power
2. Limited memory
3. Lossy Communication
4. Limited transmission speeds
5. Limited power
Smart objects with limited processing, memory, power, and so on are often referred to as
constrained nodes. The fact that individual sensor nodes are so limited is a reason that they are
often deployed in very large numbers. The ability to deploy smart objects redundantly allows for
increased accuracy. Data aggregation takes place in such Wireless sensor networks. The Data
aggregation techniques are helpful in reducing the amount of overall traffic in WSNs.
Wirelessly connected smart objects generally have one of the following two communication
patterns:
1. Event-driven: Transmission of sensory information is triggered only when a smart
object detects a particular event or predetermined threshold
2. Periodic: Transmission of sensory information occurs only at periodic intervals
As WSNs grow to very large numbers of smart objects, manual configuration becomes
impractical and unwieldy. Hence, there is a trend towards increasing levels of autonomy,
meaning smart objects in a WSN are typically self-configuring or automated by an IoT
management platform. Additional advantages of being able to deploy large numbers of
wireless smart objects are fault tolerance, reliability, and the capability to extend the life of a
WSN. Autonomous techniques, such as self-healing, self-protection, and self-optimization
are often employed to perform these functions.
Communication Protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks
There are literally thousands of different types of sensors and actuators. To further complicate
matters, WSNs are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. WSNs are seeing transitions from
homogeneous wireless networks made up of mostly a single type of sensor to networks made up
of multiple types of sensors. WSNs are also evolving from single-purpose networks to more
flexible multipurpose networks that can use specific sensors for multiple different applications,
such as temperature sensors being used for weather applications as well as smart farming
applications.
Coordinated communication by constrained devices in such a heterogeneous environment is
quite a challenge. The communication protocols should take into account:
1. WSNs as well as constrained devices within them
2. Ability to scale to a large number of nodes
3. Adaptability to harsh and unpredictable environments
4. Support for autonomous techniques (self-organization, self-healing, self-configuration)
5. Facilitate routing and message handling at all levels
6. Open standards-based to support interoperability
When selecting a communication protocol, one should take into account:
1. Requirements specific to an application
2. Power consumption
 3. Maximum transmission speed
4. Range
5. Tolerance for packet loss
6. Topology optimization
7. Security

Communications Criteria
The criteria used in evaluating wireless access technologies are
Range: Range defines how far the signal will be propagated
1. Short range: Short range supports tens of meters of maximum distance between two
devices. Eg: Serial cable, Bluetooth
2. Medium range: The main category of IoT access technologies; supports a range of tens
to hundreds of meters. Examples of medium-range wireless technologies include IEEE
802.11 and Wi-Fi.
3. Long range: Distances greater than 1 mile between two devices require long-range
technologies. Eg: Cellular (2G, 3G, and 4G) and LPWA (Low power wide area).
LPWA technologies have the ability to communicate over a large area without consuming
much power.
Some of the challenges in selecting a range are environmental factors such as interference and
noise, specific product characteristics such as antenna design and transmit power, potential
landscape and topology changes such as new buildings.

Frequency Bands: ITU and FCC define the regulations and transmission requirements for
various frequency bands. The spectrum for various communications uses is viewed as a critical
resource. The frequency bands are mainly split into licensed and unlicensed bands.
1. Licensed bands: Licensed spectrum is generally applicable to IoT long-range access
technologies. Licensed spectrum requires users to subscribe to services by paying
subscription fees. This adds more complexity when deploying a large number of sensors.
But in exchange for subscription fees, frequency usage is exclusive here, and thus offers
a better guarantee of service. Eg: Cellular, WiMAX.
 2. Unlicensed bands: Unlicensed spectrum is mainly defined for ISM (Industrial,
Scientific, Medical) portions of the radio bands. Mainly used for Short range devices.
Since it is unlicensed, no guarantees or protections are offered in the ISM bands for
device communications. An unlicensed band is not unregulated. There are regulations
and compliances on transmit power, duty cycle, and so on. Unlicensed spectrum is
simpler to deploy as it does not require a service provider. However, it can suffer from
interference. The well-known ISM bands are
a. 2.4 GHz - Wi-Fi
b. IEEE 802.15.1 Bluetooth
c. IEEE 802.15.4 WPAN
Some communications within the ISM bands operate in the sub-GHz range. These bands have
better ability than 2.4GHz ISM band to penetrate building infrastructures. The limitation is the
lower rate of data delivery.

Power Consumption
A powered node has a direct connection to a power source, and communications are usually not
limited by power consumption. However, ease of deployment and mobility is limited by the
availability of the power source.
Battery-powered nodes bring flexibility to IoT devices. These nodes are often classified by the
required lifetime of their batteries. Battery-powered nodes are often placed in sleep mode to
preserve battery life. Topology type and the role of nodes in the topology plays a significant role
in the design of battery-powered nodes.
IoT wireless technologies must address the need for low power consumption and connectivity for
battery-powered nodes. This has led to the evolution of a new wireless environment known as
Low-Power Wide-Area [LPWA]

Topology
The three main topology schemes are:
1. Star Topology
a. Star topology is where all sensor nodes communicate to a central hub/access
point (i.e. a gateway)
b. Suitable for long and short range, Eg: Cellular, Bluetooth
 c. Adheres to one-hop, point-to-point connection, making it much simpler and
less expensive to implement compared to mesh topology. Network security also
increases, as endpoints operate independently of each other; if a node is attacked,
the rest of the network still remains intact.
d. The primary disadvantage of star topology is that the network footprint is
limited to the maximum transmission range between devices and the gateway.
2. Mesh Topology
a. In mesh networks, a message hops from one device to another in order to
reach its destination (e.g. a gateway). A sensor node serves as both an
endpoint that captures and transmits its own data as well as a repeater that relays
data from other nodes. In a partial mesh network, only selected nodes have the
repeater/relaying function and are connected with more than one other node,
while in a full mesh network, all nodes are homogeneous and fully interconnected
to each other.
b. Mesh networks have a self-healing capability as data can be re-routed using
another path if one repeater node fails, thereby enhancing robustness
c. Mesh networks are complicated to set up, manage and maintain. They are also
expensive and consume high power.
d. Commonly used for medium-range technologies
3. Peer-to-Peer
a. In Peer-to-Peer topology, the devices connect with each other in a workgroup
to share files, and access to internet and printers
b. Each node in the network has the same set of responsibilities and capabilities
c. Each device in the network serves as both a client and server

Constrained devices
Constrained nodes have limited resources that impact their networking feature set and
capabilities. Classes of constrained nodes are as follows:
1. Class 0: Severely constrained nodes with less than 10 KB of memory and less than 100
KB of flash processing and storage capability; battery powered; do not have resources
to implement an IP stack. Eg: Push button
 2. Class 1: 10 KB of RAM and approximately 100 KB flash; Optimized stack
implementation is possible such as CoAP. Eg: Environmental sensors
3. Class 2: More than 50 KB of memory and 250 KB of flash; Capable of running full
implementation of an IP stack. Eg: Smart power meter

Constrained-Node Networks
Constrained-node networks are often referred to as low-power and lossy networks (LLNs). Low
power refers to the fact that nodes must cope with the requirements of power-constrained
nodes while lossy networks indicate network performance subjected to interference and
variability due to harsh radio environments. Some of the characteristics used in evaluating
Constrained-node networks in relation to IoT applications are
1. Data rate and throughput: The data rate is the theoretical value that a system can
achieve, considering no losses or interference. However, in the real world, there will be
interference and losses which will result in a lower bit rate. The throughput can be seen
as a practical value that the wireless link can achieve. IoT access technologies developed
for constrained nodes are optimized for low power consumption and are limited in terms
of data rate.
2. Latency and determinism: Latency expectations of IoT applications should be known
when selecting an access technology. On constrained networks, latency may range from a
few milliseconds to seconds. The delay between when an instruction is received and
when it executes is known as latency. Determinism is knowing exactly when an
instruction will execute. Eg: If your system is providing information to a pilot who needs
to make decisions in only tens of milliseconds, you certainly want to reduce any delays in
the information chain. However, in instances where users don’t need to make real-time
decisions, then some latency may not be an issue.
3. Overhead and payload: A packet generally consists of a header and then the
payload. “Payload” refers to the data itself being transferred. The "header" contains
various things depending on the protocol being used, for example, UDP contains just
simple things in the header like Destination and Source IP/PORT, whereas TCP on the
other end contains more things like the sequence number of the packet to ensure
ordered delivery, a lot of flags to ensure the packet is actually received in the destination
and checksum of the data to make sure it didn't get corrupted and is received correctly in
 its destination. The "overhead" part is actually the additional data that you need in
order to send your payload. It is the header part, as it is added to every payload. TCP
has a bigger overhead than UDP because it needs to add more data to the payload, but
there is a guarantee that data will be received in the destination in the order it was sent
without getting corrupted. UDP does not have this feature.

IoT Access Technologies

IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.1.5.4 is a wireless access technology for low-cost and low-data rate devices that are
powered or run on batteries. In addition, it is easy to install using a compact protocol stack,
simple and flexible. IEEE 802.15.4 is commonly found in
1. Home and building automation
2. Automotive networks
3. Industrial wireless sensor networks
4. Interactive toys and remote controls
Criticisms of IEEE 802.15.4 focus on its MAC reliability, unbounded latency, and
susceptibility to interference and multipath fading. The negatives around reliability and
latency often have to do with the Collision Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance
algorithm. CSMA/ CA is an access method in which a device listens to make sure no other
devices are transmitting before starting its own transmission. If another device is transmitting, a
wait time occurs before listening again. Interference and multipath fading occur because of a
lack of frequency hopping technique. Later variants have addressed these issues.

Standardization and Alliances

Protocol stacks utilizing IEEE 802.15.4

Protocol Description

ZigBee Promoted by ZigBee alliance and defines upper layer components as

well as application profiles. Commonly found in building automation,
home automation, and healthcare. ZigBee also defines device object
functions, such as device role, device discovery, and so on

6LoWPAN IPv6 adaptation layer promoted by IETF 6LoWPAN working group that
describes how to transport IPv6 packets over IEEE
 ZigBee IP Adopts 6LoWPAN adaptation layer, IPv6 network layer, and RPL routing
protocol

ISA100.11a Developed by International Society of Automation, based on IEEE

802.15.4-2006, network and transport layers based on UDP standards

Wireless HART Promoted by HART Communication foundation. Offers a

time-synchronized, self-organizing, and self-healing mesh
architecture

Thread Thread is a protocol stack for a secure and reliable mesh network to
connect and control products in the home

ZigBee
ZigBee has wide industry support with ZigBee alliance group certifying interoperability
between vendors. ZigBee solutions are aimed at smart objects and sensors that have low
bandwidth and low power needs. The ZigBee specification has undergone several revisions.
The sets of commands and message types supported in ZigBee are called clusters. Clusters from
different functional domains form the building blocks of ZigBee application profiles. The main
areas where ZigBee is the most well-known include automation for commercial, retail, and
home applications, and smart energy.
The traditional ZigBee stack is shown below:

ZigBee utilizes the IEEE 802.15.4 standard at the lower PHY and MAC layers. ZigBee
specifies the network and security layer and application support layer that sits on top of the lower
layers. The ZigBee network and security layer provide mechanisms for network startup,
configuration routing, and secure communications. This includes calculating routing paths
in what is often a changing topology, discovering neighbors, and managing the routing tables
as devices join for the first time. The network layer is also responsible for forming the
appropriate topology. ZigBee utilizes 802.15.4 for security using AES with a 128-bit key. The
application support layer interfaces the lower portion of the stack with higher-layer
applications.
This structure has provided a fair degree of interoperability for vendors with membership in the
ZigBee alliance, but not with other IoT solutions. ZigBee IP looks to address this issue.

ZigBee IP
Herein, the support of IEEE 802.5.4 continues, but the IP and TCP/UDP protocols are now
supported at the network and transport layers. ZigBee-specific layers are now found only at the
top of the protocol stack for the applications. ZigBee IP was created to embrace open
standards and is suitable for low bandwidth, low power, and cost-effective communications
when connecting smart objects. ZigBee Ip was designed specifically for SE (Smart Energy)
2.0.

The ZigBee IP protocol stack is shown in the above figure.

ZigBee IP supports 6LoWPAN as an adaptation layer. At the network layer, all ZigBee IP nodes
support IPv6, ICMPv6, and 6LoWPAN-ND, and utilize RPL for the routing of packets across the
mesh network. Both TCP and UDP are supported.
Physical Layer
The 802.15.4 standard supports an extensive number of PHY communication options that range
from 2.4GHz to sub-GHz frequencies in ISM bands. The original physical layer transmission
options were
1. 2.4 GHz - 16 channels with a data rate of 250 kbps - used worldwide
2. 915 MHz - 10 channels with a data rate of 40kbps - North and South America
3. 868 MHz - 1 channel with a data rate of 20 kbps - Europe, Middle East, and Africa
The latest versions have introduced additional PHY communication options such as
1. OQPSK PHY: Offset Quadrature phase-shift keying uses 4 unique bit values that are
signaled by phase changes
2. BPSK PHY: Binary phase-shift keying specifies 2 unique phase shifts
3. ASK PHY: Amplitude shift keying uses amplitude shifts instead of phase shifts to signal
different bit values
Figure below shows the frame for the 802.15.4 physical layer

The Physical layer frame consists of

1. Synchronization Header
a. Preamble: 32 bit 4-byte pattern that identifies the start of the frame; used for
data synchronization
b. Start of Frame delimiter: Informs the receiver that frame contents start
immediately after this byte
2. PHY Header
a. Frame length: Lets the receiver know how much total data to expect in the
PSDU
 3. PHY Service Data Unit (PSDU): The PSDU is the data field or the payload

MAC Layer
The IEEE 802.15.4 MAC layer manages access to the PHY channel by defining how devices
in the same area will share the frequencies allocated. At this layer, the scheduling and routing
of data frames are also coordinated. The 802.15.4 MAC layer performs the following tasks:
1. Network beaconing for devices acting as coordinators
2. PAN association and disassociation by a device
3. Device Security
4. Reliable link communications between 2 peer MAC entities
The MAC layer achieves these tasks by using various predefined frame types
1. Data frame: Handles all transfers of data
2. Beacon frame: Used in the transmission of beacons from a PAN coordinator
3. Acknowledgment frame: confirms the successful reception of a frame
4. MAC command frame: Responsible for control communication between devices
802.15.4 MAC Frame

The 802.15.4 MAC frame can be broken down into the following fields
1. MAC Header
a. Frame control: Defines frame attributes such as frame type
b. Sequence number: Indicates the sequence identifier for the frame
 c. Addressing fields
i. Destination and Source PAN identifier
ii. Destination and Source address
2. MAC Payload: Varies based on individual frame type
3. MAC Footer: Facilitates Frame check sequence (FCS); FCS is a calculation based on
the data in the frame that is used by the receiving side to confirm the integrity of the
data in the frame
Topology
IEEE 802.15.4 based networks can be built as a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topologies. Every
802.15.4 PAN should be set up with a unique ID. All the nodes in the same 802.15.4 network
should use the same PAN ID.

A minimum of one FFD acting as a PAN coordinator is required to deliver services that allow
other devices to associate and form a cell or PAN. FFD devices can communicate with any other
devices, whereas RFD devices can communicate only with FFD devices.
The IEEE 802.15.4 does not define a path selection within the MAC layer. This can be done
using mesh-under or mesh-over.

Security
The IEEE 802.15.4 uses AES with a 128-bit key length as the base encryption algorithm. AES
is a block cipher, meaning it operates on fixed-size blocks of data. A symmetric key means
the same key is used for both encryption and decryption. AES also validates the data that is
sent by employing a message integrity code (MIC).
Enabling security features for 802.15.4 changes the frame format slightly and consumes
some of the payloads as shown in the below figure.
Using the security-enabled field in the frame control portion of the 802.15.4 header is the first
step to enabling AES encryption. This field is a single bit that is set to 1 for security. Once this
is set, the Auxiliary security header field is created after the source address field by stealing
some bytes from the payload field.

Competitive technologies
A competitive radio technology that is different in its PHY and MAC layers is DASH7. DASH7
was originally positioned for industrial applications and is commonly employed in RFID
implementations. The current DASH7 technology offers low power consumption, a compact
protocol stack, a range of up to 1 mile, and AES encryption. DASH7 is promoted by the DASH7
alliance.