REVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is process by which green plants and some other
organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and
water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment
chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.
Photosynthesis was discovered by Jan Ingenhousz, a Dutch-born
British physician and scientist, and it was discovered on 1779
Process of photosynthesis:
1. The plants draw up water (H2O) through the roots'
2. The leaves take in (CO2) from the air.
3. The leaves trap energy from sunlight.
4. The plant uses the energy of sunlight to turn water (H2O) and (CO2) into
sugar and oxygen (O2).
5. The plant release oxygen (O2) in the air.
6. The plant uses the sugars for growth.
! The primary function of photosynthesis is to convert solar energy into
chemical energy and then store that chemical energy for future use. For the
most part, the planet's living systems are powered by this process. It's not
particularly efficient by human engineering standards, but it does the job !
TWO STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light Dependent
Calvin Cycle/ Light Independent
Light Dependent
Light-dependent reactions happen in the thylakoid membrane of the
chloroplasts and occur in the presence of sunlight. The sunlight is converted
to chemical energy during these reactions.
3 Steps of Light Dependent reactions
Excitation of photosystems by light energy.
Production of ATP via an electron transport chain.
Reduction of NADP+ and the photolysis of water.
Light Independent
The light-independent reaction uses the electrons from the light-dependent
reactions to energize the process, particularly during the conversion of
inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as carbohydrates. They
do not require light or energy from the sun to initiate the reaction. Light-
independent reactions are also identified as the Calvin cycle for the reason
that the process is cyclic.
Calvin Cycle
In light-dependent reactions, solar energy is used to produce NADPH and
ATP. This is the fuel that is further used by light-independent reactions to form
carbohydrate molecules. The carbohydrate molecules require carbon atoms.
These carbon atoms are provided by carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide
diffuses into the leaves through stomata. The Calvin cycle uses the energy of
light-dependent reactions for the manufacturing of carbohydrates and
glucose.
Three major light-independent reactions in photosynthesis:
Fixation - the incorporation of carbon dioxide into an organic molecule.
Reduction - It is the second stage of Calvin cycle. The 3-PGA
molecules created through carbon fixation are converted into
molecules of simple sugar glucose.
Regeneration - It is the third stage of the Calvin cycle and is a
complex process that requires ATP.
PATTERNS OF ELECTRON FLOW THROUGH LIGHT REACTION EVENTS
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Lamellar Membrane - refers to a thin layer, membrane or plate of
tissue.
Ferredoxin - A small water-soluble iron-sulfur protein. They transfer
electrons from photo reduced Photosystem I to ferredoxin NADP (+)
reductase in which NADPH is produced for CO (2) assimilation.
Photosystem I and II - The reaction center of photosystem II is called
P680, and the reaction center of photosystem I is called P700.
Resonance Energy Transfer - This process defines the migration of
excitation energy within photosynthetic systems.
The Primary Electron Acceptor of:
Photosystem II - Pheophytin, an organic molecule that resembles
chlorophyll.
Photosystem I - Chlorophyll.
Electron Transport Chain - Moves protons across the thylakoid
membrane into the lumen.
Manganese Center - Manganese sparks the photosynthesis process
by splitting water after Photosytem II.
PATTERNS OF ELECTRON FLOW THROUGH LIGHT REACTION EVENTS
ATP Synthase
Photosystem II
Electron Chain Photosystem I
Transport
Calvin Cycle
During photosynthesis, energy from sunlight is harvested and used to drive
the synthesis of glucose from CO2 and H2O. By converting the energy of
sunlight to a usable form of potential chemical energy, photosynthesis is the
ultimate source of metabolic energy for all biological systems. Photosynthesis
takes place in two distinct stages. In the light reactions, energy from sunlight
drives the synthesis of ATP and NADPH, coupled to the formation of O 2 from
H2O. In the dark reactions, so named because they do not require sunlight,
the ATP and NADPH produced by the light reactions drive glucose synthesis.
In eukaryotic cells, both the light and dark reactions of photosynthesis occur
within chloroplasts—the light reactions in the thylakoid membrane and the
dark reactions within the stroma. This section discusses the light reactions of
photosynthesis, which are related to oxidative
phosphorylation in mitochondria.
Electron Flow through Photosystems I and II
Sunlight is absorbed by photosynthetic pigments, the most abundant of which in plants are
the chlorophylls. Absorption of light excites an electron to a higher energy state, thus
converting the energy of sunlight to potential chemical energy. The photosynthetic pigments
are organized into photocenters in the thylakoid membrane, each of which contains
hundreds of pigment molecules. The many pigment molecules in each photocenter act as
antennae to absorb light and transfer the energy of their excited electrons to
a chlorophyll molecule that serves as a reaction center. The reaction center chlorophyll then
transfers its high-energy electron to an acceptor molecule in an electron transport chain.
High-energy electrons are then transferred through a series of membrane carriers, coupled to
the synthesis of ATP and NADPH.
The proteins involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis in plants are organized into five
complexes in the thylakoid membrane. Two of these complexes are photosystems
(photosystems I and II), in which light is absorbed and transferred to reaction center
chlorophylls. As in mitochondria, these electron transfers are coupled to the transfer of
protons into the thylakoid lumen, thereby establishing a proton gradient across the thylakoid
membrane. The energy stored in this proton gradient is then harvested by a fourth protein
complex in the thylakoid membrane, ATP synthase, which (like the mitochondrial enzyme)
couples proton flow back across the membrane to the synthesis of ATP.
The pathway of electron flow starts at photosystem II. at photosystem II the energy derived
from absorption of photons is used to split water molecules to molecular oxygen and protons.
electron transport through photosystem II is thus coupled to establishment of a proton
gradient, which drives the chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP. From photosystem II, electrons are
carried to photosystem I, where the absorption of additional photons again generates high-
energy electrons. Photosystem I, however, does not act as a proton pump; instead, it uses
these high-energy electrons to reduce NADP+ to NADPH. The reaction center chlorophyll of
photosystem I transfers its excited electrons through a series of carriers to ferrodoxin, a small
protein on the stromal side of the thylakoid membrane. The enzyme NADP reductase then
transfers electrons from ferrodoxin to NADP+, generating NADPH. The passage of electrons
through photosystems I and II thus generates both ATP and NADPH, which are used by
the Calvin cycle enzymes in the chloroplast stroma to convert CO2 to carbohydrates.
