The German Peasantry. Conflict and Community in Rural Society

@?
This book surveys the history of rural

society in Germany from the eighteenth
century to the present day. The contributions
include studies of Junker estates and small
farming communities, serfs and landless
labourers, maidservants and worker-
peasants. They demonstrate the variety and
complexity of the social divisions that aEe
structured the rural economy. Throughout
the book there is an emphasis on the
conflicts that divided rural society, and ihe
ways and means in which these were
expressed, whether in serf strikes in ~~.
F
eighteenth-century Brandenburg, village
gossip in early twentieth-century Hesse, or
factional struggles over planning permission
in present-day Swabia. The rural world
emerges not as traditional, passive and
undifferentiated, but as actively
participating in its own making; not only
responding to the changes going on around
it, but exploiting them for its own purposes
and influencing them in its own way.
The social history of the German
peasantry has been relatively neglected
compared to its French counterpart. This
book helps to add a much-needed
comparative element to the debate on
peasant society. The contributions bring
together current work from British,
American and East and West German
historians. A particularly important feature
is the inclusion of four essays by historians
from the German Democratic Republic,
where there is a flourishing school of
agrarian history. The general approach of
the book is interdisciplinary, with
contributions from ethnologists and
anthropologists as well as social historians,
and studies drawing on oral evidence and
participant observation as well as the
qualitative and quantitative analysis of
written sources. The result is a book that
not only illustrates the complexity of
peasant society, but also suggests the variety
of ways in which it might be studied.
CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
1. “Tradition’ and the Peasantry: On the
Modern Historiography of Rural
Germany
Tan Farr, University of East Anglia
(continued on back flap)

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THE GERMAN PEASANTRY
THEGERMAN PEASANTRY
Conflict and Community in Rural Society from
the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Centuries
EDITED BY
RICHARD J. EVANS AND W. R. LEE
ST. MARTIN’S PRESS

New York
©1986 Richard J. Evans and W.R. Lee
All rights reserved. For information, write:
Scholarly & Reference Division,
St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010
Printed in Great Britain
First published in the United States of America in 1985
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:
The German peasantry.
Includes index.
1. Germany —Rural conditions—Addresses, essays,
lectures. 2. Social structure—Germany—History—
Addresses, essays, lectures. 3. Peasantry —Germany—
History —Addresses, essays, lectures.
I. Evans, Richard J. II. Lee,W. Robert.
HN445.G46 1985 307.7'2'0943 85-18465
ISBN 0-312-32597-5
CONTENTS
List of Figures
List of Tables
Preface
A; ‘Tradition’ and the Peasantry: On the Modern
Historiography of Rural Germany Jan Farr .
Peasants and Markets: The Background to the
Agrarian Reforms in Feudal Prussia East of the
Elbe, 1760-1807 Hartmut Harnisch cM
The Junkers’ Faithless Servants: Peasant
Insubordination and the Breakdown of Serfdom in
Brandenburg-Prussia, 1763-1811
William W. Hagen 71
The Rural Proletariat: The Everyday Life of Rural
Labourers in the Magdeburg Region, 1830—1880
Hainer Plaul 102
Farmers and Factory Workers: Rural Society in
Imperial Germany: The Example of Maudach
Cathleen S. Catt 129
Peasants and Farmers’ Maids: Female Farm Servants
in Bavaria at the End of the Nineteenth Century
Regina Schulte 158
The Sins of the Fathers: Village Society and Social
Control in the Weimar Republic Gerhard Wilke 174
Peasants, Poverty and Population: Economic and
Political Factors in the Family Structure of the
Working Village People in the Magdeburg Region,
1900-39 Gisela Griepentrog 205
Peasant Customs and Social Structure: Rural
Marriage Festivals in the Magdeburg Region in the
1920s Christel Heinrich 224
10. Peasants and Others: The Historical Contours of
Village Class Society Wolfgang Kaschuba 235
vi Contents
11. The Rules of the Village: On the Cultural History of

the Peasant World in the Last 150 Years
Utz Jeggle 265
Notes on Contributors 290
Index 23
FIGURES
2.1 Grain Prices in Prussia, 1766—1865 51

3.1 East Elbian Germany in the Late Eighteenth Century 78
3.2 The Altmark and Mittelmark Districts of
Brandenburg 78
5.1 Map of the Palatinate 131
5.2 The Social Structure of Maudach, 1840—1900 135
5.3 Amount of Land Owned by Farmers in Maudach,
1840—1900 138
TABLES
zrl Proceeds from Sales of 1 Tonne of Grain for the

Periods 1766/70 and 1801/05 in Berlin and in the
Uckermark ey
a2 Grain Sales of a Peasant Farm in the Village of
Briest (Amt Gramzow/Uckermark) necessary to meet
tax demands 58
Demesne Farming at Stavenow, 1694—1808: Grain
Sowings and Sales 80
Average Household and Family Size, by Social Class,
in the Magdeburg Region, 1900-61 207
Infant Mortality and Stillbirths in the Magdeburg
Region, 1904—10 210
Age- and Sex-specific Mortality in Town and
Country, in the Western and Eastern Provinces of
Prussia, 1895—1906 214
8.4 Age- and Sex-specific Mortality in Town and
Country, in the Prussian Province of Saxony,
1895—1906 215
8.5 Social Characteristics of Individual Communes in the
Magdeburg Region, 1939 216
8.6 Unemployment Benefit Recipients in Germany,
1923-27 218
PREFACE
This book brings together eleven essays, none of which has

previously appeared in English, and only one of which has been
published anywhere before, on the history of rural society in
Germany from the eighteenth century to the present day. Almost to
the very end of the nineteenth century, the majority of Germans
lived and worked in the countryside. It was only in the 1890s that
the urban population became numerically dominant, and a sub-
stantial farming sector in the economy continued to provide a live-
lihood for many millions of men and women for many decades
after this. Yet, for reasons explored by Ian Farr in his introductory
essay to this volume, the social history of this large and important
area of the German population has been neglected until very
recently. There has, it is true, been a good deal of work on German
peasant politics, not least in view of the fact that the rural popula-
tion provided perhaps the greatest single reservoir of support for
National Socialism in the late Weimar Republic. But much of this
work has tended to treat the German peasantry as a more or less
undifferentiated mass. Historians have argued fiercely about the
nature and consequences of social differentiation among the
working class and the Mittelstand, but there has been a marked
absence of comparable debates on the equally important area of
rural society. Some historians have regarded the peasantry as uni-
formly susceptible to manipulation by unscrupulous aristocrats and
demagogues from the towns. Others have suggested that, on the
contrary, there was a degree of political self-mobilisation among
the rural population in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, without, on the whole, going beyond this to root their
analysis in a more precise delineation of the rural social structure.
A major focus of this book, therefore, is on social divisions in
rural society. All the contributions concentrate on one aspect or
another of this problem. Broadly speaking, four kinds of social
division emerge: first, and most obviously, between landlord and
serf, the subject of the essays by Hartmut Harnisch and William
Hagen; secondly, between large, middling and small peasants, dis-
cussed in the contributions by Hainer Plaul, Cathleen Catt,
Gerhard Wilke and Christel Heinrich; thirdly, between peasant
ix
x Preface
farmers and others (notably landless labourers and worker-

peasants employed in the town but continuing to live in the village),
the focus of attention in the essay by Wolfgang Kaschuba as well as
many of the contributions already mentioned; and finally, between
men and women, the subject in particular of Regina Schulte’s con-
tribution, as well as a number of others, notably the essays by
Gerhard Wilke and Utz Jeggle. In this way, the volume as a whole
aims to convey something of the complexity of rural society, and
the ways in which it was structured by many different kinds of
social inequality.
This focus necessarily involves a critical ‘deconstruction’ of the
problematical term ‘peasant’. As Ian Farr notes, the concept owes
much of its power to mythical notions of the sturdy independent
farmer as the repository of all that was most solid and wholesome
in nineteenth-century German society. Nationalist myths of this
kind derived much of their power from widespread anxieties
brought about by the rapid social changes of the nineteenth
century. A second thread of argument running through this book is
the contention that these social changes did not leave rural society
untouched. This was perhaps most obvious in the north and east,
where, as the contributions by Hartmut Harnisch, William Hagen,
Hainer Plaul, Gisela Griepentrog and Christel Heinrich show, the
impact of capitalist development through agricultural improvement
and, later on, the growth of sugar beet cultivation, had a profound
effect on social relations in the countryside. Equally, however, in
the south and west, where small farms rather than larger estates
were the rule, change also took place, as industrialisation had an
increasing impact on rural society. As Cathleen Catt demonstrates
in her essay on the village of Maudach, in the Palatinate, the
different layers of rural society responded in different ways, and as
a result rural society itself underwent a number of important
changes.
These changes were not merely the product of outside forces, but
were rather the outcome of the ways in which the various elements
in rural society sought to exploit these forces for their own benefit.
Rural society is often seen not only as unchanging but also as
passive, and correspondingly there has been a tendency in the
literature on the German peasantry to regard small farmers as
victims or dupes, caught in a web of unchanging traditional values
of which deference was not the least important. A third aim of this
book is to reinstate the peasant as an agent of history, to stress the
Preface xi
ways in which peasants acted themselves in defence of their own

interests. Strategies of peasant self-defence and resistance form
another theme that runs through a number of the contributions,
from William Hagen’s portrayal of striking serfs in eighteenth-
century Brandenburg, to Utz Jeggle’s account of the mechanisms
through which present-day villagers defend the integrity of their
community against interlopers.
As Jeggle shows, however, the unanimity with which villagers
close ranks against interference from outside serves as an effective
smokescreen behind which the real conflicts and tensions that
characterise village life can be concealed. And, indeed, a fourth
major purpose of this book is to analyse conflict in rural society, to
show that beneath the apparently untroubled surface of village life,
social tensions and antagonisms of many kinds divided the village
community. These could be expressed in ways not immediately
obvious to the outsider — for example, as Gerhard Wilke shows, in
the treatment of sickness and health within the village. Nineteenth-
and early twentieth-century ethnographers descended upon the
peasantry to record their customs in the belief that they represented
ancient traditions that bound the village community together; but
as Gerhard Wilke and Christel Heinrich show, peasant customs
could also serve as tokens of social inequality in the village, even,
on occasion, as weapons in the struggles of different groups and
factions. Like so many other aspects of life in the countryside, they
too were in reality malleable and mutable, changing in function,
even changing in form, with the demands of the times.
As well as deconstructing the concept of the peasant, therefore,
this book also seeks to deconstruct the notion of ‘community’.
Several of the contributions present the results of long-term
research into the history of village communities, notably the work
of Cathleen Catt on Maudach, Gerhard Wilke on Korle in Hesse,
and Wolfgang Kaschuba and Utz Jeggle on Kiebingen in Swabia.
There are still very few such projects in progress compared with the
wealth of local-community studies on France, but they are adding
immensely to our knowledge of rural society in the small farming
districts of the south and west. For the East Elbian region, domi-
nated by aristocratic Junker landowners, however, different
research strategies are called for, and in the present book two of
these are represented: first, William Hagen’s study of the Stavenow
estate in Brandenburg, based on the complete archive of its Junker
landlords; and second, the collaborative study in progress at the
xii Preface
Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic on the

fertile region near Magdeburg, known as the Magdeburger Bdrde,
from which the contributions by Hainer Plaul, Gisela Griepentrog
and Christel Heinrich are drawn.
The social history of Germany as it is being communicated to an
English-speaking audience is too often the social history of the
regions covered by the present-day Federal Republic. It is another
aim of this book to do a little to redress the balance by including
five essays On areas now within the borders of the German Demo-
cratic Republic. East German historians are particularly active in
the field of rural social history; their pioneering research, and the
important debates and controversies which it has generated among
historians in the GDR, are too little known among the English-
reading public. As Hartmut Harnisch notes, historians in the GDR
are still divided over the origins of the crucial Prussian agrarian
reforms of the early nineteenth century, and his contribution serves
as a valuable introduction to the debates which this question has
generated.
The contributors to this volume are not only drawn from a
number of different countries, but also from a variety of academic
disciplines. Particular mention should be made of the contribution
of social anthropology, ethnography and folklore studies in this
respect. As Ian Farr points out, these subjects — subsumed under
the concept of Volkskunde — have had a chequered history, but
they have undergone dramatic changes in recent years, and are now
playing an important part in research into the history of popular
culture in urban and rural society. The contributions by Gisela
Griepentrog, Christel Heinrich and Hainer Plaul, of the Depart-
ment of Cultural History and Volkskunde, at the Central Institute
for History in the Academy of Sciences, GDR, by Wolfgang
Kaschuba and Utz Jeggle of the Ludwig Uhland Institute for
Empirical Cultural Studies, at the University of Tiibingen, and by
Gerhard Wilke, an anthropologist trained at the University of
Cambridge, illustrate not only the theories and methods used in
present-day anthropological and cultural studies — including
especially oral interviews and ‘participant observation’ which form
the basis for the essays by Griepentrog, Heinrich, Jeggle and Wilke
— but also the variety of possible approaches, perhaps too some of
the differences in the way the discipline of Volkskunde is currently
practised in the FRG and the GDR.
The present volume has its (now very remote) origins in the third
Preface xiii
meeting of the SSRC (now ESRC) research seminar on Modern

German Social History, held at the University of East Anglia in
July 1979, when the topic discussed was rural society. Although
only one of the papers presented at that meeting is published in this
collection (by Ian Farr, now, of course, substantially revised and
updated), and only two of the contributors to this volume were
actually present, it was always the intention of the editors — both
of whom attended the research seminar — to publish a collection of
essays arising out of the discussions. That it has taken over six years
to appear is due to a variety of circumstances, most of them entirely
within our control. It was initially very difficult to detect any
general theme or thesis emerging from the seminar; it took a great
deal of time to assemble a collection of articles which could serve as
the basis for one volume; and even longer to edit them, and to
translate the seven contributions originally written in German.
As with the previous publications in this series,! gratitude is
owing to the ESRC for providing the initial support for the
seminars (under grant No. HG 113/6/7), and to the participants in
the July 1979 seminar for their contributions to the discussion and
for helping to shape our ideas on the subject. We would also like to
thank Cathleen S. Catt, Eric Clare, Bernd Feldmann and William
W. Hagen for their translations, Lynn Abrams for her proof-
reading, and Marjan Bhavsar for her typing. To all our
contributors, and to Richard Stoneman and David Croom of
Croom Helm, we owe a further debt of gratitude for the exemplary
patience with which they have borne the protracted editorial
process to which we have submitted them. We hope they find the
final product has been worth waiting for.
Norwich RICHARD J. EVANS

Liverpool W. R. LEE
Note
1. Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee (eds.), The German Family: Essays on the
Social History of the Family in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany
(Croom Helm, London, 1981); Richard J. Evans (ed.), The German Working Class
1888—1933: The Politics of Everyday Life (Croom Helm, London, 1982); Richard
J. Evans (ed.), ‘Religion and Society in Germany’, European Studies Review,
special issue, Vol. 12, No. 3, June 1983.
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1 ‘TRADITION’ AND THE PEASANTRY
On the Modern Historiography of Rural Germany
lan Farr
Over the last generation, intellectual and scholarly study of the

peasantry has become a sizeable and flourishing industry. In the 20
or so years since the ‘paradoxical rediscovery’ of the peasantry by
the social sciences,' countless economists, sociologists, anthropolo-
gists and development theorists have become engaged in the
business. Moreover, their appreciation of the role played by rural
populations in shaping the contemporary world has come to be
shared increasingly by historians of modern Europe. With the aid
of more sophisticated methodologies and more intensive research,
particularly into specific regions and localities, historians of both
Western and Eastern Europe have helped to foster a much wider
appreciation of the complexities and subtleties within peasant
society, as well as of the sympathy and rigour required to study
them. It is certainly true that social history remains generally more
preoccupied with urban life and the condition of the industrial
working class. None the less, recent advances in the social-histori-
cal study of the European peasantry lend some weight to Tony
Judt’s conclusion that ‘it is pleasingly rare these days to find rural
society consigned to the historical wastebin, with the peasantry
wrapped up in their potato-sack, ready for distribution to the real
world of the city.’
One country where such welcome trends are regrettably less
apparent is the Federal Republic of Germany.’ The writing of
modern German history often continues to incorporate a set of
deeply-entrenched and wide-ranging assumptions about the life-
style, economy, behaviour, culture and political disposition of the
German peasantry, which, though superficially plausible, urgently
require closer empirical and theoretical scrutiny. These presump-
tions are reinforced, on the one hand, by the apparent reluctance of
specialist agrarian historians to consider wider theoretical issues
and, on the other, by the relative indifference of social historians.
|
2 ‘Tradition’ and the Peasantry
to the problematics of rural society in the age of industrialisation.

Probably the most powerful and persistent of these assumptions is
that the peasant-producer in the second half of the nineteenth and
first half of the twentieth centuries represented one of the most
significant of those ‘traditional’ or ‘pre-industrial’ sections of
society, whose continued and increasingly anachronistic survival in
a rapidly industrialising nation acted as a bulwark against progress,
retarded socio-economic change and inhibited Germany’s tran-
sition to a modern pluralist democracy.
The pervasiveness of such notions can be illustrated at this stage
by one example. In some prefatory remarks to his detailed study of
the lobbying activities of the Deutscher Bauernverband (German
Peasant Federation) in West Germany, Paul Ackermann con-
fidently proclaims that the peasantry and their representatives had
great difficulty in adapting to the process of industrialisation and
rejected its implications. The peasant was to a great extent ‘rooted’
in the past in a tradition of self-perpetuating conservatism, resig-
nation and mistrust. Industrial society was fundamentally alien toa
peasant existence moulded by backward and ‘corporate’ (stdn-
disch) values. The industrial laws of rationalisation, concentration
and co-operation were supposedly in diametrical opposition to the
intrinsic attitudes of the peasantry. Such comments are by no
means untypical of the way in which preconceptions about the
peasantry can be presented as self-evident truths, deserving of no
further critical analysis or genuinely historical explanation.
The first part of this essay attempts to show how this situation
has arisen. This requires, first, a brief assessment of the work pro-
duced by those branches of scholarship, notably agrarian or agri-
cultural history (Agrargeschichte) and folklore/ethnology (Volks-
kunde), which traditionally have been most involved in the study of
the German peasantry. One result of their activity has been to make
historical investigation of rural society a largely peripheral exercise,
held in narrow confines by inherited academic traditions, and
frequently isolated from many of the mainstream historiographical
changes of the last generation.
Secondly, it necessitates some appreciation of the way in which
the recent flowering of social history in the Federal Republic has, if
anything, served only to consolidate this situation. Because of its
methodological and conceptual priorities, and because of its often
justifiable aversion to Agrargeschichte and Volkskunde, this newer
social-scientific history has generally been either unwilling or
‘Tradition’ and the Peasantry 3
unable to enter into any meaningful dialogue with agrarian

historians and folklorists. Neither has it encouraged any systematic
research into the history of rural Germany since the early nine-
teenth century. In the absence of any sustained intellectual inter-
change between these various types of history, their respective
prejudices and presumptions have survived relatively intact, a
process helped in no small measure by the fact that some of the
more important of these presuppositions complement rather than
contradict each other.
Certainly there have been indications recently that historical
research into the peasantry is beginning to review some of these
preconceptions more critically. Nevertheless, the essential task of
restoring the peasantry and the rural population to a more central
place in history has only just begun. It stands little chance of
success unless crucial theoretical perspectives are addressed more
openly and more frequently. The final part of this essay will there-
fore offer some more tentative suggestions about the problems
which an effective social history of the German peasantry will have
to confront, if future research is to be more incisive in its methods
and findings than much of the existing literature.
II
The most substantial contribution to that body of literature has

undoubtedly come from the long-established tradition of agrarian
history (Agrargeschichte). We are certainly indebted to this branch
of historiography for providing us with a wealth of information
and data on Germany’s agrarian and agricultural past. The
immense store of knowledge accumulated by agricultural his-
torians, particularly at the local and regional level, is an indis-
pensable foundation for further study. It has to be acknowledged,
however, that many works of conventional Agrargeschichte fall
increasingly short of the quality demanded by current social-his-
torical practice. They tend to be characterised by a high degree of
empiricism, a restricted field of inquiry, a methodological con-
servatism, and a conspicuously legalistic emphasis.* Although its
previous and sometimes uncomfortably close identification with
more reactionary political persuasions had to lapse after 1945,
agrarian history in the Federal Republic has continued to exhibit
considerable caution in the face of a rapidly changing intellectual
climate. It still appears reluctant to conduct a serious examination

of its own objectives and methods, and to embrace potentially
helpful initiatives from the social sciences. It continues to pay less
attention to the history of rural society since 1850 than to develop-
ments in the preceding century. Thus many of the critical analytical
problems raised by the relative and then absolute contraction of
agriculture and the rural population in a period of social change
remain unresolved.®
The preoccupation of Agrargeschichte with developments in the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries can be traced back to
the pioneering work of Georg Friedrich Knapp.’ It was his study
which made the protracted process of Bauernbefreiung (‘peasant
emancipation’, from the contrasting types of feudal and seigneurial
obligation to be found in eighteenth-century Germany) a funda-
mental concern for subsequent agrarian historians.’ Furthermore,
it was Knapp’s interest in property rights, laws of inheritance, and
in the changing legal basis of the relationship between peasant and
lord, which helped to give agrarian history its crucial juridical bias
and made the study of Germany’s ‘agrarian constitution’ (Agrar-
verfassung) the ‘real core’ of Agrargeschichte.? Although his
influence waned somewhat in the 1930s, the essential thrust of
Knapp’s work continued to be represented — not least by Friedrich
Liitge, who devoted a lifetime to clarifying the complex mosaic of
laws, obligations, customs and inheritance patterns which was
Germany’s Agrarverfassung.'°
Liitge’s work and, by implication, that of other historians within
the same school or tradition of agrarian history, has been subjected
to a sustained and perceptive critique by Hans Rosenberg.!!
Rosenberg is inevitably and justifiably hostile to the excessively
Germanocentric outlook evident in Liitge’s brand of Agrarges-
chichte, and to its close alignment with the outlook and priorities of
nationalist politics in Germany. His major criticism, however, is of
Liitge’s concentration on the written rather than on the real
Verfassung. At the heart of many studies by more conservative
agrarian historians is an examination of the legal formalities of
landholding, of the purely juridical dimensions of peasant eman-
cipation, and of the admittedly awesome technicalities of legalistic
terminology. Descriptions of the legal f-amework of tenure, inheri-
tance, landownership and feudal relations are rarely accompanied
by an equally detailed assessment of the practical realisation and
functions of these regulatory codes. Consequently, the real social
impact of different forms of exploitation and domination seems

rarely to be appreciated. Behind a comprehensive and sophisticated
knowledge of Germany’s Agrarverfassung, built up over almost a
century of research, lies a social reality which deserves urgent and
more intensive scrutiny, irrespective of the undoubted difficulties
that would be involved.
This is not to deny, of course, the contribution which a juristic
approach can make, for example, towards an understanding of the
socio-economic basis of seigneurial and feudal relations, or of the
recomposition of peasant—lord relations in the process of peasant
emancipation.!* No analysis of the levels and forms of exploitation
experienced by the peasantry, either before Bauernbefreiung or as a
direct result of the way in which that reform was implemented,
would be complete without this legal dimension; a fact appreciated
more readily perhaps by Knapp than by some of his successors.'3
What is at issue here is not the value of the legalistic emphasis per
se, but the inordinate concentration on that aspect of Germany’s
rural history, particularly given the abundant evidence from else-
where of the dangers of interpreting peasant behaviour in exces-
sively legalistic terms.'4
The need to incorporate other factors into the study of rural
society was recognised half a century ago by Wilhelm Abel, when
his classic work on agrarian crises implicitly challenged the
influence of the Knapp school.!> There is now a much wider appre-
ciation of Abel’s work, his understanding of agrarian dynamics,
and his determination to explain some of the deeper ramifications
of major shifts in agricultural production, such as the incidence of
mass poverty in the pre-industrial area. This admiration is reflected
in the appearance in 1980 of an English translation of his pioneer-
ing study.'© While remaining sensitive to localised variations, as
well as to short-term changes, Abel showed how one could chart
demographic trends, the movements back and forth between arable
cultivation and animal husbandry, and the conjunctural shifts in
grain prices, wages, rents, land values and feudal obligations,
without losing sight of their social and political consequences. The
value of such perspectives was certainly realised by Abel’s own
students, whose viewpoints have continued to inform the writing of
agrarian history. Equally, a good deal of such writing carried on as
before, betraying regrettably few signs of those influences, and
frequently failing to heed Abel’s salutary warnings that historians
should be constantly sceptical of naively romanticised portrayals
of peasant life in the pre-industrial era. It is only quite recently that

Abel has received fuller recognition in the Federal Republic for his
undoubted contribution to our knowledge of rural society in
Germany and Europe.
Two qualifications do, however, have to be entered at this point.
In the first place the major thrust of Abel’s work was to establish
the statistical series which, in turn, would facilitate broad compara-
tive analysis of the interrelationships between population
movement and agrarian production. He thus provided some of the
essential materials for the construction of a more sophisticated
rural social history without becoming too closely involved in the
process of construction itself. Secondly, the form of quantification
produced by Abel was much more appropriate to the study of
medieval and early modern conditions than to the examination of
the modern countryside, for which the initial data were and are
more readily available, and where the types of interdependencies
revealed by Abel no longer operated to anything like the same
degree. The demographic and agricultural revolutions of the nine-
teenth century were thus in one sense a postscript to the develop-
ments in which he was primarily interested.
Nevertheless, there remains a striking contrast between Abel’s
work and much of the standard literature on this later period. The
further one moves into the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,
the more one is struck by the methodological conservatism of the
basic texts on rural society available in West Germany. Many tend
to favour that style of agricultural history exemplified by
Haushofer’s contribution to the representative series of Deutsche
‘Agrargeschichte’;"’ in such works the history of agriculture is not
seen in terms of the people who worked on the land, nor in terms of
their economic, social and political relationships to each other and
to other sections of German society. The emphasis rather is on the
influence of important men, such as agricultural theorists,
reformers and rural notables, or on macroeconomic shifts in the
structure of rural production. Descriptions of technological
changes are rarely related to the changing work patterns of
peasants, their families and dependent labourers, but are generally
slotted into a narrative framework still redundantly tied to the
chronology of political events. Notions of change and conflict are
rarely allowed to break through the thick veneer of empiricism,
producing descriptions of agriculture which bear little relation to
the social and economic realities of peasant existence. Again, the
point to stress is the restricted conception of agrarian history

evident here. Few would doubt the need for the sort of information
provided by Haushofer, but many would now criticise the reluc-
tance to set those details into a much wider theoretical context,
capable of illuminating the transformation of rural society brought
about by the agricultural and industrial revolutions in Germany.'®
It is only with consideration of the quite profound structural
changes in agriculture and rural life that have occurred in post-war
West Germany that one notes a higher level of conceptualisation,
and that is due primarily to the fact that analysis of this period has
largely been the province of agrarian sociology.'? Surprisingly, not
even the co-operation between sociology and agrarian history insti-
tutionalised in the important journal, Zeitschrift fiir Agrarges-
chichte und Agrarsoziologie, has encouraged the adoption by
agrarian historians of wider terms of reference. Coexistence rather
than mutually beneficial interchange appears to be the order of the
day, even within the periodical itself.
The narrow focus and limited theoretical ambition of much con-
ventional Agrargeschichte compares distinctly unfavourably at
times with some of the corresponding literature produced over the
last generation in the German Democratic Republic. While both
continue to show significant traces of their common pre-war inheri-
tance, East German scholarship has clearly been invigorated by its
unequivocal location within Marxist-Leninist orthodoxy.” There
may still be a signal preoccupation with the process of peasant
emancipation and its consequences, but here the emphasis is on the
role played by agrarian reform in the overall transition from
feudalism to capitalism in Germany. This immediately draws dis-
cussion out of the juristic confines which inhibit too much of West
German historiography on the subject, but not necessarily at the
cost of being reconfined within the bounds of dogmatic Marxism.
One notes first the determination of East German historians to
refine Lenin’s conception of the particularly ‘Prussian path’ of
agriculture by elucidating what they see as the important ‘varia-
tions’ to be found on Prussia’s road to capitalism.”! The result of
intensive research since the later 1960s has been a major advance in
our understanding of the advance of capitalist production in
German agriculture, and a decisive redefinition of socio-economic
structures in East Elbian Prussia. Hartmut Harnisch’s essay
(Chapter 2) in this volume bears eloquent testimony to the progress
he and his colleagues have made in recent years by dint of dense
empirical research within a challenging theoretical framework.” A

further beneficial product of Leninist ideas has been the study by
East German scholars of class differentiation within the peasantry
in the wake of the dissolution of feudalism and the emergence of
capitalist agriculture.”7 As Hainer Plaul’s contribution (Chapter 4)
illustrates, Lenin’s arguments can stimulate fruitful analysis of
class conflict and changing social relations in the countryside —
issues which are much too infrequently broached in West German
historiography.“
Some indication of what might be achieved for our knowledge of
rural society in modern Germany by a more open exchange of views
between Marxist and non-Marxist historians is provided by recent
studies of peasant protest in early modern Germany, and of the
German Peasant War of 1525 in particular. Much of the value has
come out of the need of West German historians to come to grips
with the interpretations of the Bauernkrieg offered by historians of
the DDR, for whom, of course, Engels’ study is the necessary
starting point in their advocacy of the Peasant War as an ‘early
bourgeois revolution’. The resulting interchange has, for
example, helped towards an understanding of peasant political out-
looks in early modern times, and of the influence on them of class,
community, culture and religion, that is often clearer and more
subtle than that usually found in discussion of peasant politics in
the modern era.
This only tends to confirm the main points of the preceding dis-
cussion. These are threefold. First, historical study of the German
peasantry has been monopolised until recently by a conventional
agrarian history which is ill-equipped to offer a more wide-ranging
and rigorous social history of rural Germany. This requires the
sensitive use of analytical techniques which have traditionally stood
outside the narrow scope of Agrargeschichte. Secondly, few of the
studies which have successfully transcended those limitations,
whether those on the Peasant War or those by Abel and by his-
torians in the German Democratic Republic, are centrally con-
cerned with interpreting the structure and character of peasant
society in the period from 1848 to 1945. This means, finally, that
there has not been a sufficiently coherent challenge to the essen-
tially conservative view of the peasantry which is ingrained in tra-
ditional agrarian historiography. Still prominent are notions,
whether implicit or explicit, of the peasant as an object of history, a
mere recipient of reform, technical change and political guidance,
and above all, as a person with a particular set of enduring socio-

economic and cultural attributes which distinguished him funda-
mentally from other groups in a rapidly changing society.
Ill
The conception of the countryside as a reservoir of traditionalism,
and of the peasantry as an arsenal of pre-modern characteristics,
has been historically reinforced by another branch of study dedi-
cated to the examination of peasant life, Volkskunde. This disci-
pline, which falls somewhere between folklore, ethnology and
cultural anthropology, was born over a century ago, after public
perception of the peasantry in Germany had undergone a profound
transformation. The ‘moral image’ of the German peasant which
evolved during the first half of the nineteenth century attributed to
him a collection of personality traits — notably humility, piety,
natural wisdom, simplicity and goodness — which were deemed to
be a product of his noble labour and frugal life-style. These traits
were invoked as positive virtues in contrast to what was seen as the
moral and social degeneration of industrialisation. A peasant’s
freedom, stamina, solidity, simplicity, piety and loyalty were
deliberately contrasted with the corrupt and immoral existence of
the urban proletariat with its attendant political threat.** Contem-
porary handbooks and encyclopedias reinforced this image of a
retarded, conservative and tradition-conscious group. This proto-
type in turn inspired many investigations into rural and village life
which themselves bequeathed a set of assumptions which do not
stand up well to more complex theoretical perspectives.?’? This
stereotypical peasant also began to pervade popular reading
matter. After a period before 1848, when the rural novel (Bauern-
roman) could be seen attacking the last vestiges of feudalism, this
form of fiction became increasingly conservative in orientation: a
long-lost Mittelstand paradise was presented as an alternative to the
exploitation and alienation of the capitalist process. From the end
of the nineteenth century onwards, a succession of bourgeois
writers churned out novels highlighting the supposed virtues of the
independent peasant family.”
This was the climate which nurtured Volkskunde. Its prac-
titioners looked back reverently to the work of Wilhelm Riehl, a
writer largely ignored by other academic disciplines in Germany.
Successive generations of Volksktindler consciously cultivated a
nationalist ideal which aggrandised the social and cultural

importance of the peasantry within German society. Emphasis was
laid on the passage from one generation to the next of a specific
cultural inheritance (Kulturgut) of ritual, custom, food, fairy-tales
and folk-songs. Even the period of the Nazi dictatorship failed to
make some Volksktindler aware that the very legitimacy of their
profession had been undermined by its incorporation into the
political and racial priorities of National Socialism. The post-war
years have seen a slow but increasing realisation of Volkskunde’s
limitations, and criticism of its methods and values has become
more strident and effective.?? Historically, however, Volkskunde
has seen as its main priority the cataloguing of the minutiae of
everyday peasant life, thereby accumulating a mass of evidence
which it has tried to relate to a specific local or regional Kulturgut.
Thus most introductions to the ethnology of a particular area
followed a prescribed pattern. Description of the peasant dwelling
was followed by detailed — yet superficial — descriptions of
furniture, implements, clothing and other material possessions,
and details of diet, the calendar rhythm of rural life and customs,
popular beliefs and oral cultural transmissions, such as sayings,
puzzles and folklore. Underlying this compilation was a very
pervasive concept of the continuity or persistence of norms,
customs and behaviour. This continuity, which was usually con-
ceived in terms of centuries rather than decades, was not considered
a problem requiring investigation: it offered a superficial answer
which rendered further analysis redundant.*° No attempt was
undertaken to question the function of popular customs. Similarly,
the inordinate preoccupation with the material remnants (Uber-
reste) of peasant existence precluded any attempt to set findings in
their social and historical context. Volkskunde was thus interested
only in how a plough was made, not in how and when the plough
was used, and with what productive result. ‘Objects’ were not
related to either producers or consumers.*! Volkskunde’s pre-
occupation with the external manifestations of peasant life
excluded any conception of the peasant as a thinking and acting
person.*?
It is scarcely surprising, therefore, that Volkskunde maintained
an intellectual and institutional existence quite separate from
history, and this again served to marginalise historical study of the
peasantry. It was only rarely that a bridge between the disciplines
was erected, and then with mixed results.3 In the German
Democratic Republic, meanwhile, Volkskunde was obviously able

to make a much cleaner break from past traditions, largely by
trying to find a niche for itself in the cultural history of the working
class.*4 The last few years have, however, witnessed a distinct con-
vergence of Volkskunde and history in the Federal Republic. This
has come about because of the growing interest in the ‘history of
everyday life’ (Alltagsgeschichte) and because of the strength of the
work produced by a new generation of Volkskiindler, including Utz
Jeggle and Wolfgang Kaschuba, who have freed their discipline
from some of its previous assumptions and fixations.35 It is
becoming clear that the material accumulated by generations of
folklorists, once discriminatingly set in a different ideological and
conceptual framework, can yield meaningful insights into rural
popular culture. The contributions to this volume from the East
German scholars, Christel Heinrich and Hainer Plaul, which are
representative of other work in the interdisciplinary Magdeburg
project, are good examples of how some of the staple fare of Volks-
kunde — dress, housing, festivals, diet — can be related much
more intelligently to the means of production and to dynamic shifts
in social relations than they can to the dubiously static typologies
employed by traditional Volksktindler.
The intellectual rehabilitation of Volkskunde in the eyes of
historians might have occurred sooner but for the absence in West
Germany of any substantial tradition of social anthropology. Until
very recently the application of anthropological techniques to
historical problems tended to be limited to socio-psychological
dimensions, with little appreciation of how social-anthropological
perspectives might bring social history and Volkskunde closer
together in the study of mentalities and popular culture, as they
have done in France.** Work on the early modern German
peasantry is beginning to profit from this realisation,*’ but
equivalent progress on the recent past has come more from
enlightened folklorists than from historians. One notes, also, how
much of the initiative in this direction has come from foreign
scholars who are more attuned to the potential benefits of an
anthropological input into a broadly conceived social history.*8
A similar tendency is discernible in the growing interest of West
and East German historians in historical demography, a discipline
which was central, for example, to the major and pioneering
studies of the pre-revolutionary French peasantry by Goubert, Le
Roy Ladurie and others. In this volume the contribution to peasant
history made by this discipline is exemplified in the work of Gisela

Griepentrog (Chapter 8), drawn once more from the multi-disci-
plinary project on the Magdeburger Borde in progress at the
Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic. For
reasons which are more conveniently outlined elsewhere,*? it has
taken some time for West German historians to become accus-
tomed to the use of demographic data. Again, a lead has been given
by non-Germans, including, for example, Robert Lee, whose
demographic research has provided a springboard for a more wide-
ranging analysis of peasant society and economy in Bavaria in the
first half of the nineteenth century.”
So far, therefore, we have found a set of interrelated factors
which help to account for the relative absence of a rigorous social
history of the modern German peasantry. Certainly, the monopoly
on the historical study of peasant life exercised for so long by
traditional agrarian history and, to a lesser extent, by Volkskunde,
is beginning to break down. There have been notable advances in
our understanding of early modern peasant protest and of some of
the broader ramifications of Bauernbefreiung, as well as a growing
recognition of what might be achieved by careful recourse to
demography and anthropology. But the legacy of that monopoly,
evident above all in the survival of deeply-entrenched presuppo-
sitions about the essential characteristics of the German peasant, is
still very much in evidence.
IV
One would have anticipated some challenge to these assumptions

by the more theoretically-conscious social history which emerged in
the Federal Republic in the 1960s.*! This has not, however, taken
place. Systematic examination of modern rural history has been a
low priority for the newer social history, particularly of the ‘criti-
cal’ or ‘social-scientific’ history which has led the revolution in
West German historiography that has occurred over the last two
decades. Furthermore, the principal interests and the preferred
methodologies of this ‘historical social science’ have fostered basic
preconceptions about the place of the landholding peasantry in an
industrialising society which have tended to complement, rather
than counteract, those cultivated by the more conservative
traditions outlined above.
The dearth of studies on the peasantry by younger social his-

torians can be explained by a number of factors. In the first place,
such work would have required a considerable engagement with
precisely those disciplines, such as Agrargeschichte, whose ideo-
logical predispositions and theoretical impoverishment had first
helped to trigger the interest in social history. It appeared more
promising to investigate new areas with the help of different tools
than to go over ground already well tilled, however unsatisfac-
torily, by others. Secondly, there was an understandable commit-
ment from social historians to the study of those social groups such
as the working class, unduly neglected in previous historiography.
This was reinforced by the extent to which many of these historians
identified with the social and political order which had emerged in
West Germany by the later 1960s. The implicit legitimising function
of the new social history entailed, thirdly, an explicit rejection of
Marxist ideas, for these were associated, somewhat erroneously,
with the supposedly rigid dogmatism of East German historio-
graphy.” This encouraged an undue reliance on models appro-
priated from sociology and political science, particularly on those
which derived initially from Max Weber and which were then
fashionable in certain branches of American scholarship.* Few of
these models were immediately amenable to the more discrete
analysis of rural society, politics and culture. In this respect it is
surely no coincidence that many of the works on rural Germany
which have been produced by the social-scientific history relate
directly to one of Weber’s principal concerns, the estate economy
of the East Elbian Junker and its role in the political evolution of
Prusso-Germany.“
Of the more general, non-Marxist, sociological concepts avail-
able to West German social historians, perhaps the most widely
deployed has been that of modernisation. As we shall argue in more
detail below, this concept tends to encourage stereotyped views of
social groups such as the peasantry, rather than further investi-
gation of the same. It also influences the choice of subjects which
are deemed important for future study. Thus one finds that one of
the few books dealing specifically with modernisation in Germany
embraces only those problems considered the most crucial by social
theorists. Issues such as urbanisation, social conflict, political
participation and social mobility are, therefore, comprehensively
discussed.45 When confronted with questions of social mobility,
however, the authors readily concede their ignorance of how
classes were recruited in the agrarian sector:
Such gaps in our knowledge are particularly serious for historical

studies, for there are no concrete indications of which avenues
and opportunities for upward mobility were created by indus-
trialisation, the contraction of agrarian society and the steady
erosion of the petty-bourgeoisie. Nor do we know whether our
assumptions about the immobility of agrarian society {my
emphasis] and the exclusivity of the petty-bourgeoisie are
historically correct.
Another example of the way in which certain theoretical prefer-

ences could help to reinforce assumptions, or determine whether or
not the peasantry received more detailed historical analysis, par-
ticularly given the existence of an established agrarian historio-
graphy, can be seen in Jiirgen Kocka’s assessment of the state of
West German social history in the mid-1970s. Emphasising the
deficiencies in our knowledge which made West German social
history relatively backward by international comparison, he cata-
logued as areas requiring further scrutiny: historical demography,
family history, modern urban history, social stratification and
mobility, the working class (as distinct from socialism and the
labour movement), social protest, problems of youth and age,
female emancipation, professionalisation, and many others.*’
While analysis of the peasantry would clearly have profited from
such work, the history of rural society in its own right is con-
spicuous by its absence from the list.
One should perhaps stress at this point that the development of
the peasantry in other countries since the early nineteenth century is
also inadequately understood. The most notable exception in this
respect is Russia, whose recent history is, in more senses than one, a
history of the agrarian problem. The difficulties faced by the
Tsarist autocracy in effecting a workable abolition of serfdom and
in promoting agricultural modernisation, the massive research
undertaken to support different strategies of reform, the role of the
peasantry in the revolutions of 1905 and 1917, the dilemma for
socialists of achieving and maintaining a Marxist revolution in an
overwhelmingly peasant society, and the Bolsheviks’ brutal col-
lectivist solution to that dilemma, are all inevitable and indis-
pensable topics for historical discussion.*® By contrast, the most
pressing question for the modern historian of Germany, and the
one to which the newer style of history in the Federal Republic was
intended to provide the most persuasive answers — to explain the
rise and triumph of National Socialism — was not one that
appeared to necessitate sustained study of the peasantry.
The concentration on the longer-term origins of the failure of
German democracy in 1933 by this more self-consciously problem-
solving approach to German history has, however, resulted in an
interpretation of Germany’s past in the FRG which involves dis-
tinctive ideas about the peasantry. The inability of Germany to
match the normative model of socio-political development implicit
in the concept of ‘modernisation’ is attributed by many West
German historians to the preservation of ‘pre-industrial’ élites and
their malevolent political influence. The adoption of functionalist
models leads to an emphasis on the politics of ‘system stabilisation’
or ‘conflict resolution’ in which it is often unquestioningly implied
that social groups such as the ‘independent’ peasantry acted as
unconscious agents or supporters of élite machinations. The idea of
‘traditional’ sections of German society being left behind by the
rapidity of social and economic change has become deeply embed-
ded in historiography in the Federal Republic. The resultant
hostility of these groups to modernity, as expressed in their
economic interests, values, behaviour and ideological prejudices, is
thereby seen as an essential prerequisite for the rise of German
fascism. Correspondingly, it is argued, Nazism and the circum-
stances of its collapse created the structural preconditions for a
society to develop in West Germany that is ‘relatively free from
pre-modern relics’,*® one relieved of the archaic or anachronistic
survivals that had handicapped Germany until 1933.
This emphasis on Germany’s deviant path to modernity incor-
porates certain conceptions of the peasantry — and particularly of
its political conduct — which at times come disturbingly close to
the moral image of the loyal and conservative peasant so sedulously
cultivated in the later nineteenth century.°° The peasantry also
tends to be accorded an essentially passive function which does not
differ substantially from that presumed in more conventional
accounts of agrarian politics.*! It is suggested that the political
behaviour of German peasants was conditioned by their tradition-
ality, their adherence to pre-industrial norms, and by their subse-
quent inability or unwillingness to come to terms with the trans-
formation of German society. The resentment and hostility they
felt towards industrialisation and the irrevocable erosion of their
social status could be exploited by other more powerful interests,

such as the Junker aristocracy, to service reactionary aims which
conflicted with the real needs of the small farmer. Before 1914
peasants were mobilised behind the popular pre-fascist agrarianism
of the Agrarian League (Bund der Landwirte), whose activities not
only postponed a modernisation of German agriculture, but also
prevented the emancipation of German society from the baleful
influence of the large landowner.*? After 1918 the traumatic impact
of revolution, inflation and world economic crisis only deepened
the peasants’ intrinsic aversion to democracy. The direct lineage of
anti-modern and reactionary authoritarianism dating back to the
Empire thus culminated in the widespread support given by the
peasantry, especially in Protestant Germany, to the Nazi Party.
Since the crucial work of Gerschenkron, the issue of tariff pro-
tection has been pivotal to most studies of German agrarian politics
from the 1870s onwards.*} The support given by the bulk of the
peasantry to the protectionist cause is seen as symptomatic of its
presumed role as an agent of élite designs. In the return to pro-
tectionism in 1879, as reinforced in the tariff law of 1902, and in
the political bargaining over tariff protection in the later Weimar
Republic, the objective interests of the smaller peasant-producers,
it is argued, were sacrificed to the sectional objectives of the land-
owning aristocracy of East Elbia. The degree of protection
afforded to domestic producers against imported foodstuffs has
therefore been interpreted as a critical measure by which to gauge
Germany’s progress towards democracy.*
The analysis of rural politics, so briefly schematised here, consti-
tutes one element in a comprehensive rethinking of Germany’s
immediate past undertaken by West German social historians of
German politics, as well as by influential scholars outside West
Germany. This reassessment has inevitably been subject to constant
criticism from the numerically stronger but intellectually much less
powerful ranks of conservative historiography in West Germany.
More recently, however, the stress on Germany’s modern history as
a Sonderweg, or peculiar path to modernity, the insistence on
explaining the rise of Nazism primarily in terms of pre-industrial
traditions and pre-modern social strata, and the consequential
definition of fascism as a product of political backwardness, have
come in for more vigorous attack from other quarters.*S This is not
the place to enter the ensuing controversy. It is, however, the place
to reflect critically on those conceptual and empirical shortcomings
in this reinterpretation of modern German history which bear

directly on our understanding of the peasantry in this period.
Some of these limitations stem from an occupational habit of many

social historians (not just those of Germany) of treating the existing
sociological literature as ‘an academic potting shed containing a set
of handy tools’.** Despite an apparently continuous discussion in
the ‘critical’ historiography about how to utilise these tools for
explanatory and heuristic purposes,*’ there is still an underlying
tendency ‘to slake the thirst for more theory by scooping up mouth-
fuls of unpurified concepts from the waters of conventional
sociology’.*® Consequently, these historians operate with a set of
preconceptions which emerge only as ‘a fine network of concealed
preferences’.*? This is evident from the continued reliance in West
German historiography on terms such as ‘pre-industrial’, ‘tradi-
tional’ and ‘pre-modern’, notwithstanding their origins in the
increasingly criticised ‘theory’ of modernisation.
It is now widely recognised that the notion of modernisation
embodied a self-confident ethnocentrism, with the American polity
being offered as the paradigm of modernity to which newly-
developing nations should aspire. The attempt to aggregate in a
single concept disparate and complex processes of social change
involved the substitution for Marxist historical materialism of a
‘functional-technological determinism’, which imposed an obvious
‘imperialism of categories’ on industrialising societies. It was
increasingly appreciated that ‘tradition’ could not be empirically
observed, because it existed only as a hypothetical antithesis to an
observed ‘modernity’. The analytical value of ‘tradition’ must
therefore be seriously in question until traditionality can be demon-
strated, rather than assumed. Certainly, it ought not be used
loosely as a synonym for resistance to change or stubborn back-
wardness.*! As Tony Judt has reminded us, to
be modern is where the historical process intended you to be. (It

follows that all evidence of a willingness to adapt to the demands
of modern society is a confirmation of the modernised nature of
the person or group in question.) Conversely, those who so fail
to adapt, who protest against the changes in question are
backward-looking and the subject of much properly puzzled

investigation.”
Because traditional culture is credited with a capacity for inde-

pendent endurance, traditional features are relegated to the
historical wastebin, residual categories that fail to yield to the
prescribed imperatives of modernisation. Through the pervasive
dichotomies of modernisation, the past is strung out along a linear
continuum ‘which prevents accurate historical analysis by explain-
ing phenomena in terms of a pre-selected number of variables. Too
little thus explains too much.’®
We have already seen the extent to which historical analysis of
the German peasantry by West German historians and others is
couched in a vocabulary which derives directly from the ques-
tionable teleology of modernisation. The identification of the city
or urban labourer with modernity, and of the peasant with tra-
dition, is ultimately to confuse /abels, which fit neatly into
conceptual packages of dubious theoretical paternity, for serious
historical investigation, say, of the similarities, differences and
interrelationships between urban and rural life.“ There is no
denying, for example, that both in the Kaiserreich and in the
Weimar Republic, agrarian politics was suffused with a variety of
defensive, anti-industrial and anti-modern reactions, which appear
to make the peasant a resentful victim of modernisation and thus
all too easy a prey to the illusory promises of the Nazis. Again,
however, an uncritical acceptance of modernisation concepts
encourages a monocausal interpretation of the direction and
function of this agrarian ideology.® It also invites too static a view
of rural politics, with more emphasis on the structural continuity of
‘pre-modern’ outlooks than on the perhaps more decisive conjunc-
tural shifts in the character and direction of peasant political
action, such as that which occurred in the 1890s. Above all,
modernisation concepts suggest a relatively uncomplicated
relationship between the peasantry and fascism, a relationship
which, on the evidence of some impressive recent research on the
regional basis of Fascism in Italy, is a good deal more nuanced than
most present studies on Germany seem to indicate.”
In this respect it is worth noting that, of the few historical studies
devoted specifically to explaining the connection between rural
society and the expansion of the NSDAP, three of the best known
continue to be those on Schleswig-Holstein, a region where the
Nazis gained early and massive support in the areas of pre-

dominantly small and medium-sized peasant farms. The authors
are united in showing the vulnerability of the Geest peasantry to the
appeal and programme of the Nazis, but they disagree about the
political affiliations of the same peasants in the earlier years of the
Weimar Republic. However, this concentration on Schleswig-
Holstein highlights our limited knowledge of other rural con-
stituencies which either did or did not vote in large numbers for the
NSDAP. Overall it seems clear that the Nazis gained a dispro-
portionate degree of allegiance, particularly in election votes, from
the peasantry. But we know surprisingly little else apart from that
elementary observation, and the possibility that the poorer and
more socially marginal peasants may have been recruited in larger
numbers by the Hitler movement. We are now rather better
informed about the impact on the peasantry of the First World War
and the ensuing inflation, and this has allowed some important
modifications of previous suppositions.” The absence of
comparable work on the effect of the economic crisis of 1928
onwards in different regions of Germany’! further hinders the
formulation of more challenging interpretations about the agrarian
roots of fascism.
We still need to pursue the lines of research opened up by Horst
Gies, who has shown how rapidly the Nazi Party expanded its
‘radius of action’ from 1930 onwards.” Only after the electoral
success of that year, and with the emergence of Darré as the
principal Nazi theorist on agrarian problems, did the party begin a
determined campaign to erect a network of political organisations
capable of winning over further peasant votes to the party.’”? The
divisions which plagued rival groupings enabled the Nazis to infil-
trate and undermine them, while their own peasant organisations
became some of the most successfully co-ordinated and reliable in
the whole apparatus of the NSDAP. Recent studies emanating
from the ‘Bavaria project’ on Nazism demonstrate the value at a
more local level of the perspectives suggested by Gies.” Other
findings, both from that project and from elsewhere, which suggest
how deepening disillusionment, mounting material grievances and
the survival of pre-Nazi values made the peasantry increasingly
impervious and ultimately hostile to ideological penetration by the
Nazi regime itself,”> should make us yet more cautious of easy
generalisations about Nazism and the ‘traditional’ peasantry. Over-
simplified assumptions, which fit neatly into conceptual frame-
works of questionable validity, are an inadequate replacement for

meaningful historical investigation which takes due account of the
manifold complexities and relationships within modern rural
society.
VI
The time has come, therefore, when historical study of the modern
German peasantry has to free itself more decisively from the
seductive but ultimately unhelpful categories of ‘modernisation’, as
well as from the stale formulations of traditional Volkskunde and
Agrargeschichte. Only by posing different questions of the
peasantry can there emerge a more systematic and theoretically
rigorous understanding of rural society, itself a precondition for
the urgent task of integrating the study of rural developments much
more successfully into the wider social history of modern Germany.
That task will not be delayed by any dearth of sources. Statistics
on types of cultivation, harvest yields, animal stocks, mechanisa-
tion and co-operatives have been collected for over a century.’®
Combined with the increasingly comprehensive censuses on occu-
pations and enterprises, they afford some helpful insights into the
local and regional contrasts in peasant farming, and into the scope
of technical and social change in the countryside. The quantitative
evidence is complemented by the large number of official surveys
into the state of German agriculture conducted in response to the
difficulties faced by peasant-producers during the agricultural
crises of the late nineteenth century and the 1920s. Although these
reports have to be used with some caution, because of the varying
motives and expertise of those compiling them, they do provide
further starting points for research. In addition to these more
general sources, there is a vast array of local and parish records,
land registers, village genealogies and administrative surveys, as
well as the abundance of detail bequeathed by generations of folk-
lorists, all of them capable of illuminating conditions and processes
in different communities.
A more effective incorporation of the peasantry into the social-
historical study of modern Germany will not, however, come about
solely through a fuller and more critical exploitation of such
sources. It will also depend quite crucially on winning much wider
acceptance of the view that peasants in nineteenth- and twentieth-
century Germany are better understood as an integral part of an

emerging and ultimately mature capitalist society, than as a closed
form of existence isolated from the rest of society. Too often
historians of Germany, as well as of other countries, have judged
the peasantry’s relationship to modernising societies primarily on
the basis of the clearly defensive character of modern agrarian
politics.” In doing so, they have tended to ignore equally convinc-
ing evidence of the peasantry’s determination to be part of
capitalist market structure, whether through significant increases in
agricultural production and productivity, crop specialisation and
commercialisation, through the more efficient use of labour, or
through the increasing adoption of co-operative arrangements for
the acquisition of credit, machinery and services and for the greater
co-ordination of commercialised production. As Hobsbawm has
emphasised, the ‘classical’ paths to capitalist agriculture, involving
the radical elimination of the peasantry (Scotland, England and
parts of Prussia, for example) are as exceptional in the history of
capitalism as internal transformations of the peasantry into fully
capitalistic commodity producers, such as occurred in Denmark.
This leaves much of Germany sharing with many other societies a
middle path, with the surviving peasant being made compatible
with and subservient to the capitalist economy, as a commodity
producer increasingly geared towards the market and working with
a mix of family and hired labour — a process which, incidentally,
posed obvious dilemmas for socialist theory and practice before
1914.78
Once one accepts the premise that capitalism and peasant-
producers are compatible rather than mutually exclusive, certain
consequences inevitably follow for the way in which the modern
German peasantry should be studied. The first is that future
analysis of the peasantry must beware of notions of peasant
‘culture’ which treat the peasantry as a cohesive, stable and
separate social formation, only capable of being examined through
the household or the community. Such a perspective, which derives
above all from the work and theoretical presumptions of Robert
Redfield, can lead too easily to the view that any profound changes
in peasant culture must come from the intrusion of exogenous
variables into an otherwise immutable way of life, and that it is
therefore only these factors which require explanation.” This
assumption of an essentially autarchic peasantry underpins
Weber’s fascinating but highly problematical study of how, in the
22 = ‘Tradition’ and the Peasantry
years up to 1914, ‘undeveloped France was integrated into the

modern world and the official culture — of Paris, of the cities’.%°
The limitations of such a dualistic conception of the peasantry pro-
vide Weber’s critics with their most penetrating line of criticism,®
thereby mirroring in many respects the critique that has emerged of
Shanin’s equally influential work on the Russian peasantry in the
era before collectivisation.®? In both cases the outcome of the
ensuing debate has been the elaboration of a cogent and funda-
mental challenge to excessively culturalist representations of the
peasantry, a challenge which future historians of rural Germany
should take fully into account.
The controversy especially over the character of the Russian
peasantry has also provoked a more general discussion about the
overall concept of the peasantry, a dialogue in which few German
voices have been heard. This is scarcely the place to review the
extensive literature on the problems of defining peasantries. It is
important, however, to note the criticism which has been levelled
against that general typology — so influentially summarised by
Shanin — in which the peasantry is seen to be characterised by the
family farm as the basic unit of social organisation, by land
husbandry as the principal means of livelihood, by a specific tradi-
tional culture related to the way of life in village communities, and
by the subordination of the peasantry to outsiders.® This criticism
has centred on the tendency for the term ‘peasant’ to incorporate
many contrasting forms of production and social organisation. The
diversity of peasant types indicated by anthropological and histori-
cal research has not, it is argued, led to any reconsideration of the
pre-given notion of peasantry, but rather to ever more generalised
definitions of the concept. The resulting lack of precision leads to a
glaring deficiency of theoretically useful distinctions, thereby
obscuring social dynamics and distorting actual historical
sequences.*4 As Leeds has emphasised, the term peasant involves
the implicit or explicit search for essences — the essence of
peasants, peasantries or peasancy. This search ‘asserts not only the
inherentness, but also, especially, the separateness of some quality
or substance of some reified thing — here the ‘‘peasantry’’.’85
Given the extent to which the German term Bauer has repeatedly
represented a specific ideological construct, it is obviously impera-
tive for German historians to address themselves more openly and
frequently to these issues.
Indeed, there is a strong case for asserting that a major priority
for any historian of the modern German peasantry must be fo

deconstruct the whole notion of a German peasantry. This would
involve a much more rigorous analysis of the scale and nature of
social differentiation in the German countryside, and a full evalua-
tion of the varying ways in which the complex gradations in
German rural society might satisfactorily be conceptualised. The
1895 census, for example, registered some 5.6 million ‘agricultural
enterprises’ in Germany, ranging from small garden plots to
extensive latifundia. Over three-quarters were less than 5 hectares
in size, but these occupied only about 15 per cent of agricultural
land, whereas more than half of the available land was taken by
properties ranging in size from 5 to 50 hectares, and almost a
quarter by the 25,061 large farms and estates of over 100 hectares.*
A more precise understanding of the size of holdings and their dis-
tribution in various parts of Germany is clearly important, but it
constitutes only one rather crude method of differentiation.®’ As
the work of East German historians and many of the essays in this
volume demonstrate, property size alone does not determine levels
of prosperity or commercialisation, the extent of any reliance on
extra-familial labour, or the socio-economic status of the owner or
tenant. We need to know how far the model of class differentiation
used so effectively in the study of Magdeburg can be applied to
other parts of Germany, where the transition to capitalist com-
modity-production of crops such as sugar beet may not have been
quite so pronounced.*8
Similarly, too much of our admittedly still limited knowledge of
the rural proletariat is based on a long tradition of research into the
more capitalised farms and estates of north-eastern Germany.”
How did the landless labourers of this part of Germany fare in
comparison to the large number of smallholders who sold their
labour, but also had access to land, and therefore to means of auto-
consumption and the production of marketable surpluses? As
Regina Schulte indicates (Chapter 6), many larger ‘peasants’ were
employers of non-family labour, frequently the sons and daughters
of fellow peasants. The implications of this for class structure and
social relations require further exploration, as too does the increas-
ing dependence on seasonal and migrant labour at periods of peak
agricultural activity, a trend by no means exclusive to the East
Elbian estates. These and many other points need to be clarified if
we are to achieve a firmer grasp of the dynamics of social differen-
tiation in rural Germany, itself an indispensable prerequisite for
dissecting the convenient but flawed notion of a unitary or

autonomous German peasantry.
A stronger emphasis on the processes of change and differentia-
tion in the countryside will, in turn, permit a much more nuanced
assessment of peasant agriculture in Germany. The transition from
subsistence” to commodity production by many peasants has often
been inadequately understood, especially in some political histories
of modern Germany. First, there is a tendency to rely on over-
simplified contrasts between East and West Elbian Germany which
simply do not concur with the economic and social geography of
the country. Secondly, there is frequent reference to the ‘failure’ of
the German peasant to match the paradigmatic progress of his
Danish counterpart,®! but insufficient allusion to the fact that by
the 1900s ‘German agriculturalists could claim with some justifica-
tion that farming in their country was the most advanced in
Europe, with the possible exception of that in Denmark.’ The
great advances made in the agricultural sector during the nineteenth
century® tend also to be obscured from view because of the inordi-
nate preoccupation with the support many peasants gave to the
cause of tariff protection, a course of action which may have been
much more ‘rational’ than has been all too commonly supposed.”
Instead of treating the peasant family form as a social anachronism
and form of production resistant to change, there is a pressing need
to understand and explain the decisions made by a peasant-
producer.
Once again we can see the necessity of constructing more sophis-
ticated processual models which will adequately explain the socio-
economic transformation of the German peasantry, and the
varying relationships between different types of commodity-
producers and the capitalist market at a time when peasants were
increasingly reliant on income from agriculture. Such models
wouid also allow more revealing insights into the structure of social
and political relations in the individual village community, and how
these were transformed with the advent of commercialised agricul-
ture and industrial capitalism. We already have a good indication
of the communal pressures generated by economic and demo-
graphic shifts in the years up to 1848, and of the way in which the
resulting conflicts were resolved in favour of specific groups in the
community.%* Our understanding of comparable developments in
later periods remains, by comparison, seriously deficient. This is all
the more regrettable given the need to question received preconcep-
tions about the place of the ‘community’ in the lives of the

peasantry, and to understand how far the functions of the com-
munity were changed by socio-economic differentiation, shifts in
religious values and practices,” the growth of educational oppor-
tunities, and by the extension of state and bureaucratic
competence.
Finally, these and many other considerations have to be inte-
grated into interpretations of rural politics that are much more
broad-ranging than those with which we customarily operate. A
fuller appreciation of the processes of commercialisation and
differentiation, of the structures of power and control in com-
munities and regions, of the manifold ways in which political
conflicts could be mediated, and, above all, of the extent to which
politics did matter to peasants, will help to bring closer the day
when the political behaviour of the peasantry is analysed with the
same subtlety and sensitivity that is automatically expected of
histories of urban politics. That day will come all the more quickly
if more historians realise the importance of releasing historical
study of the modern German peasantry from the conceptual con-
fines in which it has been trapped for too long. The processes of
economic, social and political change in the German countryside
were too uneven and too complex to be accommodated within
inflated typologies of peasantry, whether these stem from the ideo-
logical inheritance of the nineteenth century or from their latter-
day counterparts in modernisation theory and cultural anthropo-
logy. Instead of reducing the peasantry to some form of ‘essence’,
characterised by an assumed traditionality, the time is surely ripe to
study peasants as an integral part of the class structure of modern
German society.
Notes
1. The phrase is Teodor Shanin’s in the introduction to his important edition of

readings, Peasants and Peasant Societies (Harmondsworth, 1971). Other valuable
introductions include E. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1966), and J.
Potter, M. Diaz and G. Foster (eds.), Peasant Society (Boston, Mass., 1967).
2. Tony Judt, ‘The Rules of the Game’ (review article), Historical Journal, 23
(1980), p. 181.
3. It will become clear from the text that the main thrust of this bibliographical
essay is to review the way in which the modern peasantry is studied in West
Germany, but in the context of work on German rural society published in the
German Democratic Republic (GDR), Britain and the United States. An earlier
version of this paper was presented in July 1979 as a conference paper to the SSRC
research seminar group in modern German social history at the University of East
Anglia. Account has been taken of work published in the interim, but it was felt
desirable to retain the somewhat polemical character of the original to prevent the
essay from becoming a mere catalogue of relevant titles, as well as to encourage
further debate and research.
4, P. Ackermann, Der deutsche Bauernverband im politischen Krdftespiel der
Bundesrepublik (Tiibingen, 1970), pp. 1—3, 23—5.
5. G. G. Iggers, New Directions in European Historiography (Middletown,
Conn., 1975), pp. 112-13.
6. This criticism applies to some extent to the history of other countries in
Western Europe.
7. G. Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprung der Landarbeiter in den
dlteren Teilen Preussens, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1887).
8. Perhaps the most useful introduction now is C. Dipper, Die Bauernbefreiung
in Deutschland 1750—1850 (Stuttgart, 1980). See also W. Conze, ‘Die Wirkungen
der liberalen Agrarreformen auf die Volksordnung im Mitteleuropa im 19.
Jahrhundert’, Vierteljahrschrift fiir Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 38 (1951),
pp. 2—43; English translation in F. Crouzet et al. (eds.), Essays on European
Economic History 1789-1914 (London, 1969); W. Conze, Quellen zur Geschichte
der deutschen Bauernbefreiung (Gottingen, (1957). More recent specialised studies
include: E. Schremmer, Die Bauernbefreiung in Hohenlohe (Stuttgart, 1963);
Wolfgang von Hippel, Die Bauernbefreiung im K6nigreich Wiirttemberg, 2 vols.
(Boppard, 1977); F. Hausmann, Die Agrarpolitik der Regierung Montgelas (Bern,
1975). For English readers much of this research is summarised in Jerome Blum,
The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1978), passim.
9. R. Berthold, H. Harnisch and H.-H. Miiller, ‘Der preussische Weg der Land-
wirtschaft und neuere westdeutsche Forschungen’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschafts-
geschichte (henceforth Jb WG) (1970), IV, p. 265.
10. F. Liitge, Geschichte der deutschen Agrarverfassung vom friihen Mittelalter
bis zum 19, Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1963); idem., Die bayerische Grundherrschaft
(Stuttgart, 1949).
11. H. Rosenberg, Probleme der deutschen Sozialgeschichte (Frankfurt am
Main, 1969), pp. 87 ff. See also Harnisch’s comments, Chapter 2 below.
12. Representative studies include: F.-W. Henning, Dienste und Abgaben der
Bauern im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1969); idem., Bauernwirtschaft und
Bauerneinkommen in Ostpreussen im 18. Jahrhundert (Wiirzburg, 1969); idem.,
Bauernwirtschaft und Bauerneinkommen im Fiirstentum Paderborn im 18.
Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1970); idem., Herrschaft und Bauernuntertdnigkeit
(Wirzburg, 1964); D. Saalfeld, Bauernwirtschaft und Gutsbetrieb in der vorindus-
triellen Zeit (Stuttgart, 1960); W. Steitz, Feudalwesen und Staatssteuersystem. Band
1 — Die Realbesteuerung der Landwirtschaft in den sdddeutschen Staaten im 19.
Jahrhundert (GOttingen, 1976); J. Karbach, Die Bauernwirtschaften des
Fuirstentums Nassau-Saarbriicken im 18. Jahrhundert (Saarbriicken, 1977); H.
Winkel, Die Abldsungskapitalien aus der Bauernbefreiung in West- und
Stiddeutschland (Stuttgart, 1968).
13. Berthold, Harnisch and Miller, p. 266.
14, L. Berkner and F. Mendels, ‘Inheritance Systems, Family Structure and
Demographic Patterns in Western Europe, 1700—1900’, in C. Tilly (ed.), Historical
Studies of Changing Fertility (Princeton, N.J., 1978), pp. 209—24; L. Berkner, ‘The
Stem Family and the Developmental Cycle of the Peasant Household: An
Eighteenth-Century Austrian Example’, American Historical Review, 77 (1972),
pp. 398—418.
15. W. Abel, Agrarkrise und Agrarkonjunktur (Hamburg, 19667). See also:
idem., Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft vom friihen Mittelalter bis zum 19.
Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1967); idem., Massenarmut und Hungerkrisen im
vorindustriellen Deutschland (Gottingen, 1972); idem., ‘Die Lage der deutschen
Land- und Ernahrungswirtschaft um 1800’, in F. Liitge (ed.), Die wirtschaftliche
Situation Deutschlands und Osterreichs um die Wende vom 18. zum 19.
Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1964), pp. 238-54.
16. W. Abel, Agricultural Fluctuations in Europe (London, 1980).
17. H. Haushofer, Die deutsche Landwirtschaft im technischen Zeitalter
(Stuttgart, 1963). See the critical appraisal by Rosenberg, Probleme, op. cit.,
pp. 111 ff. Other introductory surveys displaying similar shortcomings include: E.
Klein, Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft im Industriezeitalter (Wiesbaden,
1973); R. Krzymonski, Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft (Berlin, 1961); H.
W. Finck von Finckenstein, Die Entwicklung der Landwirtschaft in Preussen und
Deutschland 1800—1930 (Wiirzburg, 1960); F.-W. Henning, Landwirtschaft und
landliche Gesellschaft in Deutschland, Band 2 — 1750—1976 (Paderborn, 1978); W.
Achilles, ‘Die niedersachsische Landwirtschaft im Zeitalter der Industrialisierung
1820-1914’, Nederstchsisches Jahrbuch fiir Landesgeschichte, 50 (1978),
pp. 7-26.
18. There is tittle of note in W. Achilles, ‘Die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen
Industrie und Landwirtschaft’, in H. Pohl (ed.), Sozialgeschichtliche Probleme in
der Zeit der Hochindustrialisierung (Paderborn, 1979). More fruitful are: M.
Haines, ‘Agriculture and Development in Prussian Upper Silesia, 1846-1913’,
Journal of Economic History, 42 (1982), pp. 355—84; and the essays by H.-J.
Teuteberg, ‘Die Einfluss der Agrarreform auf die Betriebsorganisation und
Produktion der bauerlichen Wirtschaft Westfalens im 19. Jahrhundert’,
pp. 167—276; and H. Kiesewetter, ‘Agrarreform, landwirtschaftliche Produktion
und Industrialisierung im K6énigreich Sachsen 1832—1861’, pp. 89—138, in F. Blaich
(ed.), Entwicklungsprobleme einer Region (Berlin, 1981).
19. See G. Wurzbacher, Das Dorf im Spannungsfeld industrieller Entwicklung
(Stuttgart, 1954); G. Spindler, Burgbach. Urbanisation and Identity in a German
Village (New York, 1973); U. Planck, Der bduerliche Familienbetrieb zwischen
Patriarchat und Partnerschaft (Stuttgart, 1964).
20. For a general introduction, see R. Berthold, Agrargeschichte. Von der
biirgerlichen Reformen zur sozialistischen Landwirtschaft in der DDR (Berlin,
1978).
21. See G. Heitz, ‘Varianten des preussischen Weges’, JbWG, 1969/III,
pp. 99 ff.; H. Bleiber, ‘Zur Problematik des preussischen Weges der Kapitalismus
in der Landwirtschaft’, Zeitschrift fiir Geschichtswissenschaft (henceforth ZfG), 13
(1965), pp. 57-73; G. Moll, ‘Zum preussischen Weg der Entwicklung des
Kapitalismus in der deutschen Landwirtschaft’, ibid., 26 (1978), pp. 52-62;
Berthold, Harnisch and Miiller, op. cit., pp. 259-89. From a different perspective,
see also A. Winson, ‘The ‘‘Prussian Road’’ of Agrarian Development: A Recon-
sideration’, Economy and Society, 11 (1982), pp. 381—408.
22. See especially H. Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform und Industrielle
Relvolution. Agrarhistorische Untersuchungen tiber das ostelbische Preussen
zwischen Spdatfeudalismus und biirgerlich-demokratischer Revolution (Weimar and
Cologne, 1984); G. Moll, ‘Biirgerliche Umwalzung und kapitalistische Agrarent-
wicklung’, ZfG, 30 (1982), pp. 943-56. Important earlier work by the same authors
includes: H. Harnisch, Die Herrschaft Boitzenburg. Untersuchung zur Entwicklung
der sozialékonomischen Struktur ldndlicher Gebiete in der Mark Brandenburg vom
14. bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (Weimar, 1968); idem., ‘Statistische Untersuchungen
zum Verlauf der kapitalistischen Agrarreformen in den preussischen Ostprovinzen
(1811 bis 1865)’, JOWG, 1974/1V; G. Moll, Die kapitalistische Bauernbefreiung im
Klosteramt Dobbertin (Mecklenburg) (Rostock, 1968). For an indication of the
debate aroused in the GDR by Harnisch’s interpretation of the agrarian reforms in

East Prussia, see the discussion, reported in JoWG, 1978/I, pp. 199-210, of
H. Harnisch, ‘Die Bedeutung der kapitalistischen Agrarreform fir die
Herausbildung des inneren Marktes und die Industrielle Revolution in den éstlichen
Provinzen Preussens in der ersten Halfte des 19. Jahrhunderts’, ibid. (1977), IV,
pp. 834i.
23. J. Solta, Die Bauern der Lausitz. Eine Untersuchung des Differenzierung-
sprozesses der Bauernschaft im Kapitalismus (Bautzen, 1968); R. Berthold, “Der
sozialokonomische Differenzierungsprozess der Bauernwirtschaft in der Provinz
Brandenburg wahrend der industriellen Revolution (1816 bis 1872/82)’, JoWG
(1974), Il, pp. 13-50; idem., ‘Zur Herausbildung der kapitalistischen Klassen-
schichtung des Dorfes in Preussen’, ZfG, 25 (1977). See also the references in note
24.
24. The most important contributions have come from the large-scale research
project on Magdeburg, in which Plaul and many others have been engaged. See
especially: H. Plaul, Landarbeiterleben im 19. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1979); H.-J.
Rach and B. Weissel (eds.), Landwirtschaft und Kapitalismus. Zur Entwicklung der
ok6énomischen und sozialen Verhdltnisse in der Magdeburger Borde vom Ausgang
des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende des ersten Weltkrieges (Berlin, 1978); H.-J. Rach
and B. Weissel (eds.), Bauer und Landarbeiter im Kapitalismus der Magdeburger
Borde (Berlin, 1982).
25. A helpful introduction to the differing interpretations is Bob Scribner and
Gerhard Benecke (eds.), The German Peasant War of 1525 — New Viewpoints
(London, 1979). Essential works include the renowned studies of F. Engels, Der
deutsche Bauernkrieg (Berlin, 1979); and G. Franz, Der deutsche Bauernkrieg
(Darmstadt, 1975). See also: D. Sabean, Landbesitz und Gesellschaft am Vorabend
des Bauernkrieges (Stuttgart, 1972); R. Wohlfeil, Reformation oder friihbiirgerliche
Revolution? (Munich, 1972). The anniversary in 1975 also yielded a fresh crop of
studies, including: J. Bak (ed.), The German Peasant War (London, 1976); H.-U.
Wehler (ed.), Der deutsche Bauernkrieg (Gottingen, 1975); R. Wohlfeil (ed.), Der
Bauernkrieg 1524—1526 (Munich, 1975); P. Blickle, Die Revolution von 1525
(Munich, 1975), now available as The Revolution of 1525 (Baltimore, 1981). For a
comprehensive review of the newer literature, see Tom Scott, ‘The Peasants’ War: A
Historiographical Review’, Historical Journal, 22 (1979), pp. 693-720, and
(Part II) pp. 953—74. On the wider problematics of peasant protest, see P. Blickle,
‘Peasant Revolts in the German Empire in the late Middle Ages’, Social History, 4
(1979), pp. 223—40; P. Blickle, et al., Aufruhr und Emporung. Studien zum
bdauerlichen Widerstand im Alten Reich (Munich, 1980); W. Schulze, Bduerlicher
Widerstand und feudale Herrschaft in der friihen Neuzeit (Stuttgart, 1980), with an
excellent bibliography, revealing the extent to which West and East German scholars
have profited from the wider European historiography on peasant protest. Note also
Hagen’s essay, Chapter 3 below, for further insights.
26. J. G. Gagliardo, From Pariah to Patriot. The Changing Image of the German
Peasant (Kentucky, 1969). See also: J. Ziche, ‘Kritik der deutschen Bauern-
tumsideologie’, Sociologia Ruralis, 8 (1968), pp. 105—41; H. Muth, ‘‘‘Bauer’’ und
““Bauernstand”’ im Lexicon des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts’, Zeitschrift fiir Agrar-
geschichte und Agrarsoziologie (henceforth ZAA), 16 (1963), pp. 72-93; W.
Conze, ‘Bauer, Bauernstand, Bauerntum’, in O. Brunner et al., Geschichtliche
Grundbegriffe, Vol. 1 (Stuttgart, 1972), pp. 407—39; and, very unsatisfactorily, H.
Haushofer, ‘Die Idealvorstellung vom deutschen Bauern’, ZAA, 26 (1978),
pp. 147-60.
27. W. Jacobeit, ‘‘‘Traditionelle’’ Verhaltensweise und konservative Ideologie’,
in H. Bausinger and W. Briickner (eds.), Kontinuitdt? (Berlin, 1969), pp. 67—75.
28. Of 344 such authors, 209 were teachers, journalists or workers. See
P. Zimmermann, Der Bauernroman (Stuttgart, 1975), pp. 70 ff., 180—3; and J.

Hein, Dorfgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1976).
29. A useful introduction to the history of Volkskunde is I. Weber-Kellermann,
Deutsche Volkskunde zwischen Germanistik und Sozialwissenschaften (Stuttgart,
1969). The best critical perspectives are to be found in: H. Bausinger, Volkskunde.
Von der Altertumsforschung zur Kulturanalyse (Berlin, 1971); W. Emmerich,
Germanistische Volkstumsideologie (Tiibingen, 1968); idem., Zur Kritik der
Volkstumsideologie (Frankfurt, 1971). Important initiatives towards a more self-
critical approach were: H. Moser, ‘Gedanken zur heutigen Volkskunde’,
Bayerisches Jahrbuch ftir Volkskunde, 1954, pp. 208—34; K.-S. Kramer, ‘Zur
Problematik historischer Volkskunde’, Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde, 67 (1971),
pp. 51—62; and G. Heilfurth, ‘Volkskunde jenseits der Ideologien’, Hessische
Blatter fiir Volkskunde, 53 (1962), pp. 9—20.
30. H. Bausinger, ‘Zur Algebra der Kontinuitat’, in Bausinger and Briickner,
op. cit., pp. 9-30. See also A. Gerschenkron, ‘The Concept of Continuity in
German Anthropology’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 13 (1971),
pp. 351-9.
31. W. Jacobeit and H.-H. Miiller, ‘Agrargeschichte und Volkskunde’, JOWG,
1977, pp. 141-55.
32. This point is stressed by H. Wunder, ‘Zur Mentalitat aufstandischer Bauern’,
in Wehler, pp. 9—37 (a shorter version of which is in Scribner and Benecke,
pp. 140-59).
33. The studies of K.-S. Kramer attempt to combine Volkskunde with historical
research in local archives; they tend to be limited in approach and subject-matter.
See his Bauer und Biirger im nachmittelalterlichen Unterfranken (Wiirzburg, 1957),
and Volksleben im Fiirstentum Ansbach und seinen Nachbargebieten 1500-1800
(Wiirzburg, 1961). The work of Rudolf Braun on the Ziirich Oberland remains the
classic example of how to combine history and Volkskunde.
34. See E. Engelberg, ‘Zur Frage der Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte’, ZfG, 21
(1973), pp. 970-81.
35. U. Jeggle, Kiebingen — eine Heimatgeschichte (Tiibingen, 1978); A. Ilien and
U. Jeggle, Leben auf dem Dorf (Wiesbaden, 1978); W. Kaschuba and C. Lipp,
Dorfliches Uberleben. Zur Geschichte materieller und sozialer Reproduktion
ldndlicher Gesellschaft im 19. und friihen 20. Jahrhundert (Tubingen, 1982). For an
evaluation of the place of Volkskunde in West German historiography, see M.
Scharfe, ‘Towards a Cultural History: Notes on Contemporary Volkskunde
[folklore] in German-speaking countries’, Social History, 4 (1979), pp. 333-43.
36. Illustrative here are W. Lepenies, ‘Probleme einer historischen Anthro-
pologie’, in R. Riirup (ed.), Historische Sozialwissenschaft (Gottingen, 1977),
pp. 126—59; idem., ‘Geschichte und Anthropologie’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, |
(1975), pp. 325—43. Note particularly the lack of any significant response to the
much more suggestive article by T. Nipperdey, ‘Die anthropologische Dimension in
der Geschichtswissenschaft’, in idem Gesellschaft, Kultur, Theorie (Gottingen,
1976), pp. 33-58. See also R. Braun, ‘Probleme des sozio-kuiturellen Wandels im
19. Jahrhundert’, in G. Wiegelmann (ed.), Ku/tureller Wandel im 19. Jahrhundert
(Gottingen, 1973); O. Kohler, ‘Versuch einer historischen Anthropologie’,
Saeculum, 25 (1974), pp. 129-246.
37. See the penetrating observations of Wunder, pp. 15 ff.
38. Typical in this respect is the influence of David Sabean, with Landbesitz und
Gesellschaft and, from a later project, ‘Verwandtschaft und Familie in einem
wiirttembergischen Dorf 1500 bis 1700’, in W. Conze (ed.), Sozialgeschichte der
Familie in der Neuzeit Europas (Stuttgart, 1977), pp. 231—46. Sabean was instru-
mental in establishing a working group at the Max Planck Institute, Gottingen, on
links between ethnology and history, one product of which is R. Berdahl et al.,
30. ‘Tradition’ and the Peasantry
Klassen und Kultur. Sozialanthropologsiche Dimensionen in der Geschichtsschrei-

bung (Frankfurt am Main, 1982). See especially the essays by Sabean, Berdahl and
Hans Medick. Medick provides the introductory essay, ‘Missionare im Ruderboot.
Ethnologische Erkenntnisweisen als Herausforderung an die Sozialgeschichte’,
pp. 295-319, to an edition of Geschichte und Gesellschaft (Vol. 10: 3: 1984) on
social history and cultural anthropology. In conjunction with the anthropological
emphasis at the 1984 conference of West German historians, this could be seen as a
seal of approval for a more ethnologically oriented social history. It is worth noting,
however, the relative lack on both occasions of major contributions on modern rural
society, as well as the discernible backlash against what are seen as positivist
elements in this emerging cultural history.
39. A. Imhof, ‘Bevélkerungsgeschichte und historische Demographie’, in Riirup,
Historische Sozialwissenschaft, pp. 16—58; W. R. Lee, ‘Germany’, in idem. (ed.),
European Demography and Economic Growth (London, 1979), pp. 144-6.
40. W. R. Lee, Population Growth, Economic Development and Social Change
in Bavaria 1750—1850 (New York, 1977); idem., ‘Primary Sector Output and
Mortality Changes in Early XIXth Century Bavaria’, Journal of European
Economic History, 6 (1977), pp. 133-62; idem., ‘Zur Bevélkerungsgeschichte
Bayerns 1750—1850: Britische Forschungsergebnisse’, Vierteljahrsschrift fiir Sozial-
und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 62 (1975), pp. 309—38; idem., ‘Bastardy and the Socio-
economic Structure of South Germany’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 7
(1977), pp. 403—25; idem., ‘Family and ‘‘Modernisation’’: The Peasant Family and
Social Change in Nineteenth-Century Bavaria’, in R. J. Evans and W. R. Lee (eds.),
The German Family (London, 1981). Useful complements to Lee’s work include W.
Hartinger, ‘Zur Bevélkerungs- und Sozialstruktur von Oberpfalz und Niederbayern
in vorindustrieller Zeit’, Zeitschrift ftir bayerische Landesgeschichte, 39 (1976),
pp. 785—822; G. Hanke, ‘Zur Sozialstruktur der landlichen Siedlungen Altbayerns
im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert’, in Gesellschaft und Herrschaft. Festgabe fiir Karl Bosl
(1969), pp. 219—69. For other parts of Germany where demographic insights have
proved instructive, see A. Imhof, ‘Landliche Familienstrukturen an einem
hessischen Beispiel: Heuchelheim 1690—1900’, in Conze, op. cit., pp. 197—230; D.
Sabean, ‘Household Formation and Geographic Mobility: A Family Register Study
for a Wiirttemberg Village 1760—1900’, Annales de Demographie Historique (1970),
pp. 275—94; A. Goldstein, ‘Aspects of Change in a German Village’, Journal of
Family History, 9 (1984), pp. 145—57; and Cathleen Catt’s contribution, Chapter 5
below.
41. The following comments are deliberately brief and generalised. For fuller and
more differentiated surveys of historiographical trends in West Germany, see e.g.
Iggers, pp. 80-122; W. Mommsen, ‘Gegenwdrtige Tendenzen in der Geschich-
tsschreibung der Bundesrepublik’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 7 (1981),
pp. 149-88; J. Kocka, ‘Theory and Social History: Recent Developments in West
Germany’, Social Research, 47 (1980), pp. 426—57; H.-U. Wehler, ‘Geschichst-
wissenschaft heute’, in J. Habermas (ed.), Stichworte zur geistigen Situation unserer
Zeit (Frankfurt am Main, 1979), Vol. 2, pp. 709-53.
42. See the comments of D. Groh, ‘Le ‘‘Sonderweg’’ de l’histoire allemande:
mythe ou realite?’, Annales ESC, 38 (1983), p. 1183.
43. G. Iggers, ‘Federal Republic of Germany’, in G. Iggers and H. Parker (eds.),
International Handbook of Historical Studies. Contemporary Research and Theory
(Westpoint, Conn., 1979).
44. M. Weber, ‘Developmental Tendencies in the Situation of East Elbian Rural
Labourers’, Economy and Society, 8 (1979), pp. 177-205. The most important
studies include those by Puhle (see note 52 below) and H. Schissler, Preussische
Agrargeselischaft im Wandel (Gottingen, 1978); J. Flemming, Landwirtschaftliche
Interessen und Demokratie. Landliche Gesellschaft, Agrarverbiénde und Staat
1890-1925 (Bonn, 1978); K. Saul, ‘Der Kampf um das Landproletariat. Sozialis-

tische Landagitation, Grossgrundbesitz und preussische Staatsverwaltung 1890 bis
1903’, Archiv fiir Sozialgeschichte, 15 (1975), pp. 163—208; idem., ‘Um die
konservative Struktur Ostelbiens. Agrarische Interessen, Staatsverwaltung und
landliche Arbeiternot’, in D. Stegmann et al., (eds.), Deutscher Konservatismus im
19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Bonn, 1983), pp. 129—98. English summaries of work by
Puhle and Schissler are in R. Moeller (ed), Peasants and Lords in Modern Germany
(New York, 1985). For further insights, see the East German literature already cited
and Winson, ‘The ‘‘Prussian Road’’’, passim.; R. Berdahl, ‘Conservative Politics
and Aristocratic Landholders in Bismarckian Germany’, Journal of Modern
History, 14 (1972), pp. 1-20; F. Tipton, ‘Farm Labour and Power Politics:
Germany 1850-1914’, Journal of Economic History, 34 (1974), pp. 951-79.
45. H. Kaelble et al., Probleme der Modernisierung in Deutschland (Opladen,
1978).
46. Ibid., p. 326.
47. J. Kocka, ‘Sozialgeschichte—Strukturgeschichte—Gesellschaftsgeschichte’,
Archiv fiir Sozialgeschichte, 15 (1975), pp. 31-2.
48. A representative cross-section would include W. Vucinich (ed.), The Peasant
in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Stanford, 1968); L. Haimson (ed.), The Politics of
Rural Russia 1905—1914 (Cambridge, 1979); T. Shanin, The Awkward Class.
Political Sociology of the Peasantry in a Developing Society (Oxford, 1972); M.
Perrie, ‘The Russian Peasant Movement of 1905—1907: Its Social Composition and
Revolutionary Significance’, Past and Present, 57 (1972), pp. 123-55; G. J. Gill,
Peasants and Government in the Russian Revolution (New York, 1979); E.
Kingston-Mann, Lenin and the Problem of Peasant Revolution (Oxford, 1984); M.
Lewin, Russian Peasants and Soviet Power (London, 1968); A. Husain and K.
Tribe, Marxism and the Agrarian Question. Vol. 2 Russian Marxism and the
Peasantry 1861—1930 (London, 1981). The Russian peasantry figures prominently
in comparative works such as E. Wolf, Peasant Wars of the Twentieth Century
(London, 1969); T. Srocpol, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge, 1979).
49. The phrase is H.-A. Winkler’s in his ‘Stabilisierung durch Schrumpfung. Das
gewerbliche Mittelstand in der Bundesrepublik’, in W. Conze and M. R. Lepsius
(eds.), Sozialgeschichte der Bundesrepublik (Stuttgart, 1983), p. 208.
50. In this regard, see especially D. Blackbourn, ‘The Mittelstand in German
Society and Politics, 1871—1914’, Social History, 4 (1977), pp. 409-33.
51. Examples include F. Jacobs, Deutsche Bauernfiihrer (Diisseldorf, 1958);
idem., Von Schorlemer zum Griinen Front (Diisseldorf, 1957); G. Franz (ed.),
Bauernschaft und Bauernstand (Limburg, 1975).
52. Indispensable here are: H.-J. Puhle, Agrarische Interessenpolitik und preus-
sischer Konservatismus im wilhelminischen Reich (1893—1914) (Hannover, 1966);
idem., Politische Agrarbewegungen in kapitalistischen- Industriegesellschaften
(Gottingen, 1975), esp. pp. 28—122; idem., Von der Agrarkrise zum Prdafdschismus
(Wiesbaden, 1972); idem., ‘Der Bund der Landwirte im wilhelminischen Reich’, in
W. Ruegg and O. Neuloh (eds.), Zur soziologischen Theorie und Analyse des 19.
Jahrhunderts (Gottingen, 1971), pp. 145-62. Still valuable is S. R. Tirrell, German
Agrarian Politics after Bismarck’s Fall (New York, 1951). A major study of the
Agrarian League is due shortly from the East German historian, Dieter Fricke.
53. A. Gerschenkron, Bread and Democracy in Germany (New York, 1943).
54. Among the many works the more important are: H. Rosenberg, Grosse
Depression und Bismarckzeit (Berlin, 1967); H. Bohme, Deutschlands Weg zur
Grossmacht (Cologne, 1966); K. D. Barkin, The Controversy over German Indus-
trialization 1890-1902 (Chicago, 1970); M. Kitchen, The Political Economy of
Germany 1815—1914 (London, 1978); K. Hardach, Die Bedeutung wirtschaftlicher
Faktoren bei der Wiedereinfiihrung der Eisen- und Getreidezélle in Deutschland
(Berlin, 1967): H.-H. Herlemann, ‘Vom Ursprung des deutschen Agrarprotektion-

ismus’, in E. Gerhardt and P. Kuhlmann (eds.) Agrarwirtschaft und Agrarpolitik
(Berlin, 1969), pp. 183-208. See also the works cited in note 52 above. For the
Weimar Republic see: D. Gessner, Agrarverbinde in der Weimarer Republik
(Diisseldorf, 1976); idem., Agrardepression und Prisidialregierungen in Deutsch-
land 1930-1933 (Diisseldorf, 1977); idem., ‘Agrarprotektionismus und
Welthandelskrise 1929/32’, ZAA, 26 (1978), pp. 161—87; idem., ‘Agrarian Protec-
tionism in the Weimar Republic’, Journal of Contemporary History, 12 (1977), pp.
749-78: idem., ‘The Dilemma of German Agriculture during the Weimar
Republic’, in R. Bessel and E. Feuchtwanger (eds.), Social Change and Political
Development in Weimar Germany (London, 1981), pp. 134—54; also the essays by
Gessner, ‘Industrie und Landwirtschaft 1928-1930’, D. Stegmann, ‘Deutsche Zoll-
und Handelspolitik 1924/5—1929 unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung agrarischer
und industrieller Interessen’? and T. Koops, ‘Zielkonflikte der Agrar- und
Wirschaftspolitik in der Ara Briining’, in H. Mommsen et al. (eds.), Industrielies
System und politische Entwicklung in der Weimarer Republik (Diisseldorf, 1974).
55. The critique is at its most blunt and controversial in G. Eley and D.
Blackbourn, Mythen deutscher Geschichtsschreibung (Frankfurt am Main, 1980),
available now in a revised English edition, The Peculiarities of German History
(Oxford, 1984). Among the more considered responses, see Groh, op. cit., R.
Moeller, ‘The Kaiserreich Recast? Continuity and Change in Modern German
Historiography’, Journal of Social History, 17 (1984), pp. 655—84; Wolfgang
Mommsen’s review in the Bulletin of the German Historical Institute, London (No.
8, 1981), pp. 19-26.
56. D. Smith, ‘Social History and Sociology — More than Just Good Friends’,
The Sociological Review, 30 (1982), p. 287.
57. Of the countless examples, see especially Kocka, Sozialgeschichte, H.-U.
Wehler, ‘Voriiberlegungen zu einer modernen deutschen Gesellschaftsgeschichte’, in
D. Stegmann ef al. (eds.), Industrielle Gesellschaft und politisches System (Bonn,
1978), pp. 3 ff., and the references which they both cite.
58. G. Eley, ‘Some Recent Tendencies in Social History’, in Iggers and Parker, p.
59:
59. Ibid., pp. 60 ff.
60. For an introduction to the debates on ‘modernisation’ see R. Bendix,
‘Tradition and Modernity Reconsidered’, Comparative Studies in Society and
History, 9 (1967), pp. 292—346. Critics include Dean C. Tipps, ‘Modernization
Theory and the Comparative Study of Societies: A Critical Perspective’, ibid., 15
(1973), pp. 199—226; I. Weinberg, ‘The Problem of the Convergence of Industrial
Societies: A Critical Look at the State of a Theory’, ibid., 11 (1969), pp. 1-15; J.
Gusfield, ‘Tradition and Modernity: Misplaced Polarities in the Study of Social
Change’, American Journal of Sociology, 72 (1966), pp. 351-62; L. F. Rudolph,
The Modernity of Tradition (Chicago, 1967) (source of the quotation on p. 17).
Many of the criticisms are acknowledged by H.-U. Wehler, Modernisierungstheorie
und Geschichte (Géitingen, 1975), but, like many of his colleagues, he insists on the
value of ‘modernisation’ as a conceptual tool.
61. R. M. Bell, Fate and Honor, Family and Village. Demographic and Cultural
Change in Rural Italy since 1800 (Chicago, 1979), p. 23.
62. T. Judt, ‘A Clown in Regal Purple: Social History and the Historians’,
History Workshop, 7 (1979), p. 69.
63. Weinberg, p. 12.
64. The essays in this volume by Hainer Plaul (Chapter 4) and Cathleen Catt
(Chapter 5) demonstrate the dangers of static typologies when studying a period of
social transition. Recent research, for example, on migration back and forth
between cities and the countryside in industrialising Germany reinforces this point,
See D. Langewiesche, ‘Wanderungsbewegungen in der Hochindustrialisierungs-

periode. Regionale, interstadtische und innerstddtische Mobilitat in Deutschland
1880-1914’, Vierteljahrsschrift fiir Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 64 (1977),
pp. 1—40; P. Borscheid, ‘Schranken sozialer Mobilitat und Binnenwanderung im
19. Jahrundert’, in W. Conze and U. Engelhardt (eds.), Arbeiter im Industrialisier-
ungsprozess (Stuttgart, 1979), pp. 31—50; idem., ‘Saison- und Etappenwanderung
im Miinsterland 1880—1900’, in Blaich, pp. 9—46.
65. See the interesting, though still flawed, comments of G. Lewis, ‘The
Peasantry, Rural Change and Conservative Agrarianism. Lower Austria at the Turn
of the Century’, Past and Present, 81 (1978); pp. 119—43; and K. Holmes, ‘The
Forsaken Past: Agrarian Conservatism and National Socialism in Germany’,
Journal of Contemporary History, 17 (1982), pp. 671-88.
66. D. Blackbourn, ‘Peasants and Politics in Germany, 1871—1914’, European
History Quarterly, 14 (1984), pp. 47-75; idem., Class, Religion and Local Politics
in Wilhelmine Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1980); J. C. Hunt, The People’s Party
in Wiirttemberg and Southern Germany 1890—1914 (Stuttgart, 1975); G. Eley,
Reshaping the German Right: Radical Nationalism and Political Change after
Bismarck (New Haven, Conn., 1980), esp. pp. 9—40; idem., ‘The Wilhelmine Right:
How it Changed’, in R. J. Evans (ed.), Society and Politics in Wilhelmine Germany
(London, 1978), pp. 116—21; I. Farr, ‘Populism in the Countryside: The Peasant
Leagues in Bavaria in the 1890s’, ibid., pp. 136—59; idem., ‘Peasant Protest under
the Empire: The Bavarian Example’, in Moeller, op. cit.
67. See especially: A. Cardoza, Agrarian Elites and Italian Fascism (Princeton,
N.J., 1982); P. Corner, Fascism in Ferrara 1915—1925 (Oxford, 1975); and the
essays by Cardoza, ‘Agrarians and Industrialists: the Evolution of an Alliance in the
Po Delta, 1896-1914’, pp. 172—212, F. Snowden, ‘From Sharecropper to Prole-
tarian: The Background to Fascism in Rural Tuscany’, pp. 136-71, and A.
Lyttleton, ‘Landlords, Peasants and the Limits of Liberalism’, pp. 104—35, in J.
Davis (ed.), Gramsci and Italy’s Passive Revolution (London, 1979). Note also a
seminal work on the agrarian roots of the Spanish Civil War in E. Malefakis,
Agrarian Reform and Peasant Revolution in Spain (New Haven, Conn., 1970).
68. R. Heberle, From Democracy to Nazism (Baton Rouge, 1945); G.
Stoltenberg, Politische Strémungen im schleswig-holsteinischen Landvolk
1918—1933 (Diisseldorf, 1962); T. A. Tilton, Nazism, Neo-Nazism and the
Peasantry (Bloomington, ill., 1975). See also H. Beyer, Die Agrarkrise und die
Landvolkbewegung in den Jahren 1928—1932 (1962).
69. C. Loomis and J. Beegle, ‘The Spread of Nazism in Rural Areas’, American
Sociological Review, 11 (1946), pp. 724-34. See also O. Poppinga, Bauern und
Politik (Frankfurt am Main, 1975), pp. 208—30.
70. R. Moeller, ‘Dimensions of the Social Conflict in the Great War: The View
from the German Countryside’, Central European History, 14 (1981), pp. 142 ff.;
idem., ‘Winners as Losers in the German Inflation: Peasant Protest over the
Controlled Economy, 1920-1923’, in G. Feldman ef al. (eds.), Die deutsche
Inflation: Eine Zwischenbilanz (Berlin, 1982), pp. 255-88; J. Osmond, ‘Peasant
Farming in South and West Germany during War and Inflation, 1914 to 1924:
Stability or Stagnation?’, ibid., pp. 289-307.
7i. In this respect, see G. Eley, ‘What Produces Fascism: Preindustrial
Traditions or a Crisis of the Capitalist State?’, Politics and Society, 12 (1983),
pp. 53—82, for a re-emphasis on the conjunctural crisis as a crucial determinant in
the Nazis’ success. See also R. Bessel, ‘Easterm Germany as a Structural Problem in
the Weimar Republic’, Social History, 3 (1978), pp. 199-218.
72. H. Gies, ‘NSDAP und landwirtschaftliche Organisationen in der Endphase
der Weimarer Republik’, Véierteljahreshefte fiir Zeitgeschichte, 15 (1967),
pp. 341-376; idem., ‘Die nationalsozialistische Machtergreifung auf dem agrar-
politischen Sektor’, ZAA, 16 (1968), pp. 210-32. More generally, see J.

Farquharson, The Plough and the Swastika (London, 1976).
73, For an alternative view, see J. H. Grill, ‘The Nazi Party’s Rural Propaganda
Before 1928’, Central European History, 15 (1982), pp. 149-85; idem., The Nazi
Movement in Baden, 1920—1945 (Chapel Hill, 1983), Ch. 4.
74. Z. Zofka, Die Ausbreitung des Nationalsozialismus auf dem Lande (Munich,
1979); idem., ‘Dorfeliten und NSDAP. Fallbeispiele der Gleichschaltung aus dem
Kreis Ginzburg’, in M. Broszat, ef al. (eds.), Bayern in der NS-Zeit, Vol. 4
(Munich, 1981), pp. 383-423; E. Frohlich and M. Broszat, ‘Politische und soziale
Macht auf dem Lande. Die Durchsetzung der NSDAP im Kreis Memmingen’,
Vierteljahrsheft fiir Zeitgeschichte, 25 (1977), pp. 546—72.
75. See especially I. Kershaw, Popular Opinion and Political Dissent in the Third
Reich: Bavaria 1933—1945 (Oxford, 1983). For further insights see: A. von Saldern,
Mittelstand im ‘Dritten Reich’: Handwerker—Einzelhdnder—Bauern (Frankfurt,
1979); K. Wagner and G. Wilke, ‘Dorfleben im Dritten Reich: Kérle in Hessen’, in
D. Peukert and J. Reulecke (eds.), Die Reihen fast geschlossen (Wuppertal, 1981),
pp. 85—106; idem., ‘Family and Household: Social Structures in a German Village
Between the Two World Wars’, in Evans and Lee, op. cit., pp. 120—147. Other
works of importance include: F. Grundmann, Agrarpolitik im ‘Dritten Reich’.
Anspruch und Wirklichkeit des Reichserbhofgesetzes (Hamburg, 1979); H. Gies,
‘Die Rolle des Reichsnahrstandes im nationalsozialistischen Herrschaftssystem’, in
G. Hirschfeld and L. Ketternacker (eds.), Der ‘Fiihrerstaat’: Mythos und Realitat
(Stuttgart, 1981), pp. 270—303.
76. Particularly helpful here are: S. Dillwitz, ‘Die Struktur der Bauernschaft von
1871 bis 1914 dargestellt auf der Grundlage der deutschen Reichsstatistik’, JoWG,
1973, pp. 47-127; idem., ‘Quellen zur sozialékonomischen Struktur der
Bauernschaft im deutschen Reich nach 1871’, JoWG, 1977, pp. 237-69.
77. H. Gollwitzer (ed.), Europdische Bauernparteien (Stuttgart, 1977), p. 2.
78. E. Hobsbawm, ‘Scottish Reformers of the Eighteenth Century and Capitalist
Agriculture’, in E. Hobsbawm ef al. (eds.), Peasants in History (Calcutta, 1980).
The best introduction to the relationship between the SPD and the peasantry in
Husain and Tribe, Marxism and the Agrarian Question. Vol. 1, German Social
Democracy and the Peasantry 1890-1907. See also the same authors’ Paths of
Development in Capitalist Agriculture: Readings from German Social Democracy
(London, 1983); and H. G. Lehmann, Die Agrarfrage in der Theorie und Praxis der
deutschen und internationalen Sozialdemokratie (Tiibingen, 1970); W. H. Maehl,
‘German Social Democratic Agrarian Policy, 1890—1895, Reconsidered’, Central
European History, 13 (1980), pp. 121—57.
79. S. Silverman, ‘The Peasant Concept in Anthropology’, Journal of Peasant
Studies, 7 (1979), pp. 56—7.
80. E. Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France
1870—1914 (London, 1977).
81. See P. McPhee, ‘A Reconsideration of the ‘‘Peasantry’’ of Nineteenth-
Century France’, Peasant Studies, 9 (1981), esp. pp. 18—19; and R. Magraw, France
1815—1914: The Bourgeois Century (London, 1983), Ch. 9. Note the phrasing of
Weber’s reply to some of his critics in E. Weber, ‘Comment la Politique vint aux
Paysans: A Second Look at Peasant Politicization’, American Historial Review, 87
(1982), pp. 357—89, which still sees the peasantry in receipt of change. In similar
vein is the none the less interesting E. Wallner, ‘Die Rezeption stadtbiirgerlichen
Vereinswesens durch die Bevélkerung auf dem Lande’, in Wiegelmann, Kultureller
Wandel, op. cit., pp. 160—73.
82. Shanin’s, The Awkward Class, has met powerful criticism from G.
Littlejohn, ‘The Peasantry and the Russian Revolution’, Economy and Society, 2
(1973), pp. 112—25; T. Cox, ‘Awkward Class or Awkward Classes? Class Relations
in the Russian Peasantry before Collectivisation’, Journal of Peasant Studies, A

(1979), pp. 70-85; M. Harrison, ‘Resource Allocation and Agrarian Class Forma-
tion. The Problem of Social Mobility among Russian Peasant Households,
1880-1930’, ibid., 4 (1977), pp. 127-61; Husain and Tribe, Marxism, op. cit.,
vol. 2, passim.
83. Shanin, op. cit., pp. 14-15.
84. See especially J. Ennew, P. Hirst and K. Tribe, ‘‘‘Peasantry’’ as an
Economic Category’, Journal of Peasant Studies, 4 (1977), pp. 295-322; G.
Littlejohn, ‘Peasant Economy and Society’, in B. Hindess (ed.), Sociological
Theories of the Economy (London, 1977), pp. 118—56.
85. A. Leeds, ‘Mythos and Pathos: Some Unpleasantries on Peasantries’, in R.
Halperin and J. Dow (eds.), Peasant Livelihood, pp. 227—56. See also Silverman,
op. cit. Shanin’s reply to these criticisms has been disappointing; see T. Shanin,
‘Defining Peasants: Conceptualisations and De-Conceptualisations — Old and New
in a Marxist Debate’, Sociological Review, 30 (1982), pp. 407-32.
86. Statistik des deutschen Reiches, Vol. 112 (Berlin, 1898), p. 11.
87. See Dillwitz, op. cit.
88. A helpful introduction to the issues raised originally by Lenin is D. F.
Ferguson, ‘Rural/Urban Relations and Peasant Radicalism: A Preliminary State-
ment’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 18 (1976), pp. 106-18.
89. In addition to the works already cited, especially in note 44 above, see T.
Frhr. von der Goltz, Die Lage der ldndlichen Arbeiter im deutschen Reich (Berlin,
1875); G. Ernst, Die Ildndlichen Arbeitsverhdltnisse im rechtsrheinischen Bayern
(Regensburg, 1907); F. Wunderlich, Farm Labour in Germany (Princeton, N.J.
1961); J. Perkins, ‘The German Agricultural Worker, 1815-1914’, Journal of
Peasant Studies, 11 (1984), pp. 3—27; J. Flemming, ‘Landarbeiter zwischen
Gewereschaft und Werkgemeinschaft’, Archiv ftir Sozialgeschichte, 14 (1974),
pp. 351—418; K. Bade, ‘Massenwanderung und Arbeitsmarkt im deutschen
Nordosten von 1880 bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg: Uberseeische Auswanderung, interne
Abwanderung und kontinentale Zuwanderung’, ibid., 20 (1980), pp. 265-323; J.
Nichtweiss, Die ausldndischen Saisonarbeiter in der Landwirtschaft der Ostlichen
und mittleren Gebiete des deutschen Reiches, 1890—1914 (Berlin, 1959).
90. On the need for caution when using the term ‘subsistence’, see D. Sabean,
‘Small Peasant Agriculture in Germany at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century:
Changing Work Patterns’, Peasant Studies, 7 (1978), pp. 218—24.
91. See, for example, Gerschenkron, op. cit., pp. 38—9; and Gessner, ‘Agrarian
Protectionism’, p. 763.
92. J. Perkins, ‘The Agricultural Revolution in Germany, 1850—1914’, Journal
of European Economic History, 10 (1981), p. 114. See also G. Helling, ‘Zur
Entwicklung der Produktivitét in der deutschen Landwirtschaft im 19. Jahr-
hundert’, JOWG (1966), pp. 129-41.
93. For a useful comparison, see the comments by McPhee, op. cit., pp. 13-19.
94. A reassessment of the peasantry’s relationship to tariffs has been led by R.
Moeller, ‘Peasants and Tariffs in the Kaiserreich: How Backward were the Bauern?’
Agricultural History, 55 (1981), pp. 370—84; J. Hunt, ‘Peasants, Grain Tariffs and
Meat Quotas: Imperial German Protectionism Re-examined’, Central European
History, 7 (1974), pp. 311-31; S. Webb, ‘Agricultural Protection in Wilhelminian
Germany: Forging an Empire with Pork and Rye’, Journal of Economic History, 42
(1982), pp. 309—26.
95. On this process of re-agrarianisation, see the essays in H. Kellenbenz (ed.),
Agrarisches Nebengewerbe und Formen der Reagrarisierung im Spatmittelalter und
19/20. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1975).
96. See E. Bucholz, Ldndliche Bevolkerung an der Schwelle des Industriezeit-
alters: Der Raum Braunschweig als Beispiel (Stuttgart, 1966): and J. Mooser,
‘Gleichheit und Ungleichheit in der landlichen Gemeinde’, Archiv fiir Sozial-

geschichte, 19 (1979), pp. 231—62. For a later period, see also R. Schulte, ‘Feuer im
Dorf’, in H. Reif (ed.), Raéuber, Volk und Obrigkeit (Frankfurt, 1984), pp. 100—52.
97. The best study so far here is R. Marbach, Sdékularisierung und sozialer
Wandel im 19. Jahrhundert (Géttingen, 1978). See also H. Hérger, Dorfreligion
und bduerliche Gesellschaft (Munich, 1978).
98. This can be seen in the crucial role played by poaching. See H.-W. Eckardt,
Herrschaftliche Jagd, bduerliche Not und biirgerliche Kritik (Gottingen, 1976). In
similar vein, J. Mooser, ‘‘‘Furcht bewahrt das Holz’’. Holzdiebstahl und sozialer
Konflikt in der landlichen Gesellschaft 1800—1850 an westfalischen Beispielen’, in
Reif, op. cit:, pp. 43-99.
2? PEASANTS AND MARKETS
The Background to the Agrarian Reforms in Feudal
Prussia East of the Elbe, 1760—1807*
Hartmut Harnisch
In England and the Netherlands the ancient feudal order of the

countryside gradually vanished in a slow process of disintegration
and disruption which led to the gradual transition into modern
capitalist agriculture; in France it was abolished by the powerful
revolutionary forces which operated between 1789 and 1793. In
Prussia, as in the other German states east of the River Rhine, and
indeed in most of the European continent, feudal bonds and
burdens were, by contrast, removed by way of agrarian reforms,
consisting of legislation combined with compensations to the old
feudal lords. In these lands, by contrast to England, France and the
Netherlands, traditional feudal agrarian structures changed, at
varying speeds and with varying completeness, into capitalist
agricultural systems which eventually dispensed with all the old
legal and economic ties between peasants and lords, once the latter
had received their indemnities. Clearly, this procedure allowed a
greater continuity between the old and the new orders than was the
case when feudal agrarian structures were destroyed through revo-
lutionary activities: essential features of the old order were either
preserved or only modified a little. In practice, for example, the
landowning families stayed in full possession of their large estates
as well as of their often extensive forests.
Even the considerable losses of land that peasants in the eastern
provinces had to suffer as part of the compensation to the feudal
lords did not fundamentally change the overall distribution of land
in those regions. The stress shifted a little in favour of large estates
at the cost of the peasants, and indeed, in some smaller regions —
as in parts of East Prussia and Pomerania — this shift was
*Translated by Bernd Feldmann and Richard J. Evans, with assistance from

William W. Hagen.
37
38 Peasants and Markets
considerable. But Prussia east of the River Elbe was already a land
of large estates and large holdings, both before and after the
reforms. It can also be assumed that the class of large and middle
peasants were able to withstand the enormous burdens imposed on
them by the agrarian reforms. Only the landless and the poor
farmers from the villages, whose numbers increased rapidly after
the agrarian reforms (and to a large extent because of them) under-
went significant changes. In East Elbian Prussia their numbers rose
at such a fast rate, not least because of a major labour shortage
after the abolition of serfdom, that within a few decades, by about
1840, a structural over-population had developed.
It is by no means true to say that there has been little research
into the agrarian reforms of the German states. Indeed, so much
has been published that one person can hardly read it all now. This
also applies to the period from the sixteenth to the beginning of the
nineteenth centuries. But the great bulk of this research follows the
fundamentally juridical approach pioneered by Georg Friedrich
Knapp in his renowned Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprung der
Landarbeiter in den dlteren Theilen Preussens |The Emancipation
of the Serfs and the Origins of the Rural Labourers in the Older
Parts of Prussia). Knapp’s work, published as long ago as 1887,
was continued by his pupils, and in many respects still prevails,
having dominated the historiography of the subject for some 60 to
70 years. This school of learning focused above all on the legal
status of the peasant, and in particular on the relationship between
the peasantry and their feudal lords. By contrast, the management
of the farms, holdings and estates, their relations with the market,
and the effects of the market on them and the agrarian order, have
received little attention.!
It was only in the 1930s that Wilhelm Abel began stressing the
importance of this long-neglected complex of problems. Yet in
spite of numerous valuable studies by Abel and his pupils, many
aspects of the relations of the peasantry to rural market structures
during the last stages of feudalism still remain to be investigated.
While we know a good deal about the large estates, for example,
the development of peasant agriculture on the eve of the bourgeois
agrarian reforms certainly deserves closer scrutiny than it has so far
received. There can be no doubt that the course and the results of
the bourgeois agrarian reforms, bringing as they did a complete
legal and economic rupture between peasant and lord, were of the
utmost importance to demographic development, to the growth of
Peasants and Markets 39
the domestic market and, not least, to the industrial revolution in

Germany as a whole. There is an urgent need, therefore, to
determine how and in what ways these developments were deter-
mined by pre-reform structures in feudal agrarian society. As
Gerhard Heitz of Rostock University stressed some time ago,
agrarian history has a special contribution to make to research into
the transition from feudalism to capitalism, above all by delivering
a precise analysis of agrarian structures on the eve of the agrarian
reforms.”
This paper, therefore, focuses on the last phases of feudal
agrarian society in East Elbian Prussia; on the question of whether
the traditional relation between peasant and feudal lord was
already being undermined even before the reforms. Two closely
connected processes have to be examined. First, I shall look at the
changes in the prevailing economic situation of the peasant hold-
ings in East Elbian Prussia. These changes must, of course, be seen
in the context of the overall macroeconomic development of
Central and Northern Europe during the last three to four decades
before the beginning of the agrarian reforms in Prussia in 1807. In
the final analysis this amounts to research into the relations of
peasant holdings with the market. This in turn means that we have
to examine changes in market structures during this period, and the
position of the market within the overall system of the late feudal
economy. Secondly, I shall argue that the peasants gained in self-
confidence as they gained in importance to the market. The omni-
present antagonism between peasant and lord quite often led to
protracted conflicts even before this period. Now it was raised to a
higher level. It eventually became so pronounced that the Prussian
government had to accept the necessity of far-reaching steps
towards reforms.
This chapter draws its data mainly from the Mark Brandenburg,
not only because I have devoted many years to a thorough study of
this province, but also because significant historical developments
are often best shown through the example of a single region. And
since the effects of the market on peasant holdings are of central
importance to this study, Brandenburg is particularly appropriate
because of its proximity to Berlin, which was already functioning as
the one outstanding market within the near and far surrounding
countryside in the second half of the eighteenth century, far out-
weighing the importance of the Baltic ports in this respect. First of
all, therefore, we require a description of the agrarian order that
had developed in that region‘since the sixteenth century.
My,
Estate agriculture (Gutsherrschaft) predominated in the German

territorities east of the River Elbe, as well as in larger areas of
Eastern Central Europe and in the eastern Baltic regions, from the
sixteenth century to its abolition in the first half of the nineteenth
century. It has long figured as the main topic of research in the
agrarian history of Germany; the term Gutsherrschaft was in fact
introduced by Georg Friedrich Knapp in 1891.3 Under this system
the lords ran their own large estates, aiming to enlarge them and
have them worked completely, or to the largest possible degree, by
enforced serf labour. Knapp used this term to discriminate between
the agrarian structure that had developed east of the Elbe in the
sixteenth century and the older peasant agriculture (Grundherr-
schaft), predominant in western and central Germany, The charac-
teristic socio-economic features of this latter system were that serfs
were liable to dues in kind and rents to their lords, but the lords
themselves had no or only small estates.
For a long time the main features of the estate system and the
reasons for its emergence in the sixteenth century were matters of
controversy in German historical research.* Today, partly under
the additional influence of the results of research in Poland,’ it
seems to be commonly accepted that the decisive impulses for the
enlargement of the fedual estates and the increase of the peasants’
enforced labour were provided by the market. Only when a stable
market to some extent ensured the sale of agrarian products (above
all corn, but also wool), were the feudal lords stimulated to enlarge
their estates. In Central and Northern Europe the estate system
meant an almost exclusive concentration on arable farming; the
keeping of sheep and the production of wool were merely of sup-
plementary significance, though they should not be under-
estimated. In the sixteenth century, therefore, the rising demand
for corn acted as the trigger to the enlargement of the feudal estates
and the transition to the estate system. However, the vast areas of
Northern Europe under the estate system varied in different regions
and territories. The parallellogram of (i) forces of ruler, aristocracy
and bourgeoisie in each state, (ii) the legal status of the peasants’
land, (iii) the position of the rural community in feudal society, and
(iv) the distance to the market for agrarian produce all led to
further differentiations.
The different constellations of power between the classes in
each state and their effects on the development of agrarian
structures are relatively easy to elucidate. The Electors of
Brandenburg and the Dukes of Mecklenburg and Pomerania had to
give in repeatedly to the demands of the aristocratic Provincial
Estates (Landstdnde) to have their debts paid and rents granted —
at the cost, of course, of the peasants. The Electors of Saxony, on
the other hand, had considerable profits from the rich silver mines
of the Erzgebirge mountains through a special tax, the Bergregal,
and were better equipped to resist the Estates’ demands. So the
noblemen of the Provincial Estates (Landsténde) in the Electorate
of Saxony were never as important as their counterparts in
Mecklenburg and Prussia. In addition, the bourgeoisie in Saxony
was powerful enough to act as an ally for the Elector. He had to
take them seriously in the political and even more in the economic
sphere, but together they were well placed to resist the fiscal
demands of the landed aristocracy.
In addition to this, the legal status of the peasants’ land was also
of great importance,° a fact often neglected by historians. From the
sixteenth century, if not before, there had been two main legal
categories of peasants, though there was of course a great variety of
nomenclature and many differences in the area of jurisdiction. We
can more or less discount the comparatively small number of
peasants who were subject to the sovereign himself and not to any
local lord (a minor number of free peasants and above all the so-
called K6llmer in East Prussia). These were large peasants with
especially favourable conditions in the area of the former territory
of the Teutonic Knights. They were personally free, were obliged to
render only modest feudal dues, and had legal property in their
holdings. In the eighteenth century they lived almost exclusively
within the sphere of the sovereign demesnes. Apart from these, the
two major legal categories into which the great majority of
peasants fell were those with property in their holdings, and those
without it. Both were subject to lords, but while the former were
able to bequeath, mortgage or even sell their farms — albeit, only
with the approval of their lords — the latter were granted only a
temporary or life-time use, without any right of disposal at all. The
regional distribution of these two principal legal categories
probably went back to the time of the German feudal settlements
in the West. Peasants with property were concentrated in the

western parts of the Mark Brandenburg (e.g. in the Altmark west
of the River Elbe, and in the Prignitz and the Zauche areas east of
the river). In Lower Silesia and in those districts of the Neumark
north of Lower Silesia (Kreis Sternberg) peasants with property
prevailed as well.
In all other areas — i.e. in the central, northern and eastern
regions of the Electorate of Brandenburg, in the districts of the
Neumark north of the River Warthe, in Pomerania, in the larger
parts of East Prussia and in Upper Silesia — the majority of
peasants had no (freehold) property. In this category a further dis-
tinction has to be made between hereditary and non-hereditary
usufructory holders (Lassiten) and leaseholders (Zeitpachtbauern).
According to the lease the leaseholder could dispose of his holding
only for a number of years, whereas the usufructory holders had as
a matter of principle no limit of time. (They could, of course, be
evicted in case of conflict with their lord.) Their hereditary rights
developed as a customary law in some areas of Brandenburg, but
did not lead to any legal right to their property. Apart from a few
free peasants (the Kd//mer) and a privileged class of village mayors
(Lehnsschulzen) all Prussian peasants east of the river were subject
to the estate system. They were not allowed to leave their farms;
their children were liable to enforced labour on the estates at the
fixed wages. This subordination developed in the course of time
into hereditary serfdom or bondage in East Prussia and Pomerania,
and in the Uckermark of Brandenburg bordering on Pomerania. In
those provinces, each inhabitant of a feudal estate was hereditarily
subject to his lord from birth. In other provinces, as in most parts
of the Mark Brandenburg, this hereditary serfdom did not develop.
Instead, the peasant’s dependence began when he entered a
contract to serve as a smallholder with some arable (Kossdt) or a
cottager with a small plot (Biidner) on the estate. It ended when the
peasant gave up this position and left, although he had to find a
successor acceptable to the feudal lord as a condition of leaving.
in correspondence with the regional distribution of one or the
other category of feudal peasants, considerable differences in the
size of estates and the amount of enforced labour developed in the
course of the establishment of the estate system.” Peasants without
legal property in their holdings could very easily be forced to
perform more labour for the lord, because the landed aristocracy
possessed the right of patrimonial jurisdiction, including the right
of disposal of enforced labour. Insubordinate peasants weré

promptly evicted and replaced by more docile ones. Even the much-
acclaimed Bauernschutz (protection of the peasants) of the
absolutist Prussian kings did not lead to anything more than
protecting the given holdings. It did not secure their continued use
by one peasant, or even one family. Peasants who did possess legal
property over their land, on the other hand, could not be evicted so
easily. Even if their full power was used — including patrimonial
jurisdiction — lords wanting to evict rebellious peasants had to pay
the estimated price for the holdings. These cases usually went to a
higher court. After the verdict the peasants could not refuse the
price that had been fixed. But the peasant communities fought
bravely for their rights, not seldom appealing to the High Court
(Kammergericht) in order to prevent the imposition of higher
feudal duties and increased drudgery by the lord. These lawsuits
were protracted and needed considerable money, which the
peasants raised by ‘collections’. Appeals to the High Court were
not very popular with the lords — after all, the result was
uncertain, and the lord might well lose his case.®
The process of the extension of the big estates at the peasants’
expense was undoubtedly slowed down in all those regions in which
peasants with property prevailed. The enormous rise in feudal
duties — up to five or six days of labour performed with teams of
draught animals (Spanndienst) each week per farmstead — was
quite common for peasants without property, but it was unknown
in those areas where peasants were legally in possession of full
property rights over their holdings.
If the varying legal status of peasants had important effects, so
too did their distance from the markets. Obviously the great plain
between the southern Baltic Sea, the east Baltic regions and the
central German mountains was well suited for the large-scale
cultivation of corn. It is a fact, too, that apart from some far-off
areas, the corn could easily be transported to the Baltic ports, often
down the major rivers. Stili, the importance of the rivers can be
overestimated, as in recent work by Rusinsky.? The Rhine, Main,
Weser and Elbe were all important channels for trade and com-
munication, but the lands of the river basin of the Elbe consisted of
peasant holdings as well as fully-developed estates and there was
thus no simple correlation between the proximity of a navigable
river and the development of feudal estates.
Rusinsky has also argued recently’® that in the Polish regions
the development of an economy based on enforced labour

depended strictly on market conditions. The evidence available for
Brandenburg does not fully bear this out. Take, for example, a
document of 1797 specifying the winter sowing in the Kurmark
Brandenburg for large estates and peasant holdings.'’ Among other
things, this document provides us with a fairly accurate measure of
the share of large, landed property in the important agrarian area.
It tells us that a third of the cultivated area in the Kurmark
Brandenburg (excluding the Altmark) consisted of large farms
(feudal estates, royal demesne farms and those owned by urban
boards — Stddtische Kimmereien). This can be compared with the
Prignitz region, east of the Elbe, where communications with the
export market in Hamburg were good and there were many
peasants with legal property in their land. Here only 27.7 per cent
of the cultivated land consisted of large farms. If we turn to a third
region, the Uckermark, where most of the peasants were without
property rights, 43.8 per cent of the cultivated land belonged to
large estates, mostly owned by noblemen. This third region was
situated very favourably towards a major market centre and port.
But not only were seaports market centres in the eighteenth
century, so too was Berlin, which, thanks to the Spree and Havel,
developed into a thriving market during the eighteenth century. In
the district of Teltow, south of Berlin, 27 per cent of the cultivated
land was held by large landed proprietors, and in the district of
Niederbarnim, to the north it was 25.5 per cent. In both districts, it
seems, peasants without property prevailed, but a large number of
the villages belonged to the sovereign boards of demesnes
(Domdnendmter), and so only a small number of peasants were
expropriated and included in the large estates. In Prussian
Pomerania, with its very favourable communications with the
Baltic ports, a specification that is not fully comparable to the
figures from the Kurmark Brandenburg shows that the portion of
large, landed property on the eve of the reforms was some 48 per
cent. The overwhelming majority of Pomeranian peasants were
leasehold tenants.
These figures reveal a complex pattern that cannot be reduced to
a simple formula. In discussing the causes of the development of
Gutsherrschaft and the regional differences in its nature and extent,
we have to weigh very carefully the material effects of the overall
situation of domestic politics in the territories and states, as well as
of the legal status of the peasants’ land (including the role of
the village commune in feudal society) and their communications

with the markets. All three factors played a role and combined in
different ways.
In the present state of research it is impossible to be exact about
the proportion of large landed property in any one of the territories
in question. It is even more difficult to provide precise figures for
the whole region. And it is equally hard to estimate even approxi-
mately the percentage of landed estates that were still cultivated by
serf labour on the eve of the agrarian reforms. Tentatively, we can
risk a rough estimate of between 50 and 70 per cent of cultivable
land taken up by large landed property. The proportion of land still
cultivated by serf labour was most probably quite large also.
Ill
As a rule of thumb, one can say that enforced serf labour did not
exceed 2—3 days a week for peasants with property in their land. As
for peasants without property, it depended entirely on the require-
ments of the estates. There were quite often 4, 5 or even 6 days of
enforced labour per peasant-farmstead. As the great majority of
the peasants in large parts of the Kurmark Brandenburg, the
northern Neumark, Pomerania, East Prussia and in Upper Silesia
had no property rights in their land we can quite confidently say
that enforced labour for more than 3 days a week was very wide-
spread in these areas.
On estates with enforced labour the highest possible portion of
the operating costs was shifted on to the peasants. This included the
care of the draught animals, upkeep of the pigsties, cowsheds and
stables, and even the lodging, boarding and the pay of the farm-
hands. This was indeed the major reason for the enormous profita-
bility of these estates and doubtless also a prime cause of their
longevity. As the head of the provincial government of Pomerania,
Kammerprdasident von Ingersleben, wrote in 1799, managing an
estate with enforced labour might not lead to the highest possible
yields and would certainly cause a lot of irritation and annoyance
(especially, one might add, among its reluctant subjects), but it was
‘convenient and cheap’.!2 The peasants could only bear such
enormous burdens if they kept two teams of draught animals. To
simplify feeding and reduce costs there was usually one team of
horses and one of oxen. Experts in the higher ranks of the
bureaucracy as well as economic theorists knew very well even in

the eighteenth century that these peasants had to maintain one
team, with a farm servant (Knecht) and quite often also a maid,
merely to be able to meet their feudal duties.!? The strain on the
peasants’ economy is obvious, as their own consumption rose con-
siderably and the goods for the market were substantially reduced.
Compared with enforced labour, the other duties — both in
payment and in kind — were of minor importance.
But in spite of all this these peasants did produce for the market
as well. Indeed, they had to, if only to be able to pay their farm-
hands and the taxes. As might be expected, it is far from easy to
estimate the average percentage produced for the market. We have
to remember that the nucleus of the peasants in the villages east of
the Elbe was made up by the full peasants (Hufenbauern), who
cultivated the biggest area of the peasants’ land, running holdings
of about 20 to 70 hectares each, and also of course took advantage
of the common pastures that were grazed by the whole commune.
The classic three-field system, as is well known, involved a
threefold rotation of winter crops, spring crops and fallow. But on
the North German plain it was by no means possible to cultivate
two-thirds at a time. Inferior soil and a chronic lack of fertilisers
allowed the regular cultivation of only about a half. Substantial
areas of the holding were included in the rotation only every 6, 8, 9
or even 12 years; in the meantime, they were used as pasture.
Depending on the amount of land actually cultivated, and on the
number of children able to work, these peasants employed about
two to five farmhands from outside the family to maintain their
farmsteads and to fulfil their feudal duties. Judging from the few
taxation records'* of peasant holdings that have survived, and from
the far more numerous accounts of sowing!S which allow us to
assess the extent of the crop, it is possible to estimate that surplus
production (after the feudal dues and domestic consumption) came
to an average of 0.5—10 tons per holding. According to some
taxation records from the area surrounding Berlin 2—4 tons seem to
have been an acceptable average. It would seem, therefore, that
Jerome Blum, in his book The End of the Old Order in Rural
Europe,'* underrates peasant market production considerably
when he claims that it was minimal or non-existent. Blum bases his
claim on William Jacob’s report of 1820 on the marketing of
produce by peasants in Frankfurt am Main, in West Germany, but
conditions were very different in the area described by Jacob,
where small and very small holdings prevailed, from those obtain-
ing further east, which allowed, as we have seen, much more sub-
stantial production for the market.
The second group of self-sufficient peasants in the study area
were smallholders (Kossédten) with holdings of about 5—10 hectares
(15 hectares maximum). They too could provide the market with a
modest surplus production in years of normal cropping. In the
Prussian territories of the Elbe (with the exception of Silesia) the
strata below the peasants obtained greater importance only in the
course of the eighteenth century. In terms of figures, cottagers with
small plots, garden cottagers and day-labourers (Buidner, Hdausler
and Einlieger) were the largest sectors of village.society almost
everywhere by the end of the century. They did, to be sure, owe their
existence to the Prussian kings and their endeavours to increase the
population of their country. But the growing demand for labour on
the estates could no longer be met by enforced labour and so called
for the settlement of farmhands. Thus these three groups, each with
a smaller amount of land than the last, can, in effect, be regarded as
successive phases of the settlement of labourers.
In the villages of the sovereign demesnes (Domdnendmter) the
numerous cottagers with small plots were the first to be established.
Each had a farmhouse and | to 3 hectares of land. (The aristocracy,
on the other hand, established only a very small number of these.)
The establishment of garden cottagers instead of smallholders was
very often caused by the lack of land for settlement. The lodgers
(Einlieger) developed as a final group of the village poor. They had
no land at all and either lodged with peasants, or rented from the
landowners, living in tied cottages on the estates. The noble estates
met the additional demand for labour mostly with garden cottagers
or lodgers. All three groups only produced part of their own food
supply, or even none of it. If they worked as threshers they received
a portion of the threshing; those with small plots may occasionally
have sold animals for slaughter; the rest had to buy most of their
provisions.
Although the full peasants (Hufenbauern) produced remarkable
quantities for the market, all the relevant sources, including the
testimony of contemporary experts, agree that their net proceeds
were minimal, which meant that they could only keep their farm-
steads going through the utmost exertions.!7 When Friedrich
Eberhard von Rochow (1734—1805), a large landowner in the Mark
Brandenburg, tried to draw up the balances of a peasant holding
in this area on the River Havel in 1798, he remarked that this had
‘always been one of the most difficult tasks’ which a landowner
faced.'8 Like many previous observers, he found it almost impos-
sible to explain how the peasants were able to keep their farms
running with all the burdens that the lords and the government put
on them. Statements such as these form the economic background
to the agrarian historian Wilhelm Abel’s instructive phrase that the
peasant was always ‘balancing on a knife-edge’.!® In many different
ways, therefore, a good number of peasants were anxious for the
opportunity to earn extra money outside agriculture. One very
popular source of secondary employment, for example, was
delivering cart-loads of timber. Records from the wooded areas in
the north of Brandenburg state that peasants quite often took on
‘cart-loads of Hamburg timber’;”° in other words, they transported
tree trunks to the Havel to be rafted to Hamburg and from there
delivered to England. Cart deliveries were certainly the most
important source of peasants’ extra income. Nevertheless it seéms
quite certain that the average peasant holding was run at a deficit,
as is indicated by the few taxation records that have survived. Once
he had handed over his feudal duties, rents and taxes, and paid
wages and the maintenance of buildings and stock, the average
peasant was left without about as much as a farmhand earned in a
year, some 15—20 Reichstaler.*! This had important implications
for the economy as a whole, for while the peasant could contribute
to the market by delivering produce, his part in the circulation of
goods was a very one-sided affair, as he himself was not able to act
as a purchaser of industrial products.
The peasants struggled desperately against the increase in
enforced labour to more than two or three days a week, above all in
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The victory of the feudal
landowners in the second half of the seventeenth century, with the
establishment of feudal absolutist control, can be explained by the
precarious economic situation in which the peasants found them-
selves. As Heitz” aptly put it, the point in this struggle was whether
the peasants could keep their position as small-scale producers or
not. It is also possible to agree with Henning,”? who some time ago
called the income of the peasants a residual quantity and said that
especially the peasants under the estate system had ‘no latitude for
special expenses or investments’.*4The low purchasing power of the
peasant population was most likely the basic reason for the miser-
able existence to which the majority of the towns in the territories
east of the Elbe were condemned. The only exceptions to this’

general picture of urban misery were a few seaports and a very
small number of commercial towns inland (Berlin, Frankfurt an
der Oder, and Breslau [Wroclaw)).
Those peasants whose enforced labour did not exceed two or
three days a week were probably a little better off, as they had to
maintain fewer draught animals and farmhands. On the other
hand, they had to pay substantial feudal dues in kind. For example,
the full peasants of the royal demesne of Dambeck in the Altmark,
which belonged to the foundation of the famous Joachimsthal
Grammar School in Berlin, only had to give one day of service with
a team of animals per week, a small amount of enforced labour
compared with the smaller farms under the same demesne. But to
compensate for this their dues in grain amounted to 20 per cent of
an average harvest.” The situation was very much the same on the
estates of the Prignitz and the district of Ruppin, where 2—3 days
of manorial service with a team of animals was very common. Here
too some 10—20 per cent of the crop had to be paid to the lord as
feudal rent. It is obvious that the lords had a good idea how to
cream off the peasant surplus production in a way most suited to
themselves. Nevertheless, as these peasants spent less on wages, the
losses to their potential market production caused by dues in kind
on the one hand, and the additional costs for wages and home con-
sumption for peasants with 4—5 days of manorial service on the
other, most probably balance each other out.
Any more specific research into the regional differences of the
overall area of the estate system has to start from the diverse
burdens of enforced labour. Such research is still in its beginnings
and calls for international discussion. The complete dominance of
enforced labour, or its combination with dues in kind or in cash,
possibly marked the socio-economic structure of a region much
more than all the other factors under consideration. The type and
form of the feudal rent not only determined the amount of produce
which the peasants could market, it also affected their remaining
purchasing power and thus the development of the industrial
economy. Only the most extreme elaboration of this late feudal
agrarian structure required more than two or three days’ service per
farmstead per week. This was common above all along the
southern shore of the Baltic, from the east of Holstein to East
Prussia and inland up to the lower River Warthe and the area
round Berlin. In the western parts of the Mark Brandenburg, in the
south of the Neumark and in Silesia, the burden tended to be less,

with only two or three days a week. Duties of one day of manorial
service per week were common the Altmark, in the Kammderdis-
trikt of Magdeburg and that of Halberstadt and up to the River
Weser, and in Saxony between the Rivers Elbe and Saale; they were
also quite widespread in Thuringia. There were more or less con-
centrated ‘islands’ in the last-mentioned areas with two days of
enforced labour per peasant per week. Here we can see the develop-
ment of a transition to the estate system. And at least for a very
important group of the dependent rural population — the full
peasants (Hufenbauera) — quite substantial changes began to take
shape and to determine the character of favoured regions by the
end of the eighteenth century.
IV
For more than two centuries the estate system had proved to be
‘convenient and cheap’ for the lords. In the last third of the
eighteenth century, however, there were indications that this once
solid form of economic dominance was beginning to decay and to
outlive its usefulness. Above all the rise in grain prices starting at
the end of the 1760s had a lasting effect on agriculture, and on
agrarian structures in general. Its general features are shown in
Figure 2.1.7 The price rise was partly caused by the continuous
exports of grain to Great Britain that began in the decade between
1766 and 1775. These indeed affected the grain market in the whole
Baltic region, not simply in Prussia. A second reason was the
immense increase of home consumption due to a very substantial
growth in the population. Here attention has to be drawn to the
development of important urban centres of consumption. Above
all Berlin, whose population rose from 55,000 to 178,308 between
1709 and 1803. Berlin’s consumption of grain is calculated at
36,300 tons for 1777 and at 53,400 tons for 1802/3.?’ Indeed, for
some time the area around Berlin (the Kurmark Brandenburg) had
been unable to supply the growing city on its own. Large amounts
of grain had to be transported to Berlin along the waterways from
the Altmark and the area around Magdeburg, from the Neumark,
Lower Silesia and from West Prussia. A number of other Prussian
towns had also grown considerably, including Breslau (Wroclaw),
Konigsberg (Kaliningrad), Potsdam, Stettin (Szczecin), with similar
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effects.223 In some regions ‘a market for agrarian produce had

developed in the countryside as well, because of the growing
numbers of landless or virtually landless peasants who had to buy a
large portion of their provisions. This factor was particularly
important in populous areas such as the Kammerdistrikt of
Halberstadt and that of Magdeburg, and also in parts of the
Kurmark Brandenburg. It played a major role in the mountainous
regions of Silesia too, where the growth of the linen-weaving
industry was already causing a tremendous concentration of the
rural population.
Thus rising exports to England as well as growing home con-
sumption stimulated agrarian production. England mostly
imported wheat, which always commanded the highest prices. As
the cultivation of wheat required rich soils and so high inputs of
fertiliser the demand for wheat also had the additional effect of
stimulating agricultural improvement. It was, of course, compara-
tively easy for the large estates to respond to new conditions in the
market. They could independently decide on new systems of culti-
vation in order to improve their yields and to maximise their
profitability. They were able to include new crops into their rota-
tions, whether fodder crops such as clover, or fallow crops such as
potatoes. (Clover and potatoes had been cultivated in Germany
since the end of the seventeenth century, and had been recom-
mended and propagated for a long time, but only became impor-
tant in the late eighteenth century and then mainly on the large
estates). They could thus increase their livestock holdings through
the increased production of fodder, thus improving the fertilising
of their arable land.*? The importance of a higher yield of manure
to the fertility of the soil at that time was stressed by an expert from
the Borde of Magdeburg on the Elbe in 1755: ‘The increase of cattle
and sheep is the soul of agriculture.’*° Where the estate lands were
still interspersed with those of the peasants the lords as often as not
succeeded in carrying through evictions, all the more so if the
peasants had no legal property in their holdings and were lease-
holders or usufructory holders.
Agriculture became more profitable in the decades before the
reform. Grain prices rose, more grain was harvested, sheep
increased in number, wool was produced in greater quantities, and
in some areas potatoes came onto the market as well. The intensi-
fication of agriculture, especially in the cultivation of fallow crops,
naturally led to a higher demand for labour. But this could no
longer be met by increasing the amount of enforced labour under

the feudal system. For peasants without property, enforced labour
had very often already reached the maximum limit of 5—6 days a
week per farmstead. Since the stabilisation of the central authority
in Berlin with the rise of absolutism and ‘enlightened despotism’,
peasants with property in their land found it much easier to obtain
backing in their lawsuits from the superior courts. So the lords had
to resort to paid labour, whether they liked it or not, and they
installed peasants who had little or no land, as we have already seen.
This of course stimulated an accelerated population growth, thus
reinforcing the general trend. More important, the running of large
estates without forced labour was now put to the test on a bigger
scale than ever before. The productivity of paid labour, as might be
expected, was much higher than that of enforced labour. Moreover,
a further increase in profitability arose from the fact that wages for
manorial servants and day labourers were subject to a legal freeze,
and had to be paid according to the Statute of Labourers
(Gesindeordnung) of 1769, which coincided with the beginnings of
the rise in grain prices.*! In spite of a remarkable growth of estate
income because of the price rise, the freeze was again confirmed in
1797. Nevertheless, the high demand for labour meant that it was
often disregarded by estate owners, who were forced to pay over the
maximum allowed if they wanted anybody to work for them. In the
past, it had long been much cheaper for the large estates — in spite
of all the well-known shortcomings — to have grain produced by
forced labour with their own teams of draught animals instead of
paid labour with teams from the estates. But the introduction of new
systems of cultivation and the increase of paid labour boosted the
production and the productivity of the estates to such a high degree
that, considering the development of grain prices, the substitution
of enforced labour by paid labour became a viable alternative. It no
longer automatically led to financial losses for the landowners. The
conversion of the traditional feudal estate into a modern estate
based on wage-labour thus became economically justifiable.
It was much more difficult for the peasants to adapt to the new
market conditions. Until the agrarian reforms of the nineteenth
century every initiative of theirs was constantly shackled by the
three-field system, with its obligatory fallow periods, and by the
right of pasturage (Aufhiitungsberechtigung), according to which
the estates and the commune were allowed to use the fallow and the
arable land as soon as the harvest was finished as pasturage for
$4 Peasants and Markets
cattle, sheep or pigs. Berthold** and Miiller* have pointed out that
the peasants did try hard to apply agricultural progress to their own
family activities. Nevertheless, the sources indicate that, as far as
really important innovations, like the large-scale cultivation of
fodder plants and fallow crops, were concerned, the possibilities
open to the peasant community were limited because of the right of
pasturage already mentioned above. Thus for the cultivation of
fodder plants and potatoes the peasants were normally only able to
use the home meadow or Worde (a grassy orchard of about 0.5—1
hectare next to the farms, with well spaced-out fruit trees). Con-
tinuous efforts were made by the peasant community to get the
feudal authorities to allow certain parts of the fields to be taken out
of the crop rotation and the right of pasturage, so that they could
cultivate fodder plants on them.** The peasants understood very
well the connection between the production of fodder, the possible
volume of livestock, the amount of manure and the possibilities
and limitations of cultivation on their holdings. The majority of
them doubtless knew full well what the obstacles to decisive
improvements in their economy were, namely the high costs of the
uneconomically large numbers of farmhands and draught cattle
that had to be kept to fulfil their feudal duties, and the pressures
generated by the collective three-field system and the right of
pasturage.
Considering these obstructions inherent in the feudal system, the
ingenuity of the efforts of numerous peasant communities in
making use of the new market conditions is remarkable. Because of
the obligation for all members of the community to act according
to the rule of the three-field system, in practice any attempt at
improving their situation could only be made if everyone in the
commune agreed on it. This agreement could often be best achieved
in regions with good market communications, e.g. in the area
round Berlin. The commune usually started its efforts in a field
where no alterations to the general system of cultivation within the
framework of the three-field system and the right of pasturage were
needed, i.e. in a field devoted to the cultivation of grain. Thus the
concentration of sowing was increased by improving the fertilising
of the area sown (the possible yield depended to a large degree on
the state of the soil) or by cultivating more frequently the outer
fields which, because of the lack of fertilisers, had only been sown
every 6, 9 or even 12 years. At the same time the communes also
began to introduce a greater degree of specialisation into their
cultivation system. Between 1749/55 and 1805, for example, the

four villages of the royal demesne of Gramzow (Briest, Federsdorf,
Meichow, Liitzlow) north-east of Berlin, in the Uckermark, raised
the amount of grain sown to 130 per cent of the starting point;
while the amount of wheat sown on their most fertile soil was raised
to 183 per cent.*> In 1805 the proportion of wheat in the overall
sowing came to 21.2 per cent. The peasants of the village of
Liidersdorf to the north of Berlin in the district of Ruppin, an area
of rather poor soil, raised their amount of grain sowing to 140 per
cent between 1727 and 1817.*° In this context it is well worth men-
tioning that some villages in the district of Ruppin with slightly
better soil turned to the cultivation of barley after the Ruppin canal
had been built in 1791 — a canal that had been designed for
shipping peat to Berlin, but which also offered a cheap means of
transport to the capital for other goods; the peasants were clearly
quick to take advantage of this.*”
Some of the best-documented cases of the specialisation of culti-
vation and thus of the peasant response to the new market con-
ditions are available for the villages of the royal demesne of
Locknitz in the northern Uckermark. There the soil was fertile and
the peasants used it mainly for cultivating highly profitable wheat.
Between 1794 and 1804 the six villages of Bergholz, Bagemiihl,
Fahrenwalde, Grimme, Wallmow and Zerrentin increased their
sowing of wheat to 158 per cent. The peasants of Wallmow
responded most successfully to the market. They concentrated so
much on the cultivation of wheat that their production of rye no
longer met the requirements for their own consumption, and they
had to start buying it in considerable quantities. As rye was cheaper
than wheat their calculation would doubtless have been the correct
one.?8 The sources only allow us to look at individual examples of
the market orientation of grain cultivation such as these, but in the
case of crops which did not infringe the traditional system of
cultivation and the privileges of the lords, more general observa-
tions can be made. In the Prignitz, east of the lower Elbe, and in
the district of Lebus, east of Berlin, many peasants increased the
cultivation of fruit, and sold it fresh or dried in Berlin and
Potsdam. It has also been said that in 1799 the small town of
Liibbenau in Lower Lusatia (at that time still belonging to Saxony)
was largely engaged in providing Berlin with legumes.*”
These examples — and more could be given — clearly show the
effects that a large market had on the development of agricultural
production. Over and above this, they demonstrate these peasants’

mature and considered attitude to the market; and these were, it
should be stressed, peasants who still lived under feudal depen-
dence. Baron Magnus von Bassewitz (1777-1858), who before
1806 had worked as a young official in the royal demesnes com-
missioned with carrying through the abolition of feudal duties and
who later became the Supreme President (Oberprdsident) of the
province of Brandenburg, was undoubtedly well placed to judge
the condition of the peasants, and in 1805 he wrote in the following
terms about the peasants of the royal demesne of Gramzow who
had become wealthy by growing wheat: ‘This wealth is also a
reason for concluding that these subjects would have a notion
of a higher form of agriculture if only they had not been hindered
by the hitherto existing legal subjection and by the communal
cultivation of the land.’ This verdict is undoubtedly applicable to
all those peasants who tried to improve their holdings by their own
efforts.
Of course, not all peasants were proceeding along the road
towards agricultural progress and a purposeful market orientation.
In large parts of East Prussia (above all in the south and east of that
province), Pomerania, the Neumark, in the Polish regions of
Silesia and also in the areas in the south of the Kurmark Branden-
burg with very poor soil, there was hardly any market orientation
or specialisation of production at all. In all areas far removed from
the markets there was little innovation or progress. Nevertheless the
assumption that only the large estates benefited from the increase
in grain exports, while the peasants were allegedly compelled to buy
extra grain when the cropping was poor, as Hanna Schissler has
recently stated,*! is incorrect. It is true that the classes with little
land, above all those who had been dispossessed, could on occasion
be confronted with a situation of this kind; this applies especially to
peasants with little or no land of their own, though those with a
small plot were certainly much less susceptible. The large and the
medium peasants certainly produced enough grain for their own
consumption even in lean years. This does not exclude the possi-
bility, however, that after really disastrous harvests (as in 1771/72)
seed corn would have to bought or borrowed. But the middle and
large peasants, with holdings of between 20 and 70 hectares, could
benefit from the rise in grain profits, so the income differentials in
the rural population increased and in due course social differences
were aggravated.
Table 2.1: Proceeds from Sales of 1 Tonne of Grain for the Periods
1766/70 and 1801/05 in Berlin and in the Uckermark
Berlin Uckermark
Wheat Rye Rye

1766/70 48.14.8 42.22.10 27.8.5
1801/5 97.22.0 Sealilhee 61.3.0
Sources: See Figure 2.1.

Note: Prices are in Ta/ler, Groschen and Pfennige, respectively.
All peasants who were able to sell their produce on the market
with any regularity experienced an increase in their income even if
they could not deliver a single additional bushel, simply because of
the rise in grain prices. The actual effect is demonstrated by the
figures in Table 2.1, based on the prices shown in Figure 2.1. For
the peasant-producers this remarkable increase in money income
was to a high degree an increase in real income, as taxes in Prussia
were not raised during the second half of the eighteenth century.
For the peasants on the royal demesnes, the feudal dues payable to
the demesne office were not raised either. The effect of the rise in
grain prices on the tax burden of the peasants is shown by the
example of the village of Briest in the royal demesne of Gramzow in
the Uckermark, which has already been mentioned. The most
important taxes were the Kontribution, Kavalleriegeld, Metz-
korngeld and Hufen- and Giebelschoss. The Kontribution was the
peasant land tax since the war of 1618—48; Kavalleriegeld was
introduced when in 1717 the quartering of the cavalry with the
peasants on the basis of payment in kind was stopped. From that
year the cavalry was quartered in the towns, only moving to the
country for some months in summer. The Kontribution and Kaval-
leriegeld were the most important taxes on peasant holdings in
absolutist Prussia. Metzkorngeld was introduced when a duty in
kind from the war of 1618—48 was converted into payment in cash
in the eighteenth century. The Hufen- und Giebelschoss was a tax
on houses and fields that the Provincial Estates (Landstdnde) again
and again granted the princes from the fifteenth and especially
from the sixteenth centuries to enable them to pay their interest and
to pay off their debts that arose from the underdeveloped financial
administration. Since the establishment of absolutist sovereignty in
Brandenburg-Prussia in the seventeenth century the sovereign
actually disposed of the tax yield. There was good soil at Briest,
Table 2.2: Grain Sales of a Peasant Farm in the Village of Briest

(Amt Gramzow/Uckermark) necessary to meet tax demands
Berlin Uckermark
Wheat Rye Rye
1766/70 1978 2264 3559

1801/5 987 1324 1591
Note: Figures are in kilograms.

Sources: Cf. Figure 2.1; P. G. Wohner, Steuerverfassung des platten Landes der
Kurmark Brandenburg, Parts 1 & 2 (Berlin, 1804).
the village with which we are concerned, and peasants with

holdings of about 48 hectares (Dreihtifner) there were taxed with a
comparatively high total of 97 Taler 6 Groschen (some minor dues
payable to the community, alms and fire prevention are not taken
into account). To raise this amount of taxes a peasant would have
to sell the amount of grain shown in Table 2.2. Of course, the large
peasants with 2—5 hands not belonging to the family also profited
from the legally-fixed maximum wages for farmhands.*” The real
income of the peasants must have risen substantially in some cases,
while the real income of their hands probably fell.
The peasants on the royal demesnes, who have been cited again
and again because they are the best documented, were not the only
ones to profit from these developments; the peasants on noble-
men’s land gained substantially as well. For example, in the estate
of Boitzenburg, also in the Uckermark, with its markets in Berlin
and in the local towns, the peasants were tenants with six-year
leases, and apart from a comparatively low burden of enforced
labour of about 80 days a year with a team of animals the most
important feudal due they owed was the rent. Because of the short
lease the lords could usually raise the rents to keep pace with the
rise in grain prices. Nevertheless in the decade from 1795 to 1805,
during which grain prices rose very quickly, the rent increases did
not keep up with the rise in prices. In the village of Thomsdorf, for
example, each peasant had to pay a rent of 24 Taler a year from
1743 to 1802, and then 28 Taler a year from 1802 onwards.
According to the grain prices in Berlin this equalled 558 kg of rye in
1766/70 and 381 kilograms from 1802 onwards, so that the
peasants had in fact gained over the period despite the rise in the
rent in 1802. A note of caution has to be sounded here, however,
because the present state of research does not allow a definitive
statement to be made as to whether the Lordship of Boitzenburg

was typical or not: the Counts of Arnim, its proprietors, were very
large landlords, whose income for a long time had come mostly
from the management and lease of a considerable number of
estates.
Still, the peasants in regions favoured by good market conditions
took advantage of the situation by increasing their production or
by specialising; and it seems beyond doubt that the full peasants
(Hufenbauern) — especially those on the demesnes — started in
these decades to break the cycle of destitution and ‘balancing on a
knife-edge’ which had enslaved them for so long. As one might
expect, this breakthrough was most obvious in the regions adjacent
to the market. In practice, though, this must also have been the
case in more remote regions, so long as the peasant surplus produc-
tion was not creamed off by the lords through feudal dues in kind.
Where this was the case the peasants remained more or less
excluded from the intensification of market relations. In large parts
of southern, western and central Germany a large portion of feudal
dues — sometimes an overwhelming one — was made up of dues in
kind, above all in the form of the tithe. It is at least possible, there-
fore, that the agrarian reforms in Prussia were pushed through
quite quickly from 1811 onwards* because of the intensification of
the market relations of the estates and peasant holdings in the
decades before 1807. On the other hand, the comparatively less
well-developed market relations of peasant holdings in the western
and southern regions may be one of the causes why the agrarian
reforms came to a halt after they had started so well during the
period of Napoleonic domination.
Vv
It seems clear, then, that profound changes in the relationship of

the economically-advanced middle and large peasant holdings and
the market took place during the last decades before the agrarian
reforms, especially if the communications with the market were
favourable and if the surplus product was not creamed off by the
lords by way of feudal dues in kind. For a long time the proceeds
from the sale of the peasants’ produce had been hardly enough to
pay for the taxes, feudal dues, farmhand wages and other costs,
fire insurance, alms contributions and other expenses. Their
situation had been so miserable that even well-trained observers

had not been able to say just. how the peasants made ends meet.
Now the situation was progressively changing for the better. What
was the effect of these developments on the national economy in
general? One may suppose that at first many peasants preferred to
hoard their increasing receipts than to consume them or invest in
their holdings in order to improve them. Naturally enough this was
especially so for peasants without real property rights and that
meant (Silesia excluded) the vast majority of peasants in East
Elbian Prussia. Whether this changed after 1799, when the
peasants on the demesnes were able to commute their dues into
rents or purchase their property, and whether this had visible
effects on trade, awaits further research. It must not be forgotten,
though, that grain prices had only begun rising really rapidly from
the 1790s, so that the period of major effects on the national
economy was not much longer than a decade.
For the region of the Magdeburg Bérde (black-earth district)
west of the Elbe, there is proof that a genuine consumption boom
in the countryside started at the end of the eighteenth century. The
peasants owned their farms, and most property belonged to large
holdings which took advantage of the rich soil to produce large
quantities of wheat and barley for brewing. Several observers
reported that a small upper class of well-to-do peasants had
developed by the early nineteenth century. They spent a much-
admired amount on clothes, coffee, sugar, and, above all, beer.*
In the regions of the estate system, by contrast, practically nothing
of this kind was reported in this period. Another effect of the good
market for agrarian produce and of the slowly-increasing proceeds
of the peasantry was, however, of quite decisive importance in the
inevitable supersession of the traditional Gutsherrschaft estate
system, and that was the growing resistance of the peasants.
There was nothing new about struggles between lords and
peasants, of course. Conflicts on questions of feudal duties, rights
of tending and driving herds, the use of forests, and so on, were
part of the everyday life of the estate system. Quite often peasants
ran away from the unbearable pressure; flights of this kind were
particularly common among the propertyless, who were the ones
with the hardest burdens, of course. Occasionally there were strikes
against the feudal dues, in which the peasants refused to render
their lords the dues owing to them. Arrest and ill-treatment,
especially of the peasants’ spokesmen, temporary sequestration
of the draught cattle and — the ultimate sanction — eviction, were

the usual reactions of the lords to such insubordination. With the
establishment of the absolutist state during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries matters changed somewhat. On the one hand,
the feudal lords became so all-powerful that any revolt against
them seemed hopeless from the start, but on the other hand, the
Crown now took steps to stop the worst excesses of Junker
imperiousness. On a local scale, though, everyday strife went on as
usual. The sources indicate that as grain prices rose, so the peasants
became more and more aware of the obvious impediments to a
more efficient management of their farms. They knew well enough
that there were many ways of expanding their production and their
deliveries to the market, but as they had to adapt their economy to
the needs of the estate system with its enforced labour (two teams)
they could not break out of the narrow confines of minor improve-
ments only. From their own experience they also knew that the
majority of the lords would not give up their enjoyment of
enforced labour voluntarily. With the prospects of a real increase in
their proceeds, all the peasants’ hatred was centred on their feudal
dues which burdened their economy so heavily and made them
exert themselves so much to no profit to themselves.
In 1774 King Friedrich II, who in 1777 went so far as to call
feudal duties a ‘repulsive arrangement’,* suggested, by means of a
Cabinet Order to the General Directory’ his supreme ministry of
all the administrative authorities responsible for internal affairs,
that feudal dues should no longer be fixed in the form of a certain
number of days of service. Instead, each peasant should be made
responsible for a certain acreage of land on the estates, taking care
of all necessary husbandry. Thus the peasants were to be stimulated
to fulfil their duties as effectively as possible. Although this
attempt came to nothing, it was interesting as a pointer to the
future. In this Cabinet Order, Friedrich announced his intention of
counteracting ‘the continuous urgent complaints of the peasants
about much too severe duties, both with teams and in manual
labour. . .’48 The struggle against feudal dues increased in line with
the intensification of the peasants’ market relations. Very pointedly
the President of the Provincial Board of War and Demesnes of the
provinces of Pomerania, Herr von Schiitz (predecessor of the
above-mentioned Kammerprdasident von Ingersleben) described the
situation that had developed for the peasants, in a memorandum of
1796. Pomerania, of course, did not rank among those well-
developed regions in which the problem had already become an

urgent one. Still, Schtitz wrote:
Now the peasant feels the inequality he had to live with; he

knows the evils that prevent him from cultivating his land more
efficiently; he understands that he cannot proceed because of the
amount of money needed for feudal dues and because of the time
required for labour service, that he is more or less forced to
waste. That is why there are now so many complaints by the
King’s subjects.”
At the time when Schiitz was putting down these reasons, detailed
information about the French Revolution and the peasants’
achievements there had already penetrated as far as the remote
villages east of the Elbe. There can hardly be any doubt that the
pressure from ‘the base’ against the obsolete system of dominion
and economy, the system of Gutsherrschaft, was now intensified.
At first, though, leaders of the Prussian state were obviously
inclined to keep the old order unchanged. On 4 September 1794, in
the reign of King Friedrich Wilhelm II, after some villages in the
Altmark had held a meeting to discuss the possibilities of abolish-
ing feudal dues, the Prussian High Court (Kammergericht) issued a
sharp warning,*° delivered through the district presidents
(Landrdate) against any repetition of such activities anywhere in the
country. Though it was harmless enough, the meeting in the
Altmark was evidently taken very seriously indeed by the High
Court, which emphasised that the right to levy feudal dues had
been legally acquired by the lords, who could ‘not do without them
if they are to maintain their estates’. All that the villagers of the
Altmark had in fact asked for was the right to commute their dues
into money rents without obtaining the prior agreement of the lord.
This modest demand was explicitly rejected by the High Court,
which even at this late stage thus displayed no inclination at all
towards reform.
It was only after the succession of King Friedrich Wilhelm III in
1797 that an intensive discussion about the need for agrarian
reform began within the higher ranks of the Prussian bureaucracy.
The bureaucrats had finally realised that the estate system and its
feudal dues had become more and more ineffective. It was also
becoming clear that the tensions between the peasants and the
feudal authorities were reaching a dangerous crisis point. On
14 May 1798 Baron Friedrich von Schroetter, the provincial

minister for East and West Prussia, and one of those who were
most active in the reforms after 1807, wrote a long letter to Cabinet
Councillor Beyme, one of the most influential of the King’s men in
Berlin.*! Schroetter told Beyme that rumours were spreading in his
area about the activities of the special financial commission that
had been installed by the new king in 1797 to work out proposals
for reform. The rural population were particularly excited about
the abolition of hereditary serfdom and feudal dues. Schroetter’s
concerned statement that there was a ‘dull rumbling’ among the
peasants is of particular interest. In East Prussia, where the
peasants on the noble estates were still subject to strict hereditary
serfdom, the abolition of this condition was the major demand. In
other areas, as in the Altmark in 1794, the abolition of feudal dues
(in East Prussia called Scharwerk) was the main demand.
A little later, on 23 July 1798, Beyme addressed a letter to Grand
Chancellor of Justice von Goldbeck,” stressing the urgent need to
improve the situation of the peasants. He drew Goldbeck’s atten-
tion to the possible evil consequences of further delays (the
Chancellor was obviously hesitating and averse to reforms). Many
years later, in 1847, Baron von Bassewitz, whose views on the
situation in 1805 we have already encountered, looked back on the
mistrust shown by the peasants for landowners and tenants of
demesnes before 1806.°> The much talked-of patriarchal relation-
ship between lord and peasant had, he said, been an exception. The
peasants did not feel they were looked after by the lords, they ‘felt
they were only used by them’. Evidently a deep discontent and ‘dull
rumbling’ were widespread among the rural population in the years
preceding 1807. On the other hand there was no ignoring the fact
that very many peasants were both willing and able to orient them-
selves to the market and to modernise their holdings. It might
therefore be of interest to recall the highly pessimistic verdict on the
peasants under the estate system near the end of the introductory
chapter of Georg Friedrich Knapp’s masterwork on the old
Prussian agrarian state before 1807: ‘The peasant’, he wrote,
‘remained on the same level for ever and ever, confused, gloomy,
dissatisfied, rude, servile, obedient only to the steward; an unhappy
hybrid of beast of burden and human being.’*4 Maybe things were
still like that in remote areas with strictly-managed and legally-
fixed serfdom, but the well-considered and purposeful economic
behaviour of many peasants and peasant communities in areas
with favourable market conditions tells another tale. So too does

their evident consciousness of the essential factors that stunted any
progress, a consciousness which manifested itself openly in the
struggle for the abolition of feudal dues.
Under the conditions of the estate system the modernisation of
agriculture was only possible with the abolition of feudal dues. This
was the first and fundamental prerequisite of all subsequent steps.
Hence the fact that not only the peasants but also an increasing
number of noble landowners and bourgeois tenants open to experi-
mentation, as well as theorising economists and philanthropically-
minded Secretaries of State, demanded the abolition of feudal
duties. Hence also the fact that an influential group among the
Prussian leaders of state now realised that it had become an urgent
necessity. The increasing profitability of agriculture that had
started at the end of the 1760s, and the constant pressure from the
base that was obviously increasing rapidly after 1789, created an
atmosphere of open-mindedness towards reform among the
Prussian leaders. The agrarian political reforms undertaken after
179955 not only show how the Prussian authorities viewed the situa-
tion in the countryside, but also revealed very quickly the limits of
their power. In fact they could only set about improving the
economic and legal status of the peasants on the royal demesnes.
Efforts to obtain the nobility’s consent to the abolition of heredi-
tary serfdom and Gutsuntertdnigkeit (subjection to the estate) or to
commute feudal dues in kind into money rents came unstuck as
early as the preliminary negotiations. There are no accurate figures
available for the actual number of peasants on the royal demesnes,
but depending on whether the smallholders (Kossdten) are counted
as peasants (an assumption justified in most cases) or not, their
number in the Kurmark Brandenburg, the Neumark, Pomerania,
West Prussia, East Prussia and Lithuania probably amounted to
some 70,000—90,000. In Silesia there were only very few; and for
the Netze valley there are no figures. All those peasants on the royal
demesnes were given the opportunity to commute their feudal dues
into annual money rents. Additionally those peasants in the
provinces of Kurmark, Neumark and Pomerania who had no
property (usufructory holders and leasehold tenants) — a large per-
centage of the peasants in those regions — were allowed to
purchase their holdings by paying the so-called Erbstandsgeld. In
other East Elbian Prussian administrative districts this concession
was not given. There can be no doubt that these measures were
influenced by the distant effect of the French Revolution and the

increasing ferment among the peasant population. When the
agrarian reforms of Baron vom Stein started with the edict of 14
October 1807 (i.e. after the Prussian defeats at Austerlitz and Jena)
the measures begun in 1799 had by no means been completed. For
some 30,000 peasants feudal dues had been commuted into annual
rents and up to the middle of 1806 some 6000 peasants and 2000
smallholders had gained legal property rights in their holdings.
These measures did not mean the complete abolition of the
feudal relationship of lord and peasant. The change to rents neces-
sarily bound the peasants to the market closer than ever before. But
the rent was not adjusted to the yields, the situation on the market
or the demand for land, i.e. it was no capitalist rent. Rather it was
calculated as the sum of the former, minor duties in payment and
the new, additional expenditures arising from running the farms of
the royal demesnes with paid hands instead of farmhands rendering
feudal dues. Those peasants who purchased their farms did not
enjoy the unlimited right of disposition over them. They could not
cease production, or sell the whole or parts of them without the
consent of the demesne office. Thus no free market in real estate
developed. Moreover, the peasants’ children were not allowed to
work outside agriculture without the approval of the authorities.
According to the sources, by paying the Erbstandsgeld peasants on
the demesnes acquired their holdings as hereditary leaseholds
(erbliches Zinseigentum),*© a phrase that would seem to describe the
legal position very well. Royal peasants gained this new status in
many areas, in the districts of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, and
also in the Altmark and the Prignitz area, that is, in the western
parts of the Kurmark Brandenburg.
The limitation of the reforms of 1799 to the peasants on
demesnes was a consequence of the internal relation of power
between the authorities and the nobility. It illustrates very clearly
just how limited was the effectiveness of the Prussian leaders of
state. Yet serious questions about their intentions and about their
perceptiveness are raised by the fact that in some districts the
peasants were given no opportunity at all to acquire property in
their holdings, and elsewhere they could only acquire hereditary
leaseholds; and even more by the suppression of a free market in
real estate and the continuing obligation of the peasants’ children
to work on the land. It seems that these measures were not aimed
at overcoming the feudal order so much as at stabilising it.
Certainly no Prussian expert or official is known to have suggested

that the reforms were supposed to lead in the long run to the com-
plete legal and economic separation of the feudal authorities and
the peasants or, in modern terms, a capitalist agrarian system.
Nevertheless these reforms, which practically brought the estate
system to an end in the royal demesnes, were certainly consistent
with the general undermining and disruption of the feudal order.
Until the disaster of 1806/7, however, the Prussian central
authorities were unable to progress beyond the steps originally
taken in 1799. Considering the favourable macroeconomic con-
ditions and the universally-known ‘dull rumbling’ among the rural
population, this was by no means an impressive performance. The
really decisive breakthrough for a final rupture between the
peasants (whatever their legal status) and their lords, or in other
words a capitalist emancipation of the peasants, took place only
after 1807.
Historians in the German Democratic Republic are still divided
over the question of whether and how the reforms starting in 1807
were conditioned or determined by the socio-economic develop-
ment of the preceding years. Jiirgen Kuczynski, the Nestor of
economic history in the GDR, has recently stressed the backward-
ness and stagnation of the late eighteenth-century socio-economic
system in Prussia as well as in Germany as a whole, in the towns as
well as the countryside.*’ On the other hand, Heinrich Scheel
pointed out some time ago* that the influences and stimuli coming
from England and France even before 1806 would have had no
effect if there had been no developments in agriculture ready to be
positively stimulated and influenced, or in other words if a bour-
geois transformation had not been in the making. For the sphere of
agriculture Berthold and Miiller*® have argued practically along the
same lines as Scheel, and the argument of the present essay has also
been that the bourgeois revolution in the country had been pre-
pared by socio-economic developments long before 1807. Of
course, Kuczynski’s stress on the defeat of 1806/7 as the decisive
‘detonator’, the triggering-off event, cannot be entirely dismissed.
Among other things, this essay has tried to show how slowly the
efforts at reform started. In spite of the universally-recognised
tensions, all measures actually begun before 1807 still remained
within the framework of feudal legality. Any efforts at reform
from peasants other than those on the royal demesnes failed. There
is no way of finding out whether without the disaster of 1806 there
would have been stabilisation and consolidation of the feudal order

or whether the pressure from the peasants and the market would
have led, in whatever way, to a capitalist solution. In the event,
however, it is clear that the events of 1806/7 did indeed open the
way towards a bourgeois development.
Notes
1. See the discussion above, pp. 3—8.

2. Gerhard Heitz, ‘Die Differenzierung der Agrarstruktur am Vorabend der
birgerlichen Agrarreformen’, Zeitschrift fiir Geschichtswissenschaft, Vol. XXV
(1977), p. 912. 4
3. Georg Friedrich Knapp, ‘Die Erbuntertanigkeit und die kapitalistische Wirt-
schaft’, in idem., Landarbeiter in Knechtschaft und Freiheit (Munich and Leipzig,
1891). The reference is to G. F. Knapp, Einftihrung in einige Hauptgebiete der
Nationalékonomie (Selected Works, Vol. 1, Munich and Leipzig, 1925), p. 144.
4. Cf. the still instructive report of Georg von Below, ‘Der Osten und der Westen
Deutschlands. Der Ursprung der Gutsherrschaft’, in idem., Territorium und Stadt.
Aufsdtze zur deutschen Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte
(Munich and Leipzig, 1900), pp. 1—94. For the later discussions cf. Hartmut
Harnisch, ‘Die Gutsherrschaft in Brandenburg, Ergebnisse und Probleme’, Jahr-
buch ftir Wirtschaftsgeschichte (1969), Part IV, pp. 117-47.
5. Cf. summary in WJadysYaw Rusinski, ‘Some Remarks on the Differentiation
of Agrarian Structure in East Central Europe from the 16th to the 18th Century’,
Studia historiae oeconomicae, Vol. 13, Poznan (1978), pp. 83—95.
6. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Rechtsqualitat des Bauernlandes und Gutsherrschaft’,
Jahrbuch fiir Geschichte des Feudalismus, Vol 3 (Berlin, 1979), pp. 311-63.
7. Ibid., pp. 361-2.
8. We cannot deal with these conflicts in detail here. For the time of their
development, cf. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Bauernbewegungen gegen die Gutsherrschaft.
Die Mark Brandenburg im Jahrhundert vor dem Dreissigjahrigen Krieg’, in
Winfried Schulze (ed.), Aufstdnde, Revolten, Prozesse. Beitrdége zu bduerlichen
Widerstandbewegungen im friihneuzeitlichen Europa (Geschichte und Gesellschaft.
Bochumer Historische Studien, Vol. 27 Stuttgart, 1983), pp. 135—48. For later
periods, cf. Giinter Vogler, ‘Probleme des bauerlichen Klassenkampfes in der Mark
Brandenburg im Spatfeudalismus’, Acta Universitatis Carolinae — Philosophica et
Historica 1 (Prague, 1974), pp. 75—94, Studia Historica XI.
9. Rusinski, op. cit., p. 92.
10. Ibid.
11. Staatsarchiv (StA) Potsdam. Pr. Br. Rep. 2A, Regierung Potsdam, I. Kom.,
No. 558, ff. 1=—2.
12. Zentrales Staatsarchiv (ZSA) Merseburg, Generaldirektorium, General-
department, Tit. XLI, No. 10, f. 10.
13. As an example, cf. the most famous German demographer of the eighteenth
century, Johann Peter Siissmilch, Die géttliche Ordnung in den Verdnderungen des
menschlichen Geschlechts aus der Geburt, dem Tode und der Fortpflanzung dessel-
ben erwiesen, Part 3 (Berlin, 1776, 4th edn), pp. 277-8. Here the uneconomic
nature of this kind of organisation is also stressed.
14. Taxationen were records of cultivation and yields as well as debits of working
costs and duties, and finally the net proceeds of estates and holdings. For noble
estates there are a great many of these records dating from the sixteenth century
onwards.
15. See Harmut Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform und Industrielle Revolu-
tion, Agrarhistorische Untersuchungen tber das ostelbische Preussen zwischen
Spdatfeudalismus und biirgerlich- demokratischer Revolution (Weimar, 1984),
ppwoobhs
16. Jerome Blum, The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe (Princeton, N.J.,
1978), p. 171.
17. Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform, op. cit., pp. 30 f.
18. ZSA Merseburg, Rep. 96A, No. 42A, f. 1.
19. Wilhelm Abel, Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft vom friihen
Mittelalter bis zum 19. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1967, 2nd edn), p. 107. Here Abel
refers to a peasant in the High Middle Ages.
20. StA Potsdam, Pr. Br. Rep. 2, Kurmarkische Kriegs- und Domanenkammer,
D 16374, f. 156.
21. Harnisch, Kapitalische Agrarreform, op. cit., pp. 305 f.
22. Gerhard Heitz, ‘Zu den bduerlichen Klassenkampfen im Spatfeudalismus’,
Zeitschrift ftir Geschichtswissenschaft, Vol. XXIII (1975), p. 771.
23. Friedrich Wilhelm Henning, Dienste und Abgaben der Bauern im 18.
Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1969) (Quellen und Forschungen zur Agrargeschichte, W.
Abel and G. Franz (eds.), Vol. XXI), pp. 166—7.
24. Ibid., p. 166.
25. StA Potsdam, Pr. Br. Rep. 32, Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium, No. 1533,
Pachtanschlag des Amtes Dambeck 1793-1802.
26. Figure 2.1 shows the growth in the prices of wheat and rye between 1766 and
1805 in Berlin and in the Uckermark (Groschen per 50 kg, annual averages). 24
Groschen = | Reichstaler = 16.7039 g. of fine silver.
The sources are as follows: For Berlin Jahrbuch fiir die amtliche Statistik des
Preussischen Staates, Vol. 2 (Berlin, 1867), p. 112; for the Uckermark, Staatsarchiv
Potsdam, Pr. Br. Rep. 2A, Regierung Preussen, I HG, No. 3635. In this latter
source the prices of rye from the clerical lands of the village of Briest on the markets
of Angermiinde, Prenzlau and Schwedt are given. Wheat was not sold.
27. Hartmut Harnisch and Gerhard Heitz, ‘Feudale Gutswirtschaft und
Bauernwirtschaft in den deutschen Territorien. Eine vergleichende Analyse unter
besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Marktproduktion’, in Large Estates and Small-
holdings in Europe in the Middle Ages and Modern Times (International Congress
of Economic Historians, Budapest, 1982), National Reports, p. 17.
28. The growth of some towns is demonstrated by the following figures:
Breslau (Wroclaw) 1710: 40,000
IME. ~~Sesh At)
1804/5: 69,005
Konigsberg (Kaliningrad) 1723: 39,475
1766: 46,621
1804/5: 60,701
Potsdam inpapke 2600
1780: 27,896
1804/5: 29,355
Stettin (Szczecin) 1720: 6081
1770: 13,990
1804/5: 23,469
Deutsches Stadtebuch. Handbuch stddtischer Geschichte, Vol. 1, Erich Keyser (ed.)
(Stuttgart, 1939). The figures for 1804/5 are from Karl Friedrich Wilhelm Dieterici,
Der Volkswohlstand im preussischen Staate (Berlin, 1846), p. 14. There was,
however, little change in the ratio of urban to rural populations. In the Prussiari
administrative districts more or less dominated by Gutsherrschaft (Kurmark,
Neumark, Pomerania, West Prussia, East Prussia, Netze) the urban population
made up 26.9 per cent of the general population in 1785 and 29.3 per cent in 1802.
Cf. Georg von Viebahn, Statistik des zollvereinten und nérdlichen Deutschland,
Vol. 1 (Berlin, 1858), pp. 115, 124. In Silesia the first reliable census giving the
numbers of both the urban and the rural populations was not undertaken until 1787.
In that year the urban population amounted to only 17.4 per cent (ZSA Merseburg,
Rep. 96, No. 249B, ff. 1-6), and in 1802 17.7 per cent (cf. Viebahn, op. cit.,
p. 124).
29. Cf. Hans-Heinrich Miller, Mérkische Landwirtschaft vor den
Agrarreformen von 1807 (Potsdam, 1967) (Ver6ffentlichungen des Bezirksheimats-
museums Potsdam, Vol. 13), pp. 108—10.
30. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Produktivkrafte und Produktionsverhdltnisse in der
Landwirtschaft der Magdeburger Borde von der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum
Beginn des Zuckerriibenanbaus in der Mitte der dreissiger Jahre des 19. Jahr-
hunderts’, in Landwirtschaft und Kapitalismus. Zur Entwicklung der 6konomischen
und sozialen Verhdltnisse in der Magdeburger Borde vom Ausgang des 18. Jahr-
hunderts bis zum Ende des ersten Weltkrieges, Vol. 1, Part I (Berlin, 1978)
(Veroffentlichungen zur Kulturgeschichte und Volkskunde, Vol. 66/1), p. 77.
31. Corpus Constitutionum Prussico-Brandenburgensium praecipue
Marchicarum, Vol. 9 (1798), No. LXXIX, co. 1173-776.
32. Rudolf Berthold, ‘Einige Bemerkungen iiber den Entwicklungsstand des
bauerlichen Ackerbaus vor den Agrarreformen des 19. Jahrhunderts’, in idem.,
Beitrdge zur deutschen Wirtschafts- und Sozialgeschichte des 18. und 19.
Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1962), pp. 81—131; Rudolf Berthold, ‘Entwicklungsten-
denzen der spatfeudalen Getreidewirtschaft in Deutschland’, in Bduerliche
Wirtschaft und landwirtschaftliche Produktion in Deutschland und Estland (16. bis
19. Jahrhundert), (Berlin, 1982), Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschaftsgeschichte (special
edition 1981), pp. 7-134.
33. Miiller, Madrkische Landwirtschaft, op. cit.
34. Cf. the examples in Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform, op. cit., pp. 55 f.
D 9818, Generalpachtanschlag des Amtes Gramzow, 1749-1755, ibid., D 9820,
1798-1810.
36. Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform, op. cit., p. 46.
37. StA Potsdam, Pr. Br. Rep. 7, Amt Ruppin, No. 115, Generalpachtanschlag
des Amtes Ruppin, 1798-1804.
38. Harnisch, Kapitalistische Agrarreform, op. cit., pp. 49 ff.
39. Ibid.
D 9944, f. 11.
41. Hanna Schissler, Preussische Agrargesellschaft im Wandel. Wirtschaftliche,
gesellschaftliche und politische Transformationsprozesse von 1763 bis 1847
Kritische Studien zur Geschichtswissenschaft, Vol. 33 (Géttingen, 1978), pp. 62 ff.
42. Cf. note 31.
43. Hartmut Harnisch, Die Herrschaft Boitzenburg, Untersuchungen zur
Entwicklung der sozialékonimischen Struktur ldndlicher Gebiete in der Mark
Brandenburg vom 14. bis zum 19, Jahrhundert Verdffentlichungen des
Staatsarchivs Potsdam, Friedrich Beck (ed.), Vol. 6 (Weimar, 1968), p. 215.
44, Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Die kapitalistischen Agrarreformen in den preussischen
Ostprovinzen und die Entwicklung der Landwirtschaft in den Jahrzehnten vor 1848.
Ein Beitrag zum Verhaltnis zwischen kapitalistischer Agrarentwicklung und Indus-
trieller Revolution’, in Bduerliche Wirtschaft und landwirtschaftliche Produktion in
Deutschland und Estland (16. bis 19. Jahrhundert) (Berlin, 1982), Jahrbuch fiir
Wirtschaftsgeschichte (special edn, 1981), pp. 135-253; also Harnisch,
Kapitalistische Agrarreform, op. cit., pp. 1-58.
45. Harnisch, ‘Produktivkrafte und Produktionsverhdltnisse in der
Landwirtschaft der Magdeburger Borde’, op. cit., pp. 151—2.
46. Cited from Ingrid Mittenzwei, Friedrich II. von Preussen. Eine Biographie
(Berlin, 1979), p. 157.
47. Corpus Constitutionum Prussico-Brandenburgensium praecipue Marchi-
carum, Vol. 5, 1776, No. XLVII, col. 335—6.
48. Ibid., cols. 335—6.
49. ZSA Merseburg, Rep. 96A, No. 20E.
50. Corpus Constitutionum Prussico-Brandenburgensium praecipue Marchi-
carum, Vol. 9 (1976), No. LXXVI, cols. 3295—400.
51. ZSA Merseburg, Rep. 96A, No. 118C, f. 3.
52. Ibid., Rep. 96A, A 20, 15 f.
53. Anon. [Magnus Freiherr von Bassewitz]. Die Kurmark Brandenburg, ihr
Zustand und ihre Verwaltung unmittelbar vor Ausbruch des franz6zsischen Krieges
im Oktober 1806. Von einem ehemaligen héheren Staatsbeamten (Leipzig, 1847),
p. 433.
54. Georg Friedrich Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung und der Ursprung der
Landarbeiter in den dlteren Theilen Preussens, Vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1887), p. 77.
55. Hartmut MHarnisch, ‘Die agrarpolitischen Reformmassnahmen der
preussischen Staatsftihrung in dem Jahrzehnt vor 1806/07’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirts-
chaftsgeschichte, 1977, Part III, pp. 129-53.
56 eibid--p. 151:
57. Jurgen Kuczynski, Vier Revolutionen der Produktivcrdfte. Theorie und
Verglieche (Berlin, 1975), pp. 67 ff.
58. Heinrich Scheel (ed.), Das Reformministerium Stein. Akten zur Verfassungs-
und Verwaltungsgeschichte aus den Jahren 1807/08 (Berlin, 1966), Vol. I Introduc-
tion.
59. R. Berthold, ‘Einige Bemerkungen iiber den Entwicklungsstand’, op. cit.;
Miller, Markische Landwirtschaft, op. cit.
3 THE JUNKERS’ FAITHLESS SERVANTS
Peasant Insubordination and the Breakdown of
Serfdom in Brandenburg-Prussia, 1763—1811
William W. Hagen
In July 1787 the Prussian government commanded that a Royal

Proclamation be read throughout the kingdom, ‘especially to the
lower orders [niedere Volks-Classen]’. ‘We are’, said Friedrich
Wilhelm II, ‘compelled to observe, with the highest displeasure,
that in recent times lawsuits and quarrels between landlords and
their subject villagers have greatly multiplied in many of Our pro-
vinces.” The common people ‘very frequently’ succumbed to an
‘unbridled passion for litigation’, no matter how hopeless their
case. Shady petition-writers (Winkel-Schriftsteller) forced their
services on the peasants, and on the ‘common burghers’ as well,
goading them into the courtroom. So too did other third parties,
who vented ‘hateful insinuations and stir up unfounded mistrust
towards higher authority’. The King menaced such troublemakers
with ‘one, two, or more years of prison’. He ordered the people to
present their complaints only to licensed attorneys, who must not
allow ‘laziness or fear of other people’ to subvert their obligation to
accept all admissible cases. Persons unable to pay lawyers’ fees
could have the nearest court take their testimony free of charge,
whereupon justice would promptly and fairly be done. Addressing
‘our loyal nobility’, the King reaffirmed his ‘well-founded con-
fidence’ that they would not make themselves guilty of ‘any illegal
oppression of Our subjects’.
But if any estate owner abuses his rights and jurisdictional

powers to harass his subject villagers unrightfully with demands
for labour services and fees beyond what they properly owe him;
or if he in any way encroaches upon their property or their prero-
gatives; or if he is guilty of other forbidden exactions or violent
mistreatment of his subjects; then not only will such wrongful
breach of Our trust in the nobility be punished by the laws of
71
72 The Junkers’ Faithless Servants
the land, but it will also incur special signs of Our deepest dis-
pleasure and disgrace at Our hands.!
The ‘lower orders’ must have relished hearing these words, how-
ever much they may have doubted their effect.
Friedrich Wilhelm’s proclamation paid unwilling tribute to the
gathering force of peasant unrest in late eighteenth-century
Brandenburg-Prussia. As this paper will show, the subject farmers’
resistance to new seigneurial demands upon them, like their efforts
to free themselves of long-endured feudal burdens, were aspects of
the rural landscape of old-regime Prussia to which contemporary
landlords and officials were far from blind. But the historical
literature, even when it does not ignore the question of peasant
turbulence, casts it only in a subordinate role in the larger drama
that Henri Brunschwig called the ‘crisis of the Prussian state’, and
that Giinter Vogler and Klaus Vetter have recently termed the
‘crisis of late-feudal society’.*
To some historians, this crisis was essentially political and insti-
tutional: the difficult passage from enlightened autocracy, which
expired with Friedrich II in 1786, across the time of troubles of the
French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, to the renewal of the
Prussian state under the domination of a reforming bureaucracy
after 1806. Accompanying this constitutional transformation was a
change in the reigning socio-economic world-view, from state-
regulated mercantilism to liberal individualism. It followed that the
reformers, once in power, would emancipate the peasantry and
promote capitalism in agriculture. What mattered, in the benign
gaze of Hintze and Meinecke as in the critical glare of Hans
Rosenberg, were ideological and social shifts within the Prussian
governing class, not rumblings in the villages, to which they paid no
attention at all.
Such narrowly political interpretations of the crisis and transcen-
dence of the pre-1806 old regime in Prussia are not typical of the
historical iiterature. Knapp’s exceptionally long-lived work of 1887
on the peasant emancipation in Prussia has led many broader inter-
pretations of the old regime to underscore, deploringly, the
eighteenth-century Junkers’ heightening exploitation of their sub-
ject peasants, who by 1807 had sunk to the status, as Knapp wrote,
of ‘an unhappy middle term between beast of burden and human
being’.* The estate-owning Junkers squeezed new profits, in the
form of heavier labour services and other seigneurial rents, from
The Junkers’ Faithless Servants 73
the peasantry. This thwarted the enlightened autocracy’s efforts to

invigorate the common people’s legal and cultural condition, and
so also their economic productivity, tax-paying ability, and
patriotism. In this perspective, which represents the view of such
able scholars as Brunschwig, Reinhardt Koselleck, Hanna Schissler
and Christoph Dipper, the crisis of the old regime possessed an
important socio-economic dimension. The absolutist system was
foundering both on the abuses and decadence of the manorial/serf
system in agriculture, and upon the failure of mercantilist indus-
trial programmes to absorb the labour of the rapidly increasing
landless villagers and propertyless towns-people.’ In the gathering
Malthusian gloom, only the Junker landlords profited from the
rapid rise in agricultural commodity prices at home and abroad in
the decades after 1763. But they did so, as the neoclassical
economic historians hold, ‘by accentuating the feudal dependence’
of the subject peasantry ‘rather than adapting the organisation of
their enterprises to ‘‘capitalist conditions’’.’®
In this historiographical setting, conflicts between manor house
and village, such as those that Friedrich Wilhelm II’s proclamation
of 1787 denounced, would seem to qualify for serious considera-
tion. Yet the stress that this analysis of the old regime lays on the
baleful powers of the Junkers — as landlords, local officials
(Landrdate) and military officers — has led some of its proponents
to conclude that the peasantry’s resistance to their seigneurial over-
lords was futile, and irrelevant to the resolution of the crisis.
Accordingly, village unrest and peasant protest make no appear-
ance in the influential arguments of Knapp, Otto Biisch and
Schissler.’? Brunschwig, Koselleck, and Dipper steer a different
course. They perceive an increasing turbulence of rural discontent,
but they interpret it as the peasantry’s desperate and ineffectual
reaction to old-fashioned seigneurial oppression. It was sympto-
matic of the crisis, and a part of its solution only to the degree that
the reform-minded among the governing class added peasant unrest
to their reasons for aiming to eradicate the old regime.
There is, finally, yet another way of construing the socio-
economic crisis. Acknowledging the political and institutional
obsolescence of the absolutist system, it emphasises the spread in
the eighteenth century of capitalist or proto-capitalist forms of pro-
duction. Merchants and other entrepreneurs built up networks of
rural cottage industries and pioneered centralised factory produc-
tion, especially in Berlin. In agriculture, profit-hungry
landlords, especially after 1763, enclosed their demesnes, adopted

improved crop rotations, and began to replace enforced with free
wage labour. Exploitative terms of employment, and a post-1763
conjuncture unfavourable to real wages, impoverished the workers
in these advanced spheres of the pre-1806 economy, which were
themselves embedded in the faltering late-feudal social order.®
From this perspective, the agrarian crisis was one of transition
rather than decadence. Its resolution demanded the liberation of
nascent capitalist production from feudal bonds, which in turn, as
the followers of Adam Smith in the propertied and governing
classes understood, required the peasants’ emancipation from serf-
dom. But what part did rural unrest play in the crisis of transition
before 1806? And how did peasant protest influence the form and
timing of the Prussian emancipation?
Johannes Ziekursch’s durable study of Silesia stresses the coinci-
dence, in the second half of the eighteenth century, of modernised
estate agriculture, Junker forays into textile and metallurgical pro-
duction, and steadily intensified, though harshly repressed, peasant
resistance to their landlords’ demands upon them. The villagers’
protests arose in defensive reaction to the estate owners’ exploita-
tive innovations, without succeeding in warding them off. The pro-
vincial bureaucracy and army stood on the Junkers’ side, thwarting
all enlightened reform. After 1806, the government in Berlin
imposed peasant emancipation on the province only after granting
extraordinary concessions to the landlords at the numerically pre-
ponderant lesser peasantry’s expense.?
Hartmut Harnisch weighs the importance of the Junkers’ agri-
cultural improvements more lightly than Ziekursch, but the conse-
quences of peasant protest more heavily. Analysing the govern-
ment’s efforts at agrarian reform in the decade before 1806, he
argues that widespread peasant resistance to old-fashioned com-
pulsory labour convinced progressive-minded officials that
property and labour relations, anticipating liberal capitalism, had
to supersede the old regime without delay. This was a precondition
not only of social peace in the countryside, but also of meeting the
Junkers’ clamorous demands for the unimpeded right to export
their grain crops. Without immediate productivity gains in estate
agriculture, such exports could only accelerate the rise in the
domestic price of bread, which was already, in the 1790s, beginning
to drive the landless villagers and urban poor into food riots. In
Harnisch’s view, then, peasant protest spurred the bureaucracy on
towards effecting the transition to capitalism in agriculture,’

especially considering that the substantial improvements the
government actually made in the tenures and rents of many
peasants on the royal demesnes during the years 1799 to 1805 only
heightened the discontent of the noble landlords’ subject farmers,
still chafing under the old regime.!°
Harnisch nevertheless holds that, in the Brandenburg-Prussia of
1806, ‘widespread dissolution of feudal relations of production’
had not yet begun, nor had ‘the level of development of the forces
of production in agriculture’ by itself yet made necessary the liqui-
dation of the old social order in the countryside.!! But Hans-
Heinrich Miiller’s study of farming in Brandenburg in the half-
century before 1807 shows that the Junkers had adopted the tech-
niques of the Western European agricultural revolution on a wide
scale. This went hand in hand with commutation of feudal labour
rents into cash rents. With this new income the landlords and
lessees of royal demesnes paid a growing force of manorial servants
and wage labourers, who worked the estate lands with teams and
equipment their employers had acquired for themselves, instead of
relying, as they had in the past, on those of their subject peasants.!?
Miiller does not dwell on the causes of these advances in techniques
and productivity, which historians as ideologically unrelated as
Robert Brenner, Jerome Blum and Douglass North would not
expect to find within a seigneurial order resting on extra-economic
coercion.!3 But Miiller suggests that the landlords’ and the royal
demesne tenants’ interest in fattened profits underlay their agro-
nomic experiments. He notes the frequency of peasant refractori-
ness under the unreformed manorial/serf system, but assigns it no
special motivating force.'*
Not so the dissertation of Kurt Wernicke, which stands alone in
his exclusive focus upon the East Elbian peasantry’s resistance to
their seigneurial overlords in the period 1648 to 1789.'° Without
weighing their representativeness, Wernicke adduces a mass of
examples of peasant self-defence, from shoddy labour to harvest
strikes and minor uprisings. He concludes that the hardships atten-
dant upon the landlords’ intensified production for the market
goaded the peasantry into increasingly widespread resistance.
Though usually ineffective in preventing a worsening of the pro-
testors’ conditions at their own pugnacious Junkers’ hands, such
resistance persuaded other landlords to substitute wage labour for
sullen servile corvées. Commuting labour services into cash
payments hastened the transition to capitalism, while the pervasive-

ness of peasant protest in the late eighteenth century convinced
enlightened officials and J/iterati that serfdom should be abolished
altogether. Wernicke’s study, impressionistic and speculative
though it is, has the virtue of suggesting that it was precisely
peasant resistance to heightened exploitation that led profit-minded
landlords to turn increasingly from feudal to wage labour. If we
grant, (as most of the authors discussed above do not), (1) that
important proto-capitalist innovations in estate agriculture
occurred before 1806, and (2) that peasant protest could effect real
change under the old regime, then Wernicke’s argument is worth
pursuing. It has, indeed, been advanced without further proof in
two widely-read surveys, one published in West Germany, the other
in the German Democratic Republic.'®
Wernicke’s analysis lacked quantitative underpinning, while his
denial of success to most local movements of peasant resistance
raises the question why the Junkers turned to commutation of
corvées and the employment of wage labour, rather than squeezing
heavier labour services and other rents from their defenceless
subject peasants. These defects are absent from a recent study of
the West Elbian Magdeburg region, to which Harnisch contributed
the analysis of the agrarian economy and rural social structure in
the period 1750 to 1835. Here, Harnisch argues, the peasantry’s
greater personal freedom and stoutly-defended strong tenurial
rights prevented the estate owners from raising rents. This forced
the improving landlords to hire wage labour, leaving the landed
peasants free themselves to profit from the agricultural conjuncture
of the decades before 1807. The peasantry’s successful self-defence
channelled the forces of production, on manor and farm alike, ina
gradual transition to capitalism in agriculture made smoother by a
peasant emancipation after 1807 preserving the landed peasantry’s
large arable holdings intact.'7 Harnisch holds that such a
favourable exit from the era of serfdom was denied the East Elbian
peasantry, poorer and legally weaker than their Magdeburg
counterparts.'® No doubt, the East Elbian Junkers’ subject
peasants paid them fuller compensation for emancipation than the
West Elbian landlords collected. Nevertheless, the present Chapter
will offer an example, drawn from East Elbian Brandenburg, of
successful peasant resistance to heightened seigneurial demands.
The analysis will show that, in the villages of the noble estate of
Stavenow, the subject farmers’ efforts at self-defence could indeed
shield them from degradation of their circumstances, while simul-’

taneously compelling improving landlords to intensify capital
investment and rely increasingly on wage labour.
This result demonstrates concretely the connection Wernicke
posited between peasant protest and capitalist development in
estate agriculture. But it contradicts his view, shared by Harnisch
and the other historians discussed above, that the East Elbian
peasantry — and especially the large majority among them with
limited tenurial rights — could not effectively resist the seigneurial
powers of landlords fully determined to heap new burdens on their
subjects’ backs.!° In its conclusion this paper will present some of
the grounds for regarding the case studied here as representative of
a far wider wave of East Elbian manor/Vvillage conflict in the half-
century after 1763. If the pattern that prevailed at Stavenow
reflected a fundamental trend in Brandenburg-Prussia, the crisis of
the old regime will appear in a different light. Peasant protest, no
longer only a symptom of the crisis of transition, will emerge as one
of its principal causes. The subject peasants will be seen to have
played a weighty part in their own emancipation.
Il
Stavenow lay near the River Elbe in the Prignitz district of

Brandenburg, north-west of Berlin (See Figures 3.1 and 3.2). In the
second half of the eighteenth century its four demesne farms,
including the home farm of the Stavenow manor house, had some
3300 acres under the plough. Its meadows and pastures spanned
1400 acres, and its forests another 1700 acres.” In seven villages the
Stavenow Junkers claimed labour services and other seigneurial
rents from 60 large and 25 small peasant farms. The largeholding
or full peasants (Vol/ibauern) owed the manor in a few cases two
but in most cases three days of weekly labour with a team of horses,
together with yearly corn rents, payable in bushels of rye, of
varying but mostly modest extent. The smallholders (known as
Kossdten) served three days weekly in manual labour, and the more
well-endowed with land among them also paid a not inconsiderable
corn rent.2! The Stavenow landlords levied rents in labour and cash
on other smaller villagers, but the full peasants’ and smallholders’
weekly manorial service (Hofdienst) was the jewel in their
seigneurial crown. It was by their subject farmers’ human
Figure 3.1: East Elbian Germany in the Late Eighteenth Century
ERO lay ee
North Se qd KONIGSBERE
Sea ADANZIG
Hors
ROS TIBINGineee
HAMBUR 5
CEE
HANNOVER Yi
MAGDEBURG
160
Ud Ke
ZB Lands of the Kingdom of Prussia
| Region enlarged in map 2
Figure 3.2: The Altmark and Mittelmark Districts of Brandenburg
PRENZLAU
STAVEN OW e
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UCKERMARK
HAVELBERG
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muscle and horsepower that the Junkers expected their broad ’

manorial fields to be cultivated and their harvests hauled to
market. In return the full peasants lived from the yields of their
own farms, which they occupied by hereditary tenure without the
right to mortgage or sell them (see note 19). These holdings, like
those of most other full peasants in Brandenburg, comprised some
75—85 acres of arable within an unenclosed three-field system,
together with shares of communally-held meadows, pastures and
woods. The smallholders’ lands lay separate from the full peasants’
and, though varying in size, amounted to no more than half of a
full holding.??
Stavenow was larger than most Junker properties but in other
respects, and especially in the manorial obligations of its subject
farmers, it was a typical Brandenburg estate. In 1717 it passed into
the hands of Lieutenant-Colonel Andreas Joachim von Kleist, a
career officer who nevertheless took an active interest in its manage-
ment until his death in 1738. For the next 20 years his widow ably
supervised the estate officials while raising to maturity 10 sons, nine
of whom joined the officer corps, and five daughters, all of whom
married advantageously. Following her death in 1758, in the midst
of the Seven Years’ War, her sons agreed that the estate should fall
undivided to one of their numbers, Major Friedrich Joachim von
Kleist. The Major, after retiring from the army, took command of
Stavenow in 1763. He and his brothers had accepted an appraisal
setting the net value of the estate’s fixed capital, demesne produc-
tion and seigneurial rights, including peasant rents, at 127,483 pre-
war Taler. The inheritance settlement praised Friedrich Joachim’s
willingness to take possession of Stavenow as a ‘brotherly deed’. So
it was, for the Major thereby assumed responsibility for paying out
at 5 per cent interest from Stavenow’s income and his own capital
each of his nine brothers’ 10 per cent shares in the estate. At their
mother’s death Stavenow was free of debt, but Friedrich Joachim
acquired it heavily mortgaged.”
Undaunted, he set out to improve the profitability of his patri-
mony. In this he followed the example of his parents, who had
raised the estate’s capitalised value from its purchase price in 1717
of 54,000 Taler to the 127,483 Taler the brothers agreed it was
worth in 1763. The gain had been largely real, not inflationary.
Average grain prices at Stavenow rose only slightly between 1717
and 1763, while the currency depreciated by only 17 per cent. The
elder Kleists had replaced at their two largest demesne farms the
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ancient three-field system with an 11-course rotation of grain crops *

and pasturage (Koppelwirtschaft) that dispensed altogether with
fallowing. They also settled a new village of eight full peasants and
eight smallholders on the long-uncultivated site of a village deserted
in the late Middle Ages. Here their gain lay not only in the
colonists’ labour services and rents, but in the acquisition of a new
demesne farm on the seigneurial share of the new village’s fields.
By these means they increased, between 1717 and 1763, the sum of
rye, barley and oats sown annually by 60 per cent (see Table 3.1).
Having also improved their pasturage, they could expand their
dairy herd by more than half and thus, since dairy prices rose by a
quarter in the period, they doubled their income from this impor-
tant branch of stock-raising alone.”
The cash accounts of the Stavenow estate survive from eight of
the years between 1746 and 1759. They show that, on average,
cereal cultivation, stock-raising and peasant rents and other seig-
neurial levies produced a gross yearly income of 5717 Taler. But the
annual sum of labour and production costs averaged 1764 Taler, or
31 per cent of income.*> Under this heading fell the wages in cash
and kind as well as the boarding costs of more than 30 regularly
employed estate officials, foremen and manorial farm servants.
Here too were reckoned the estate’s payments in cash and kind to
seasonally hired threshers and day labourers, as well as the
expenses of seed, livestock, hardware and the 28 draught horses
kept for work on the demesne fields. Altogether, wages of all kinds
each year cost the estate 1236 Taler, while other operating expenses
averaged 528 Taler, of which 313 Taler were spent on the
seigneurial draught horses alone.
How did Stavenow’s wages bill and production costs compare
with the value to the estate of the subject peasants’ labour services
and other rents? From the beginning of the eighteenth century,
nearly all the full peasants faced the choice of serving three days
weekly or paying a yearly commutation rent (Dienstgeld) of 20
Taler. Most served two days and paid 6.66 Taler for the third day.
But in the appraisal of 1760/63, the Kleists agreed that, together
with the commutation payments, the labour services were worth
only 15 Taler a year, ‘because there are many deficiencies’ in their
performance.?® Combining this scaled-down assessment of the
labour services with the market value in 1763 of the subject
farmers’ corn rents produces a sum of 1556 Taler, representing the
monetarised equivalent of the landed peasantry’s principal
obligations to their landlords. This credit was almost exactly offset

by the average debit of 1549 Taler the estate actually expended in
the 1740s and 1750s on wages and manorial teams. In effect, what
the Kleists gained in servile dues they spent again on operating
costs.
The appraisal of 1760/63 acknowleded this unsatisfactory state
of affairs in its estimate of Stavenow’s marketable grain surplus.
An 11-year average produced seed yield ratios of no more than
1:3.5 for rye and oats, and 1:4 for barley. Reserving ‘one kernel’ as
seed for the next sowing left only one for sale, since wage payments
in cash were high, while the grain consumed by the manorial offi-
cials and farm servants and as fodder amounted alone to a full
kernel. Consequently, the rule of thumb that one kernel repre-
sented seed corn, one kernel operating costs, and the remainder
profit did not apply.?’ In other words, Stavenow’s wages bill and
operating expenses were more than half again higher than they
should have been. No wonder that Major von Kleist, as he sought
to pay his debts and raise his revenues, was tempted to correct the
‘deficiencies’ of his subject farmers’ labour services. To satisfy his
brothers’ most pressing financial claims and to bring new land
under the plough, he began clearing part of the Stavenow forest
and selling the timber. In 1766 he commanded his full peasants to
haul the wood to the Elbe, 15 miles distant, during their regular
weekly manorial service. The farmers refused, charging Kleist with
an illegal innovation that would exhaust their horses.”8
So began an embittered, sporadically violent conflict between the
Major and his subject peasants that soon widened into a dispute
encompassing virtually the whole range of his claims upon their
labour and obedience. At first Kleist tried to enforce his will
through his seigneurial court, which ruled in 1766 against the
peasants. But still they refused to comply, despite court-ordered
impoundment of the ‘ringleader’s’ horses, short-term imprison-
ments at the Stavenow jail, and beatings, some of which the
peasants later charged Kleist with having illegally ordered before
the seigneurial court pronounced sentence.”? His extra-economic
coercive powers having failed him, Kleist appealed to the High
Court of Brandenburg (Kammergericht) in Berlin. The peasants
hired a lawyer and a series of lawsuits adjudicated in the royal
courts ensued that lasted until 1797. During these 30 years of litiga-
tion, the subject farmers refused — for the most part successfully,
though often illegally — to carry out the new tasks Kleist sought to
impose upon them.

The most important of the strictly economic points he tried to
gain in his long struggle with his subjects added up to a dangerous
assault. Had he carried the day, it would have shifted many heavy
costs of the expanding manorial economy at Stavenow onto the
peasantry’s shoulders. Because the peasants’ labour service com-
mutation fees were fixed by long usage, while the value of pay-
ments in kind to manorial servants and the cost of horsepower were
steadily rising, Kleist tried to abolish commutation payments and
so compel the farmers actually to serve the three full days. Custom
permitted service with a team to be performed by a farmer’s son or
servant alone, except in ploughing and manure-hauling, when two
workers were needed. But Kleist demanded the farmer report in
person, together with his son or servant, on all days of manorial
service. Formerly, the full peasants had served no more than five
full days during the manorial rye harvest. Now, as Stavenow’s
arable expanded, Kleist tried to extend their harvest obligation,
without relaxing his demands on them at other seasons. On the
contrary, he sought to lengthen the working day and eliminate their
slow-footed malingering. ‘The peasant’, Kleist sermonised, ‘does
nothing from love or virtue, at least not in manorial service’ .*°
Kleist struggled above all to widen his claims on the full peasants’
horsepower so as to reduce his heavy expenditures on manorial
teams and occasional hired carters. He tried unrelentingly to
increase the number and distance of the peasants’ transports of
manorial grain, while pressing new cartage on them in connection
with his building projects. For other jobs he ordered them to report
for work with larger than customary wagons. He even goaded the
cottagers into a lawsuit against him by raising new demands on
their modest teams.?! As the conflict wore on, both sides grew more
intransigent and radical in their objectives. Kleist’s efforts to force
long-distance lumber haulage on the peasants stood at centre stage
until 1771. By then he had gained three decisions in his favour in
the Kammergericht, which ordered the peasants to perform the
hauls pending their successive appeals. Yet they consistently
baulked, despite the jailing of their leaders for terms of several
weeks in 1769 and again in 1771. But then, later in 1771, the Royal
Court of Appeal (Ober-Appellations-Gericht), the final legal power
above the Kammergericht, ruled definitively against Major von
Kleist.*?
This last-ditch victory of the peasants, which Kleist called
‘miraculous’, stiffened their resistance to his demands for new

grain cartage, construction. work haulage, and harvest labour.’
This led the Kammergericht in 1775 to despatch a mediator to
Stavenow, whose job was to negotiate a comprehensive settlement.
The peasants proving refractory, the court pronounced a compro-
mise by fiat, but the peasants ignored it. In 1777, the
Kammergericht could offer Kleist no more support than the advice
that he should hire additional police officials, and himself enforce
its rulings. But Kleist’s judge replied, in a proposal that enforce-
ment be entrusted to the Prignitz sheriff (Landreiter):
It does no good to try to hold these stormy people to their obliga-

tions by imprisoning them [at Stavenow]. They just sit in jail for
a while, letting their farms go to ruin, and then they carry on
with their insubordination as before. And there is no end of this
in sight.*4
In 1785, Kleist was still complaining that the full peasants

refused the long-distance grain hauls long since ruled enforceable
by the Kammergericht. Moreover, when in 1780 he ordered them to
pay the labour costs of building a new barn for one of the village
sextons, they declined, pleading poverty, but more likely in order to
flout his powers of church patronage. Another lawsuit flared up
during which, in the years 1781—85, the full peasants withheld pay-
ment of their labour service commutation fees, depriving Kleist of
an income of more than 1000 Taler (although the arrears were later
paid).*> He tried to quell this rent strike by clapping three of its
leaders in irons. But they broke out of the ramshackle Stavenow
dungeon and rode to Berlin, delivering the irons to the
Kammergericht. While the High Court later ruled that Kleist had
incarcerated his subjects without a proper court order, it proceeded
itself to sentence the escapees to brief jail terms for their flight.2¢
The Stavenow farmers’ refusal to pay the old-established labour
service commutation fee suggests that, after 20 years of defiance,
they had decided to take the offensive with the aim of reducing the
rents they had paid before 1763. Thus, by the early 1780s Kleist’s
relations with his peasants had escalated into a duel of litigation in
which both combatants sought to alter the pre-existing system of
rents and labour services in their own favour.
In these same years, a rising flood of manor/village lawsuits and
sporadic local uprisings was engulfing the Silesian countryside. In
1783 Friedrich II ordered the provincial bureaucracy to draw up “

registers (Urbaria) for each seigneurial jurisdiction, in which all
peasant labours and rents, together with the Junkers’ obligations
towards their subjects, were to be unambiguously fixed once and
for all. In 1784 he extended this policy to Brandenburg ‘to prevent
and redress the numerous lawsuits and grievances between land-
lords and their subjects’.*”7 The Stavenow farmers immediately
petitioned the government for an Urbarium, goading Kleist to write
an irritated letter to the Crown.
Since the subject farmers’ labour services and dues are already
fixed, and old estate registers exist in which they are written
down, the peasants’ only motive in calling for an Urbarium was
to gain advantages for themselves in the course of its formula-
tion, in which, however, they will not succeed.
Kleist himself had decided not to oppose the Urbarium, ‘only to

avoid drawing upon myself the suspicion that I had set myself
against a policy Your Royal Majesty intends to carry out’.*® In
1790, six years after its appointment, the Stavenow Urbarium com-
mission completed its work. In 191 paragraphs it had defined the
reciprocal obligations of village and estate ‘for all time’. But
neither Kleist nor the peasants accepted all the commission’s for-
mulations. In 1797 the Kammergericht pronounced judgment on
the disputed points, compelling both parties finally to sign the
revised Urbarium into law. The armistice so concluded survived
Kleist’s death in 1803, though not for long.*®
The Urbarium l\aid to rest the angry disputes sparked by Kleist’s
efforts to intensify his subject farmers’ labour services. It fixed
their hours of work at the manor, defining the extent of a day’s
labour at their various jobs in the fields. It regulated minutely the
vexed question of cartage, specifying what goods they were obliged
to haul, the size of the loads, the distance and frequency of the
transports, and the time off in lieu from regular manorial service
they accrued in making long hauls. These were terms the peasants
could accept because they upheld the principle that their regular
manorial service should not consume more than two full work days
a week, while allowing them, as before, to commute the third day’s
labour into cash at the rate set at the beginning of the century. The
peasants had, it is true, tried during the negotiations to shake off
the obligation to serve or, alternatively, to pay for the third day.
But Kleist’s ancient legal claims were too strong and his subjects
had to concede defeat in their strike of 1781—85 against the third
day’s commutation fee. To the Major this signified merely the
restoration of order. The Urbarium had improved within limits his
exploitation of his farmers’ horsepower, but not in the form of the
rent increase he had tried to impose since the 1760s. Instead, he was
obliged to trade one claim on his subjects’ regular manorial service
for another, while translating his demand for unlimited service in
construction work and harvesting into four and five days, respec-
tively, of yearly service.
Worse still, the Urbarium compelled Kleist to ackowledge that
his village adversaries’ labour services and dues were now perma-
nently fixed. He had striven to escape this conclusion by insisting
during the negotiations that, while the rents of his present tenants
and their heirs might not be raised, he had the right to set the obli-
gations of new tenants taking over one of the farms in the villages
covered by the Urbarium as high as he chose. To make such an
eventuality more likely, Kleist also sought to strengthen his right to
evict his present tenants. At Stavenow this had been a very rare
procedure, which required proof of incompetence (liederliche
Wirtschaft), demonstrated by a subject farmer’s incapacity under
normal circumstances to render his dues and services and support
his household. A farmer facing eviction (Exmission) could appeal
against it to a higher court, requiring his landlord to await its
verdict on the correctness of the seigneurial court’s judgment
before vacating the farm. Kleist now claimed the power of eviction
in advance of the appeal, so cancelling the right of succession of the
deposed farmer’s children and collateral heirs and freeing him to
settle a new peasant at a new level of rent. In these proposals,
Kleist aimed to undermine his subjects’ hereditary tenures, the legal
source of their powers of resistance to his seigneurial will. By a
piecemeal policy of eviction he could replace his refractory
peasants with a degraded tenantry, nullifying the Urbarium in the
process. Inevitably, the Kammergericht threw Kleist’s aggressive
initiatives out of court. But that he launched them at all measures
his failure since 1763 to have his way with his subjects.
il
The Major’s economic stewardship of the Stavenow estate was

nevertheless strikingly successful. After his death in 1803 his surviv-

ing brothers decided, after several years of legal wrangling with his
widow, to sell the estate, since they could not afford to assert their
right to buy out her claims and keep Stavenow themselves. In 1808
the influential, though soon to be toppled, minister of state and
director of the corporate nobility of Brandenburg, Baron Otto Carl
Friedrich von Voss, agreed to purchase the estate, taking it under
his direct administration in the summer 1809. This acquisition cost
him 280,855 Taler, Stavenow’s capitalised value as assessed in
1808. This sum represented an increase, at constant currency
values, of 120 per cent since 1763.4!
The appraisal of 1808 surveyed the estate as Kleist left it. In the
decades after 1763 he had separated his two still-unenclosed
demesne farms from the three-field system in which they had been
cultivated together with peasant land. He then adopted improved
rotations on all his arable, and so raised his average yields of rye
and oats, his main crops, by 40 per cent and more on his better
soils. He increased his annual sowings by nearly three-quarters, in
response to a price rise registered in the Stavenow appraisals of
1763 and 1808 at 41 per cent for rye, 25 per cent for barley and 180
per cent for oats.*! Higher yields, heavier sowings and rising prices
combined to multiply the estate’s average net profit from cereal
cultivation, the source of half the estate’s annual earnings, nearly
sixfold, from 1266 to 7133 Taler. Not content with this, Kleist built
up his brewery and distillery to the point where, if grain prices
sagged, he could sell as much as one-third of his rye and barley as
beer and schnaps.
Because of rising livestock prices, Kleist’s net profits on his size-
able, but numerically stable herds of dairy cattle and sheep rose
nearly 60 per cent between 1763 and 1808. He could have earned
more from stock-raising if he had not supplemented the 28 work
horses the estate had kept since before 1763 with 26 plough oxen.”
This was a heavy production cost forced upon him by his full
peasants’ refusal to expend more of their horsepower in manorial
service. From 1763 the estate employed eight men to drive and tend
the horses at the four demesne farms. But three new manorial farm
servants were needed to work the oxen, while Kleist’s expanded
cereal production required him to hire two new field foremen
(Statthdlter) as well. By 1809, among the 54 employees on the pay-
roll of the four demesne farms there were 3 bailiffs, 3 foremen, 13
drivers and ploughmen, 7 animal herdsmen, 6 female farm
servants, 3 dairymen working with hired hands, a forester with 2

assistants, a brewer, a gardener and a hunter. In 1808/9 the cost to
the landlord of this labour force included large quantities of the
estate’s produce and a separate herd of 30 dairy cows for the
workers’ and manorial kitchens. Beyond this, the estate paid out
wages of nearly 1350 Taler annually, payments in grain worth 434
Taler, and many other types of wages in kind.“ Kleist’s total wages
bill at the beginning of the nineteenth century cannot be precisely
quantified. In cash and grain allotments alone, it doubled during
his years at Stavenow. But the points to stress here are, first, that
rising production costs, including wages, did not prevent him from
doubling the estate’s average annual profits and so also its market
value. Second, his investments in draught animals and the wages of
permanent manorial workers resulted in large measure from his
failure to press the full peasantry more completely into his service.
Third, these investments having once been made, the operation of
the demesne farms became more self-sufficient.
To meet his need for labour, Kleist not only hired new super-
visors and manorial workers, he also greatly increased his supply of
seasonal manual labour by adding seven new families of freely con-
tracted day-labourers (Tage/dhner) to the eight households already
settled at Stavenow in 1763.* In the winter these workers threshed,
against payment in shares, the Major’s ever-heavier harvests. At
other seasons they did, among other tasks, the work the full
peasants and smallholders absolved, against Kleist’s will, through
commutation payments. The day-labourers were also needed in the
increasing harvest work that he had initially tried to add to his
subject farmers’ manorial service. In 1763, the day-labourers paid a
yearly cash rent for their houses, gardens and grazing rights,
averaging 9.5 Taler per household. They also all rendered the
manor six days of unpaid harvest work. Beyond that, the Stavenow
estate had first call on their labour, which it hired for cash and/or
wages in kind. But Kleist drastically rewrote their contracts, so that
by 1808 they each owed 5 Taler yearly for garden land and grazing,
but instead of paying house rents they each performed 65 days of
compulsory unpaid labour (excluding threshing, ploughing and
other heavy work). At a minor loss of cash income, Kleist had
increased his annual supply of unpaid manual labour from 48 to
975 days.
Paradoxically, then, he had been more successful in wringing
advantages for himself from his day labourers than from his
subject peasants, although the cost to him of freely contracted’

labour was still substantial. But, if this outcome advanced the self-
sufficiency of the manorial economy, neither Kleist nor his succes-
sor Voss wished to lose the full peasants’ obligatory service with
teams of horses. Between 1763 and 1803 the assessed value of the
Stavenow full peasants’ yearly manorial service rose by two-thirds,
reflecting the rising market price of horsepower in those years. For
this reason above all, the appraisal of 1808 registered the peasants’
compulsory labour at a sum representing 14 per cent of the estate’s
yearly net profit. Yet in 1763 this figure had stood at 21 per cent.
The declining importance of non-wage labour to the estate’s
mounting profitability meant that Kleist, by his capital investments
and ever greater reliance on freely-contracted labour, had brought
the manorial economy to the threshold of full-scale capitalist pro-
duction techniques by the eve of the Prussian peasant emancipa-
tion. His subject peasants’ refractoriness, no less than this search
for profit, pushed him in this direction.*”
To complete the transition, it was necessary to break the
Stavenow landlords’ lingering dependence on their full peasants’
horsepower. This was a blow the peasants themselves soon struck.
In the summer of 1808 they stopped rendering labour services and
dues, pleading economic exhaustion resulting from the requisition
of horses and other exactions of the war of 1806 and the French
occupation of Brandenburg that followed. The Kammergericht
ruled against the peasants, but they refused to comply. In mid-1809
Voss offered to accept commutation fees for all labour service for a
period of one year. Unmollified, in December his subjects sent
deputies to the town of Pritzwalk, where they joined representa-
tives of many other villages in proclaiming a rent strike throughout
the Prignitz.“® Bassewitz, at the time a high Brandenburg official,
later wrote that the local authorities (Kreis-Direktorium), by
unspecified means, peacefully contained this movement.” At
Stavenow, the threat of military quartering forced the peasants of
one striking village back to manorial service in 1810, but the next
year they began paying full commutation fees instead, as the other
striking villages had formally agreed to do in 1810. In fact, the two
Stavenow villages with the largest numbers of full peasants paid
nothing between 1808 and 1817/18, paying off their arrears only
after they had negotiated with Voss the terms of the emancipation
at Stavenow.°° For most of the Stavenow peasants, the centuries-
old era of labour services at the manor — the heaviest burden of
serfdom — ended in 1808. This happened in spite of the protests of

Voss and his head bailiff, who recognised that a full commutation
fee of 20 Taler, even if actually paid, was no substitute for a full
peasant’s labour.*! After the publication of the Regulation Law of
14 September 1811, which allowed the peasantry of Brandenburg-
Prussia to acquire their farms in freehold and liquidate all feudal
rents upon payment of compensation to their landlords, ‘the dispo-
sition to want to be free’, as Voss’s bailiff wrote to him, ‘is mani-
festing itself everywhere’.*? The Stavenow farmers petitioned for
regulation, and in 1812 Voss opened the negotiations.
By 1820 nearly all of Voss’s peasants had bought themselves out.
A detailed analysis of the negotiations would require a separate
essay. Here it suffices to say that, while some full peasants and
smallholders paid Voss his compensation in cash, most surrendered
a quarter or a third of their farmland to him. All peasants with
arable holdings of any size gained freeholds. Despite land cessions,
the full peasants emerged from the regulation process with farms of
60 acres and more, and the better-off smallholders with 25 acres of
arable and some meadowland and pasturage as well. These were
holdings capable of self-sufficiency. If some had shrunk in size, they
had also been shorn of one-third of their pre-regulation tax burden
and they no longer needed to reserve part of their manpower and
horsepower for labour at the manor. There is no evidence that the
Stavenow peasants believed they could throw off their old obliga-
tions at no cost to themselves. No doubt the Junkers’ claims to com-
pensation were shabby. The social and political costs of the enlarge-
ment of their estates during and after the peasant emancipation rose
steadily to 1945. Yet the compensation the peasants paid did not
ruin them. On the contrary, at Stavenow the regulated farmers
gained from the emancipation personal freedom and self-sufficient
landholdings of indubitable value.*3
IV
How representative of manor/village relations throughout Bran-

denburg-Prussia was the final half-century of serfdom at
Stavenow? In the Prignitz district the frequency of lawsuits over
labour services and communal usages within the three-field system
led the corporate nobility (Ritterschaft) as early as 1754 to petition
Friedrich II for permission to separate and enclose their lands
unilaterally, whether the peasants agreed or not. The king assented,

and by 1810 virtually all the private estates and royal demesnes in
the Prignitz had withdrawn from the three-field system, a process
normally accompanied by adoption of fallow-free cereal pasturage
rotations and division of ancient grazing commons between manor
and village.** Some of the Prignitz nobility subverted Friedrich II’s
colonisation programme by settling day labourers as small-scale
cottagers (Buidner) on ancient deserted peasant holdings, illegally
incorporating most of the land intended for full peasant colonisa-
tion into their demesne farms.°*> In 1765, and again in 1770, the cor-
porate nobility sought to degrade the tenures of the numerous
Prignitz peasants who possessed full property in their holdings,
arguing unsuccessfully for a redefinition of the common law before
the Justice Ministry.*®
Despite such seigneurial aggressiveness, the Prignitz peasantry, as
at Stavenow, held their ground. In the second half of the eighteenth
century many were financially strong enough to pay half or full
labour service commutation fees. Others petitioned for Urbaria,
ensnaring their Junkers in lengthy negotiations and lawsuits.*’ After
the Thirty Years’ War, and again at the beginning of the eighteenth
century, the Prignitz peasantry had organised regional strikes
against seigneurial efforts to exact heavier feudal rents.** The move-
ment of 1809-10, which in all probability produced a widespread
conversion of labour services into full commutation fees, offers
more evidence that the Stavenow peasants’ refractoriness was a
regional trait. Among its results, again as at Stavenow, was
increased hiring of freely-contracted labour on the noble estates.
Between 1725 and 1801 the rural population of the Prignitz
doubled, while the number of peasant holdings, excluding small-
holders, remained roughly constant. In the same years the ranks of
landless labourers, dependent primarily on the large estates for hire,
swelled sixfold.°® Finally, like their brethren at Stavenow, the
Prignitz peasants petitioned promptly for regulation under the law
of 1811. Harnisch found that liquidation of compensation obliga-
tions in lump-sum cash settlements — a measure of peasant credit-
worthiness, if not of savings — occurred ‘to an astonishing degree’
both in the Prignitz and the neighbouring district of Ruppin.®
Elsewhere in Brandenburg the Junkers were also busy after 1763
improving their estates. By the year 1800 an unenclosed demesne
farm was becoming a rarity and the employment of wage labour
was widespread, either in place of commuted peasant manorial
services or, as at Stavenow, ‘as a supplement to the peasants’ old-

established duties.®' Of Silesia, Ziekursch wrote that the landlords’
‘own draught teams, their life-long manorial servants, and the day
labourers settled on the estates’ gave the noble demesne farms at
the beginning of the nineteenth century ‘a thoroughly modern
stamp’.” In East Prussia, the Junkers commuted labour services
into cash and turned to wage labour on a large scale. In
Pomerania, too, the Junkers enclosed and rationalised their
estates.“ Even in such regions as the Uckermark in Brandenburg,
where peasant tenures were very weak and labour services were,
according to local custom, unlimited and therefore redifinable at
the Junkers’ will, the landlords separated their holdings from their
peasants’ fields and worked them increasingly with hired labour.®
No doubt many Junkers clung to the old-fashioned system of un-
enclosed demesnes worked as exclusively as possible by their sub-
ject peasants.© Yet the historical literature supports the conclusion
that throughout the East Elbian provinces the agronomic improve-
ments, the move to wage labour and the capital investment charac-
teristic of Stavenow represented the dominant trend of estate agri-
culture in the years after 1763, if not before. As at Stavenow, so
elsewhere the transformation of manorial production occurred
amidst a rising clamour of conflict between peasants and lords over
labour dues and other seigneurial rents. The topography of this
antagonism remains to be drawn precisely, but its pervasiveness,
especially in Brandenburg and Silesia, is well attested in the litera-
ture from which this Chapter has drawn.
It is revealing that in 1787 Friedrich Wilhelm II, soon after
ascending the throne, attempted to halt the work of Friedrich II’s
Urbarium commission, saying that its creation ‘has led a good part
of the peasantry to the wild delusion [irrigen Wahn] that the
Departed Royal Majesty intended by it to abolish manorial labour
services.” False as this was, an open announcement that the
Urbarium commission was to cease work would cause the
peasantry to become ‘very ill-humoured, because they would think
themselves robbed of the hope of exemption from labour service.’
Accordingly, the Urbarium programme should simply be quietly
shelved. But the king’s ministers Hoym and Danckelmann soon
persuaded him to rescind his decision, in all likelihood because the
Urbaria seemed precisely the best way to restrain the peasants’ ill-
humour.”
After the military defeat of 1806, peasant protest pushed the
government further down the path of peasant emancipation upon

which Stein’s ministry had taken the first steps in 1807. Rent strikes
of serious proportions broke out in Silesia in 1808, and again in
1811. In November 1809 the Governor (Oberprisident) of
Brandenburg, returning from a tour of his province and of neigh-
bouring Pomerania, advocated rapid abolition of labour services,
‘for they are performed extremely badly and unwillingly’.
Already in 1807 the East Prussian corporate nobility described their
subject peasants as ‘restless’. In 1813 the official in charge of
peasant regulation in Pomerania rejected the idea, aired in con-
servative circles, that the nobility should not be forced to negotiate
a liquidation of feudal rents against their will. The peasants were
‘pressing mightily for the speediest regulation possible’. The farmer
under arms in the war against Napoleon might, upon his return, fix
his weapons upon ‘the enemy of his bliss [Gliickseligkeit]’ at
home.” In December 1812 the peasant deputies in the government’s
consultative assembly composed a denunciation of seigneurial
abuses exclaiming that, ‘exposed to such illegal treatment, the
peasantry’s hatred of the estate owners has grown extraordinarily,
indeed has now become almost universal.’7!
The extent of peasant turbulence after 1806, like its influence on
the political history of the emancipation, should not be exagge-
rated, although both questions deserve further study. It was
probably no less important that the Junkers resigned themselves as
readily as they did to the loss of the compulsory labour, and
especially of the horsepower, of their peasant subjects. Klaus
Vetter has shown that, in the Landtag assemblies of 1809, the cor-
porate nobility of Brandenburg voiced no principled opposition to
the abolition of the full peasants’ feudal rents and the conversion
of their farms into freeholds. What interested the Brandenburg
Junkers was the sum of their compensation for surrendering their
seigneurial privileges.”” As the landlords’ ability to compel the full
peasants actually and conscientiously to perform their weekly
labour services weakened, their claims to those services diminished
in value. For the peasants’ commutation fees were fixed by custom
or even, as at Stavenow, by urbarial law at rates far below the
actual cost of the commuted work. Because a full peasant at
Stavenow had for a century exercised the option of paying 20 Taler
yearly in place of his three days of weekly manorial service, the
estate appraisal of 1808 could rate the value of all his dues and rents
no higher than 28.5 Taler. But in 1814-15 Voss and his legal
counsel reckoned that a freely contracted day’s labour with a team

of horses cost 4 a Taler. To replace a full peasant’s weekly obliga-
tion alone would, accordingly, require a yearly outlay of 78 Taler,
nearly four times the commutation fee.”3
If the Junkers gained little more from the full peasants than the
commutation payment, it was better to exchange their seigneurial
claims for compensation in cash and/or land as they did after
1811.74 Here is perhaps the best measure of the significance of the
peasantry’s resistance to new seigneurial demands on their labour
in the half-century after 1763. By holding their ground (or giving
away as little as possible) the peasants forced the Junkers to foot
the bill of expanding their demesne production. The result at
estates like Stavenow was that non-wage labour became an econo-
mic asset of rapidly shrinking worth. When, after 1806, political
circumstances and, here and there, peasant protest compelled its
abolition, the improving landlords among the Junkers needed only
to increase the numbers of manorial draught horses and freely con-
tracted workers they had already been obliged to employ before the
end of serfdom.” At the same time, the peasants’ defence of their
farms against new burdens of seigneurial rent secured the economic
margin that enabled them to pay commutation fees. No less
important, they had money to spare for the legal fees they incurred
in their courtroom duels with the Junkers.
In the summer of 1809, when Baron von Voss ceremonially took
possession of Stavenow, his assembled subjects swore the ancient
oath to be ‘faithful, obedient, and subject’ to him, whereupon he
treated them to drinks.”* A few months later, in December, they
banded against him in a regional peasant movement. Voss
demanded that they return the next spring to actual performance of
manorial service. When the time came, they did not report for
work. In June 1810 Voss’s bailiff, appealing in court for police
action against them, declared that Voss had ordered him to do so,
‘especially since since leniency only strengthens their unruliness
|Widerspenstigkeit|, which by now has become second nature to
them.’””
Notes
The research underpinning this Chapter was supported by grants from the
University of California, Davis, from the National Endowment for the Humanities,
and especially, from the Humboldt-Stiftung. To these organisations, and to the’

helpful staff of the Geheimes Staatsarchiv in West Berlin, I extend my thanks.
1. ‘Publicandum, wegen Bestraffung der muthwilligen Querulanten’, 12 July

1787, Novum Corpus Constitutionum Prussico-Brandenburgensium, Vol. VIII
(1791), No. LXXV, 1497-1508.
2. Henri Brunschwig, La crise de l’état prussien et la génése de la mentalité
romantique (Paris, 1947); Giinter Vogler and Klaus Vetter, Preussen. Von den
Anfdangen bis zur Reichsgriindung (Berlin, 1979), p. 97.
3. Otto Hintze, Die Hohenzollern und Ihr Werk (Berlin, 1916), Ch. 8; idem.,
“Preussische Reformbestrebungen vor 1806’, in Regierung und Verwaltung
(G6ttingen, 1967); Friedrich Meinecke, Das Zeitalter der deutschen Erhebung
1795—1815 (Leipzig, 1906), Ch. 2; Hans Rosenberg, Bureaucracy, Aristocracy, and
Autocracy. The Prussian Experience 1660—1815 (Boston, 1966), Chs. 8—9. In his
Geschichte der deutschen Agrarverfassung (Stuttgart, 1963), Friedrich Liitge offers
a political interpretation that dispenses with the concept of crisis: after 1807 the
Prussian state abolished the eighteenth-century regime of Junker manors worked by
servile peasants because it conflicted with the bureaucracy’s and progressive land-
lords’ notions of economic rationality. High above the peasantry’s head, one
‘agrarian constitution’ eclipsed another. See pp. 175-9.
4. Georg Friedrich Knapp, Die Bauernfreiung und der Ursprung der
Landarbeiter in den dlteren Theilen Preussens, (Munich and Leipzig, 1927, 2nd
edn) =15773
5. Brunschwig, op. cit., Ch. 7. Reinhardt Kosselleck, Preussen zwischen Reform
und Revolution (Stuttgart, 1967), pp. 78—142; Hanna Schissler, Preussische Agrar-
gesellschaft im Wandel (Gottingen, 1978), pp. 89—82; idem., ‘Die Junker: Zur
Sozialgeschichte und historischen Bedeutung der agrarischen Elite in Preussen’, in
Hans-Jiirgen Puhle and Hans-Ulrich Wehler (eds.), Preussen im Rtickblick
(Géttingen, 1980), pp. 98—104; Christoph Dipper, Die Bauernbefreiung in
Deutschland 1790—1850 (Stuttgart, 1980), Ch. 1.
6. Knut Borchardt, ‘Germany 1700-1914’, in Carlo M. Cipolla (ed.), The
Fontana Economic History of Europe (London, 1973), Vol. 4:1, pp. 85.
Borchardt’s judgement is shared by Wilhelm Abel, Geschichte der deutschen Lana-
wirtschaft (Stuttgart, 1962), pp. 308 ff; Friedrich-Wilhelm Henning, Dienste und
Abgaben der Bauern im 18. Jahrhundert (Stuttgart, 1969), pp. 169 ff; Robert A.
Dickler, ‘Organization and Change in Productivity in Eastern Prussia’, in William
N. Parker and Eric L. Jones, (eds.), European Peasants and Their Markets
(Princeton, N.J., 1975), pp. 269-92. Fritz Martiny’s influential work, Die
Adelsfrage in Preussen vor 1806 als politisches und soziales Problem (Stuttgart,
1938), demonstrated the ‘proletarianisation’ of those among the Junkers nobility
not secure in the possession of a landed estate or a high post in the government or
the military. This aspect of the Prussian crisis underscores its social pervasiveness.
7. See Biisch’s Militdrsystem und Sozialleben im alten Preussen 1713—1807
(Berlin, 1962), pp. 42, 47, 154 and passim. Abel and Henning also neglect the
question of peasant protest. Robert Brenner’s exaggerated emphasis upon feudal
landlords’ extra-economic coercive powers dovetails his sketchy remarks on the East
Elbian German scene with the concept, here under discussion, of a crisis of
decadence and heightened seigneurial exploitation of the peasantry (‘The Agrarian
Roots of European Capitalism’, Past and Present, No. 97 (November 1982),
pp. 66—7, 69—76).
8. On industry, see Horst Kriiger, Zur Geschichte der Manufakturen und der
Manufakturarbeiter in Preussen (Berlin, 1958); and the still useful work of Kurt
Hinze, Die Arbeiterfrage zu Beginn des modernen Kapitalismus in Brandenburg-
Preussen 1685-1806 (Berlin, 1963 edn). On agriculture, see text and notes below.
9. Johannes Ziekursch, Hundert Jahre schlesischer Agrargeschichte (Breslau,

1927), passim.
10. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Die agrarpolitischen Reformmassnahmen der preussi-
schen Staatsfiihrung in dem Jahrzehnt vor 1806/07’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschafts-
geschichte (1977), Ill, pp. 129—S3.
11. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Vom Oktoberedikt des Jahres 1807 zur Deklaration von
1816. Problematik und Charakter der preussischen Agrarreformgesetzgebung
zwischen 1807 und 1816’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Sonderband (1978),
p. 232. This important article supersedes Knapp’s interpretation of the
Bauernbefreiung in its political aspect.
12. Hans-Heinrich Miiller, Markische Landwirtschaft vor den Agrarreformen
von 1807. Entwicklungstendenzen des Ackerbaues in der zweiten Halfte des 18.
Jahrhunderts (Potsdam, 1967), pp. 37—8, 53—62, 79 ff, 115 ff.
13. Brenner, /oc. cit., pp. 18, 34; Jerome Blum, The End of the Old Order in
Europe (Princeton, N.J., 1978), p. 303, Ch. 15 and passim. Douglass C. North and
Robert Paul Thomas, The Rise of the Western World. A New Economic History
(Cambridge, 1973), Part III] and passim.
14. Miiller, op. cit., 144 ff.
15. Kurt Wernicke, Untersuchungen zu den niederen Formen des bdauerlichen
Klassenkampfes im Gebiet der Gutsherrschaft, Diss. Phil. (Humboldt Universitat,
Berlin, 1962). i
16. Giinther Franz, Geschichte des deutschen Bauernstandes (Stuttgart, 1970),
p. 196; Vogler and Vetter, op. cit., 97-8.
17. Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Produktivkraéfte und Produktionsverhaltnisse in der
Landwirtschaft der Magdeburger Borde von der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum
Beginn des Zuckerriibenbaus in der Mitte der dreissiger Jahre des 19. Jahrhunderts’,
in Hans-Jiirgen Rach and Bernhard Weissel (eds.), Landwirtschaft und Kapi-
talismus: Zur Entwicklung der 6konomischen und sozialen Verhdltnisse in der
Magdeburger Borde vom Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende des ersten
Weltkrieges, Vol. 1 Halbband (Berlin, 1978), pp. 108, 138, 156—9.
18. Harnisch, ‘Oktoberedikt’, /oc. cit., p. 232.
19. In ‘Peasants and Markets’ (Chapter 2 above), the chacteristically strong essay
he contributes to the present volume, Harnisch underscores the importance which
his earlier work ascribed to peasant protest as an indirect cause of the emancipation.
His chief aim, however, is to show — as he does very well — that those peasants who
prevailed in their resistance to new seigneurial impositions profited from their own
heightened and increasingly lucrative production for the market. He confines the
circle of such peasants to those with full property in their holdings (Eigenttimer or
Erbbauern). But, as he acknowledges, most full peasants (Hufenbauern) in
Brandenburg and elsewhere in East Elbian Prussia possessed only a usufructuary
(Jassitisches) right to their holdings: after payment of seigneurial rent and royal
taxes, the residual net product of their labour belonged to them, but they could not
sell or mortgage their farms. To these East Elbian Lassiten or Lassbauern
Harnisch’s negative judgement, discussed in the text above, still applies.
Granting that the titles of the full proprietors were better than the tenures of the
Lassiten, there was nevertheless a great difference, which Harnisch appears to
neglect, between hereditary and non-hereditary usufructuary holdings. As Berthold
has recently shown in a major re-evaluation of the statistical evidence, about half of
all full peasants in Brandenburg were hereditary Lassiten, the type of peasant that
will occupy centre stage in the text below. See Rudolf Berthold, ‘Die Veranderungen
im Bodeneigentum und in der Zahl der Bauernstellen, der Kleinstellen und der
Rittergiiter in den preussischen Provinzen Sachsen, Brandenburg und Pommern
wahrend der Durchfithrung der Agrarreformen des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Jahrbuch fiir
Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Sonderband (1978), pp. 10—116, and esp. 21—8. The reader
of the present paper will see that tenants of such hereditary usufructuary holdings,”
sh if not full proprietors, could very well defend themselves at law against their
ords.
In my view, the weakness and vulnerability Harnisch ascribes to all usufructuary
tenures should be assigned to those that were non-hereditary, which in 1816, accord-
ing to Berthold, comprised only 10 per cent of all farms exceeding 7.5 hectares in
size. The hereditary Lassiten should be reckoned as peasants able and willing to
resist abusive seigneurial innovations. Together with the full proprietors, they
represented 90 per cent of the Hufenbauern in Brandenburg. On legal distinctions
among the peasantry, see Friedrich Grossmann, Uber die gutsherrlich-bduerlichen
Rechtsverhdiltnisse in der Mark Brandenburg vom 16. bis 18. Jahrhundert (Leipzig,
1890).
20. Geheimes Staatsarchiv, West Berlin. Provinz Brandenburg, Rep. 37:
Gutsherrschaft Stavenow (hereinafter cited as GStA. Stavenow), No. 258 (survey of
1809), ff. 9-10. The scholarly literature on Stavenow consists principally of the
dissertation of Joachim Sack, Die Herrschaft Stavenow (Cologne and Graz, 1959).
It offers a generally accurate account of the estate’s ownership and organisational
structure. But it does not present an economic analysis of the eighteenth- and early
nineteenth-century estate accounts, nor does it plumb the depth of village/manor
conflict after 1763. On these subjects, see the text below. On other questions
relevant to the argument of the present paper, see William W. Hagen, ‘How Mighty
the Junkers? Peasant Rents and Seigneurial Profits in Sixteenth-Century
Brandenburg’, forthcoming in Past and Present; and idem., ‘Working for the
Junker: Real Wages of Manorial Labourers in Brandenburg, 1584—1810’, forth-
coming in The Journal of Modern History.
21. GStA. Stavenow, Nr. 259 (Anschlag, 1760/63) and No. 39 (Specieller
Anschlag, May 1808), ff. 5—20.
22. Many of the farms in the Stavenow villages were surveyed during the peasant
emancipation. See GStA. Stavenow, Nos. 441, 408, 198, 451, 428, 425. (1 hectare
equals c. 2.5 acres.)
23. GStA. Stavenow, No. 259 (appraisal of 1760) and No. 58 (inheritance agree-
ment of 1763, including revision of the 1760 appraisal in the light of 1763 com-
modity prices). Originally each of the brothers left 3000 Taler in the estate as shares
in the Lehn-Stamm securing their rights of future inheritance, but in 1770 this
arrangement was liquidated, so that Kleist was obliged to pay out the shares as well.
No. 58, ff. 107-13.
24. Figures for 1717 from GStA. Stavenow, No. 240.
D5aGStANer StavenowsNoss126590207520899229-6 27052335 262, 26), 237
(Geldrechnungen). During these years Kleist’s personal household consumed
products of the estate averaging 778 Taler in value annually. The estate accounts
treat this consumption neither as a profit nor a loss.
26. GStA. Stavenow, No. 259, f. 9. The cottagers’ labour services could be
absolved by a commutation payment of 10 Taler. But the appraisal rated their actual
annual value at 7.5 Taler.
27. GStA. Stavenow, No. 259, ff. 3—4.
29. Ibid., No. 343, 25—32, 53-83. ff. This volume contains the full record of
Kleist’s litigation with his subjects from 1766 to 1777.
30. Ibid., No. 343, f. 187. See also ff. 13-23.
31. GStA. Stavenow, No. 354. See also Nos. 573, 363, 424, 345, 355, 344, 334,
316.
32. The appellate court invoked the common or customary law of Brandenburg
prohibiting cartage to market during regular manorial service of products, other
than grain, intended for sale (Kaufmannsgiiter). GStA. Stavenow, No. 343,
ff. 267—9. In its various rulings on the suits Kleist and his peasants brought before
it, the Kammergericht exhibited a certain bias, where the law seemed open to inter-
pretation, in favour of Kleist’s seigneurial interests. But, as the dispute over lumber-
hauling shows, the Royal Court of Appeal could correct the bias. Undoubtedly,
Friedrich II’s legal reforms gave the peasants cheaper access to the higher courts and
the chance of a fairer hearing. The connection between the reforms and manor/
village litigation deserves exploration, but cannot be pursued in the present essay.
On legal developments, see Otto Hintze, ‘Preussens Entwicklung zum Rechtsstaat’,
Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und preussischen Geschichte, Band 32 (1920),
pp. 385—451; H. Weill, Frederick the Great and Samuel von Cocceji (Madison,
Wisc., 1964); Friedrich Grossmann, Uber die gutsherrlich-bduerlichen
Rechtsverhdiltnisse in der Mark Brandenburg vom 16. bis 18. Jahrhundert (Leipzig,
1890).
33. GStA. Stavenow, No. 343, ff. 260—2, 272.
34. Ibid., f. 344. See also Nos. 573, 363.
35. GStA. Stavenow, No. 719, ff. 71-5.
36. GStA. Stavenow, No. 340, passin.
37. K.O. of 11 September 1784, published in Rudolph Stadelmann, Preussens
Konige in ihrer Thatigkeit fiir die Landescultur, Vol. 11, Publicationen aus den K.
Preussischen Staatsarchiven (Leipzig, 1882), p. 619. See also Stadelmann, op. cit.,
pp. 112—13. On Silesia, ibid., pp. 605—6, 621, 632; and Ziekursch, op. cit., 206 ff.
Frederick later decreed that.Urbaria were to be compiled in East Prussia, but the
nobility of that province, like their brethren in Silesia, contrived to evade the order.
See Stadelmann, op. cit., pp. 637-8.
38. GStA. Stavenow, No. 719, f. 71.
39. GStA. Stavenow, No. 353, Urbarium of the village Premslin, and No. 51,
revisions of the Urbaria of Premslin, Glovzin, and Karstadt. These were the villages
in which 44 of Kleist’s 60 full peasants lived. It was against them that his offensive
had principally been aimed, since the other full peasants were either new settlers with
recently and unambiguously-defined labour obligations and rents, or residents of a
village in which Kleist’s seigneurial powers were limited by those of other noble
landlords and the Crown.
41. On Voss’s purchase of Stavenow, see GStA. Stavenow, Nos. 122, 65, and 39,
ff. 61—3. The appraisal of 1808 is cited in note 21 above. On Voss, see Al/gemeine
Deutsche Biographie (Leipzig, 1896), Vol. 40, pp. 352-61.
42. Behre’s series of average prices in Brandenburg shows that between 1755—66
and 1796—1805 rye rose by 42 per cent, barley by 60 per cent and oats by 50 per cent.
But wartime demand and post-1806 requisitioning drove the price of oats up rapidly,
which explains the great rise in the value of this grain at Stavenow between the
appraisals of 1763 and 1808. Otto Behre, Geschichte der Statistik in Brandenburg-
Preussen bis zur Griindung des Koniglich Statistischen Bureaus (Berlin, 1905),
p. 277. Magnus Friedrich von Bassewitz, Die Kurmark Brandenburg im Zusammen-
hang mit den Schicksalen des Gesamtsaats Preussen wdhrend der Zeit vom 22.
Oktober 1806 bis zu Ende des Jahres 1808 (Leipzig, 1852), Vol. li, pp. 401—2.
43. Before 1809, one of the four Stavenow demesne farms was regularly leased to
a tenant farmer, who supplied his own draught animals. The figures in the text refer
only to the estates’s own inventory.
44. GStA. Stavenow, No. 62.
45. The legal status of day labourers and their families differed markedly from
that of the full peasants (Hufenbauern) and smallholders (Kossdten), upon whose
households the law of serfdom (Untertdnigkeit) was based. Legal serfdom at
Stavenow, as (with some exceptions) elsewhere in Brandenburg, was tied to the
landed peasant holding, rather than being an hereditary state of personal
unfreedom. Occupancy of such a holding above all bound the peasant to perform
labour service on his lord’s demesne land, while his mature but unmarried children,
if expendable in the operation of the family holding, could be compelled to work as
farm servants at the manor for a period of three years (Gesindezwangsdienst). The
sons of such peasants could also be compelled to succeed their fathers in running the
family farm or to take over a vacant tenancy in the lord’s jurisdiction. If such
farmers or their sons could present the lord with an acceptable substitute, they were
free to quit their holdings, whereupon they ceased to be subject to the legislation of
serfdom. Their status then became that of a day labourer and all other unprivileged
residents of the local seigneurial jurisdiction, such as artisans, small-scale cottagers,
and the majority of manorial workers who were not in compulsory service. All such
persons could depart from their seigneurial jurisdiction upon payment of a statutory
fee, which at Stavenow, however, was seldom levied. Otherwise, they were bound by
the terms of their labour or rental contracts, subject to cancellation at will, or upon
notice by either party, which they had voluntarily concluded with their lords. In this
sense they were a ‘free’ labour force, though princely legislation (notably the
statutes of labourers [Gesindeordnungen] and of guilds) attempted to fix all wage-
earners’ pay. But because of the great importance of unregulated wages in kind in
the countryside, workers such as Stavenow’s day labourers in effect negotiated their
own terms of settlement and employment on an early form of the modern free
labour market.
46. A fuller discussion of the manorial servants and day labourers will be found
in my article on real wages, cited in note 20 above. Under Kleist’s regime, day
labourers were paid for all harvest work except for six days of labour by a man and
woman from each household during the rye harvest.
47. The preceding analysis, except as otherwise noted, rests on the inventories
and appraisals of 1763 and 1808, cited in note 21 above.
48. GStA. Stavenow, No. 202, ff. 178—9, 211—15; No. 314, ff. 1—9 and passim;
No. 342, ff. 1-9.
49. Bassewitz, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 675.
50. GStA. Stavenow, Nos. 352, 423. The descendants of the farmers settled by
Major von Kleist’s parents in the village of Dargard alone stood aloof from the
strikes that broke out in 1808.
51. GStA. Stavenow, No. 202, f. 211,; No. 191, ff. 162—3,; No. 314, ff. 1—3;
No. 341, ff. 1-6.
52. GStA. Stavenow, No. 409, f. 5: ‘Die Neigung dussert sich tiberall frei werden
zu wollen.’
53. The main documentation of the emancipation at Stavenow is located in the
following dossiers of the estate archive: Nos. 448, 449, 441 (Premslin); 408, 409, 198
(Mesekow); 390-3 (Karstadt); 433, 453, 483, 427, 451, 428, 425 (Glévzin); 520,
474—5, 405, 513 (Bliiten); 440 (Sargleben). The emancipation of the Erbzinsbauern
in the settlers’ village of Dargard under the law of 1821 appropriate to their legal
status remains to be studied. On the peasant emancipation in general, see, in
addition to the works of Knapp, Harnisch and Dipper cited above, Erich
Langeliiddecke, ‘Zum Grundsatz der Entschadigung und des Loskaufs bei den
Eigentumsregulierungen und Dienstablésungen der ostelbischen Bauern Preussens
im 19. Jh.’, Zeitschrift fiir Geschichtswissenschaft, 1960:4, pp; 890—908; Dietrich
Saalfeld, ‘Zur Frage des bauerlichen Landverlustes im Zusammenhang mit den
preussischen Agrarreformen’, Zeitschrift fiir Agrargeschichte und Agrarsoziologie,
11:1 (1963), pp. 163-71; Hartmut Harnisch, ‘Statistische Untersuchungen zum
Verlauf der kapitalistischen Agrarreformen in den preussischen Ostprovinzen (1811
bis 1865)’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 1974:4, pp. 149-83; and especially
Rudolf Berthold, ‘Die Veranderungen im Bodeneigentum und in der Zahl der
Bauernstellen, der Kleinstellen und der Rittergiiter in den preussischen Provinzen
Sachsen, Brandenburg und Pommern wahrend der Durchfiihrung der Agrar-

reformen des 19. Jahrhunderts’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Sonderband
(1978), pp. 10—116. On the Junkers’ social and political fortunes after 1806 see,
inter, alia, Kosselleck, op. cit., pp. 487-559; and Hans Rosenberg, ‘Die
Pseudodemokratisierung der Rittergutsbesitzerklasse’, in H.-U. Wehler (ed.),
Moderne deutsche Sozialgeschichte (K6In and Graz, 1968), pp. 287—308.
54. Gerhard Albrecht, Die Gutsherrschaft Freyenstein, Dissertation (Padago-
gische Hochschule Potsdam, Historisch-Philologische Fakultat, 1968), p. 137;
Bassewitz, op. cit., Vol. Ill, pp. 676—7; Johannes Schultze, Die Prignitz. Aus der
Geschichte einer madrkischen Landschaft (Colgne and Graz, 1956), pp. 238 ff., 277.
S55a-Schultze; opycrt.jppo233—5*
56. Albrecht, op. cit., p. 170.
57. Ibid., p. 184; Miiller, op. cit., p. 37; Ulrich Wille, Das Urbarium von
Abbendorf und Haverland 1786 (Goslar, 1938), pp. 5—6 and passim. The energetic
and hard-bargaining Major von Kleist negotiated this Urbarium in his capacity as
ward of the von Saldern children.
58. Chr. O. Mylius, Corpus Constitutionum Marchicarum, V1 Theil, I
Abteilung, No. CX XVI (1656); V Theil, Abt. Il, No. XV (1702).
59. F. W. A. Bratring, Statistisch-Topographische Beschreibung der gesamten
Mark Brandenburg (Berlin, 1968; reprint of the original text of 1804—09),
pp. 395—7. Since the number of peasant farms remained constant, so too must the
numbers of retired farmers and their wives (A/tsitzer), with whom the numbers of
day-labourers (Einlieger) are combined in Bratring’s statistics. Another sign of the
rationalisation of manorial production in the Prignitz was the decline in the number
of noble families presiding over their estates in person — from 141 in 1750 to 63 in
1801. The number of estate administrators, bailiffs and lessees rose correspondingly
from 85 to 233. Ibid., p, 395.
60. Harnisch, ‘Statistische Untersuchungen’, op. cit., p. 158.
61. Miiller, op. cit., 61. But Bratring’s somewhat vague descriptions of the
various districts of Brandenburg suggest that there were numerous pockets of
unimproved estate agriculture within a larger setting of considerable progress. See
Vol. I, pp. 12, 83, 230, 397; Vol. Il, p. 7; Vol. III, pp. 41—2. Between 1767 and 1798
the combined sowings of wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, lentils and potatoes
throughout the Mark Brandenburg rose by about 50 per cent from 79,000 to 119,000
Wispel (1 Wispel = 24 bushels). The sowings of potatoes alone rose from 1653
Wispel in 1765 to 21,188 in 1801. Behre, op. cit., pp. 234-7.
62. Ziekursch, op. cit., p. 154.
63. Wernicke, op. cit., pp. 187 ff; Dipper, op. cit., p. 57; Henning, op. cit., p. 26;
Abel, op. cit., p. 192.
64. Knapp, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 60.
65. Hartmut Harnisch, Die Herrschaft Boitzenburg (Weimar, 1968), pp. 158,
170, 229-33; Gtinter Vogler, ‘Die Entwicklung der feudalen Arbeitsrente in
Brandenburg vom 15. bis 18. Jahrhundert’, Jahrbuch fiir Wirtschaftgeschichte
(1966) I, pp, 155 ff; Vetter, /oc. cit., pp. 455—7; Carl Brinkmann, Wustrau (Leipzig,
1911), pp. 83 ff; Siegfried Passow, Ein mdrkischer Rittersitz (Eberswalde, 1907),
Vol=inppeisseti:
66. For example, see Christoph Freiherr Senfft von Pilsach, ‘Bauerliche
Wirtschaftsverhaltnisse in einem neumarkischen Dorf (Land Sternberg) vor der
Regulierung der gutsherrlich-bduerlichen Verhaltnisse und der erste dortige
Regulierungsversuch’, Forschungen zur brandenburgischen und _preussischen
Geschichte, XXII:2 (1909), pp. 127-91.
67. Stadelmann, op. cit., Vol. III, Urkunden 9—10, pp. 169—70. See also Vol.
IV, p. 30.
68. Harnisch, ‘Vom Oktoberedikt’, Joc. cit., pp. 247-8, 275-9; Vogler and
Vetter, opcit., ps ols ‘i

69. Sack, quoted in Bassewitz, Vol. III, op. cit., p. 674.
70. Quotations in Knapp, op. cit., Vol. Il, pp. 159, 348. See also the report of
1814 on peasant demands for regulation in Upper Silesia, pp. 349-51.
71. Quoted in Harnisch, ‘Vom Oktoberedikt’, /oc. cit., p. 266.
72. Vetter, ‘Kurmarkischer Adel’, Joc. cit., pp. 440—6 and passim.
73. GStA. Stavenow, No. 341, ff. 1-6.
74. It is well known that the Junkers fought successfully after 1811 to limit regu-
lation to spannfdhige holdings, (i.e. to those maintaining draught teams) so as to
retain their rights to the small-scale cottages’ unpaid manual labour services. But
Berthold has shown Knapp’s argument that the Declaration of 1816 doomed the
smallholdings to eventual absorption into the Junker demesnes to be untenable. In
fact, the numbers of smallholdings increased very rapidly throughout the nineteenth
century. See idem ‘Die Veranderungen’, pp. 74, 108-9.
75. In the year following the outbreak of the Stavenow peasants’ strike against
manorial service, Voss’s bailiff added at least 8 horses and 19 oxen to his work
teams. GStA. Stavenow, No. 202, 35—42, 52-3, 63-7, 92-3 ff.
716. ‘Treu, gehorsam, und unterthdnig’, ibid., No. 27, 23—6 ff.
77. Ibid., No. 314, f. 14.
4 THE RURAL PROLETARIAT
The Everyday Life of Rural Labourers in the
Magdeburg Region, 1830—80*
Hainer Plaul
it
The Magdeburg black-earth region (Magdeburger Borde) is one of

the most favoured agricultural areas of Central Europe. Its excep-
tionally high fertility generally guarantees crop yields well above
average. To these natural characteristics were added favourable
conditions of ownership and inheritance. The peasants in this
region were freer than the serfs further east, and enjoyed a system
of impartible inheritance. By the late feudal period this combina-
tion of circumstances had already led to a situation where the
peasants could produce significant surpluses. Furthermore, they
had also managed to retain most of the agricultural land them-
selves. The portion of the surplus that remained to them after
payment of feudal land dues was decisive in fostering the develop-
ment of a stable regional market. The area’s advantageous geo-
graphical position, close to the commercial centre of Magdeburg,
which lay on the navigable River Elbe, also meant that it formed
close ties with other markets fairly early on. This led at first to a
modest, then later to a growing, accumulation of capital. We can
estimate the extent of this accumulation from the fact that as early
as the last quarter of the eighteenth century the majority of
peasants wanted to commute their feudal dues into money rents.
This development facilitated and stimulated the growing tendency
of the more well-to-do peasants to employ day-labourers on their
farms. All these factors laid the foundations for the later trans-
formation of the peasants into capitalist farmers.
As time went on, three main groups of impoverished or com-
pletely landless agricultural labourers emerged in the Magdeburg
region: farm servants (maids, cowherds, stable-hands); full-time
farm workers (usually employed as harvesters or threshers, and
*Translated by Cathleen S. Catt, Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee.
102
The Rural Proletariat 103
known as Deputatlandarbeiter); and day-labourers. In a sense, 4

fourth group, the smallholders, could be added, as they owed their
independence to their grazing rights on common land. Like the
peasant farmers, the various groups of rural poor in the late feudal
period were subject to a system of non-economic feudal ties and
restrictions. However, in the Magdeburg region this was not
derived from a system of actual serfdom, but was connected with
the legal form of feudalism (Gerichtsherrschaft) which had
developed. Feudal ties included forced labour and Vormietsrecht,
statutory limits to the wages of servants and day labourers, pay-
ment of a protection tax, and the performance of services on the
basis of the traditional relationship between a feudal lord and a
dependent peasantry. They also involved the obligation to offer
labour first to the local feudal lord, the right of the lord to deal
with the non-performance of labour services by corporal punish-
ment or monetary fines, and the obligation to ensure that the
education and training of their children accorded with seigneurial
interests.
This system of non-economic restrictions was abolished in 1807,
when the Magdeburg region was incorporated into the newly-
created Napoleonic kingdom of Westphalia. It thus became subject
to the progressive French legislation on agriculture. At the
Congress of Vienna, when Prussia obtained large parts of the
former kingdom of Westphalia, and thus also acquired the Magde-
burg region, it agreed in principle to recognise all the constitutional
legislation passed by Westphalia, including the agricultural legisla-
tion. Prussia then attempted to bring the agricultural reforms
which had taken place under French rule into line with its own
reform programme in this sector by promulgating a series of special
laws. For the rural poor (with little or no land) who were dependent
on their wages for their subsistence, the chief significance of all
these land reforms lay in the fact that henceforth they were free in
law to dispose of their own labour. Thus the fundamental change in
character of these labourers into capitalist rural workers can be
seen to be part of a comprehensive social process, which ended
feudal agriculture and brought about the development of capitalist
farming. However, this process did not create a unified or homo-
geneous agricultural proletariat and the rural workforce continued
to be differentiated on the basis of those with little or no land, in a
manner typical of late feudalism. Two main factors influenced the
composition of the rural workers in the capitalist system: the
104 The Rural Proletariat
extent of integration into the employer’s economy, and the

existence, or not, of property and land.
As the nineteenth century unfolded, four main social groups
became distinguishable within the rural proletariat, according to
their degree of integration into their employer’s farming enterprise
and the amount of land and property they owned. First were the
rural workers without any land or other property, who were very
closely integrated into the economy of the peasant farm where they
worked. This included in the first place farm servants, who were,
by this time, more or less free from feudal restrictions. There were
important distinctions to be made between single male and female
farm servants on the one hand (Knechte, Enken, Mdgde) and
married farm servants on the other. The single farm servants repre-
sented the group within the rural proletariat most strongly inte-
grated into their employers’ farm economies. Single farm servants
did not usually have their own separate households, whereas the
married farm servants usually did. Even if these latter households
were not economically entirely independent of the farmer, they
were usually physically separate. Thus the married farm servants
were already less closely integrated into the economy of the
peasant-producer than the single farm servants were. Both married
and single farm servants, however, had in common the fact that
they had voluntarily entered into a legal contract with their
employer, which bound them to work for him for a stipulated, and
often long period of time. This contract also bound them to a series
of laws governing the conditions and duties of farm servants, the
Gesindeordnung, which were in force in various forms all over
Germany until 1918. These laws laid down the extent and the
manner of their integration into the farm’s economy, and meant, in
effect, that even under the new capitalist mode of production they
remained under some form of non-economic regulation.
Secondly we can distinguish rural labourers with property
(houses and/or land), who were nevertheless integrated into some-
one else’s farm economy. Here we are talking about those rural
labourers who had a more or less permanent contract to work for a
particular farmer, and who either received a certain proportion of
the farm’s production, or specific payments in kind (so-called
allowances) as part of their wages. They were also usually granted
an allotment of land for their own use by the farmer. Their wages
were further supplemented by the produce of the patch of land they
actually owned. In the Magdeburg region, as in other parts of
Germany, these permanent farm workers were generally employed

as mowers (Schnitter) and threshers (Drescher). If they worked on
the estates of nobles or great landlords, they usually lived either as
estate workers in housing which the landowner rented out to his
labourers (rather in the manner of tied cottages in England), or, as
manorial cottagers, in their own house built on estate land for
which they had to pay a ground rent and render certain services. If
they worked for peasant farmers, they would generally live in their
own houses on common land. In some instances (which became
more frequent with increasing labour shortages) even some of the
large- and middle-sized peasant farmers began to offer their per-
manent workers tied accommodation. As with the laws governing
the conditions of employment of farm servants, employers could
only exercise their non-economic forms of exploitation if the
labourer — driven it is true by economic circumstances — volun-
tarily entered into a legal contract with them.
Thirdly, there were non-integrated, ‘free’ day-labourers with no
property, or only a small plot of land. These were the historical
descendants of the tenant agricultural producers of the late feudal
period. They did not own their houses, but rented living quarters.
These ‘free’ labourers were the most mobile sector of the rural
proletariat.
A fourth group consisted of free (i.e. non-integrated) labourers
owning a house and perhaps some outbuildings affording the possi-
bility of keeping some livestock. The majority would also have
some land which, however, seldom amounted to more than a vege-
table plot. Their historical origin lay in the cottagers and small-
holders who had depended for their existence on the common land
grazing rights. After the enclosure of common land they lost their
relative independence, and had been forced into a complete reliance
on wage labour.
Apart from these four categories within the indigenous rural pro-
letariat, there was also a further important social group: the
seasonal migrant workers. In the Magdeburg region they first
appeared in large numbers following the change from extensive to
intensive farming methods in the 1840s. They only achieved real
significance in this area however after 1870.7
Il
The system of non-economic coercion, ties and dependencies, to

which the poor and landless as well as the peasant farmers were
subjected during the feudal period, included a particular frame-
work of social relations, which, above all, was characterised by the
dependence of both the peasants and the rural poor on the feudal
lord. In the face of this major opposition of class interests the
larger and middling peasants and the rural poor were very much in
the background. The low level of production, feudal oppression
and, initially, an underdeveloped market, did not allow a very great
difference in the levels of prosperity within the agricultural popula-
tion to develop. In the second half of the eighteenth century, clear
indications of a significant change in this respect can be seen. As
early as the end of the eighteenth century the continued develop-
ment of a stable market economy induced many peasants, particu-
larly those living near the commercial centre of Magdeburg, to
begin producing cash crops for the market, in particular chicory.
The really decisive changes however only really took place from
the mid-1830s onwards, with the introduction of beet cultivation
for sugar production, and as a result of the agricultural reforms.
Significantly, this new area of production did not remain concen-
trated in the hands of the great landowners. Peasant farmers — and
to some extent even smaller peasant-producers — were involved
both in the cultivation of sugar beet and, as shareholders in sugar-
refining companies, in the actual production of sugar.? The intro-
duction and development of this area of production was respon-
sible for the specific features which characterised the process of the
development and consolidation of capitialist agriculture in the
Magdeburg region from about 1830 to 1880. The newly-awoken
and rapidly-increasing desire for profit on the part of the large
landowners and large sections of the peasantry could be efficiently
and satisfactorily met by the cultivation and processing of sugar
beet. Not only could large profits be made from the beet and sugar
trade, but ground rents and land prices also soared. Thus the area
around Magdeburg represented a special case in comparison with
other rural areas of 19th-century Germany. Here, capitalism pene-
trated extraordinarily early into agriculture and transformed it with
astounding rapidity. The effect of this transformation on social
relations was momentous. Within the peasant class the process of
differentiation into large, middle and small farmers continued.
Important developments appeared in connection with the partition
and enclosure of common lands. As a result of losing their rights to
use communally-owned land, a large proportion of the small-
holders (Kleinkossdten) entirely lost their economic independence

and became either permanent farm workers or ‘free’ day-labourers
who nevertheless owned their own cottage. Enclosure also des-
troyed the communally-agreed three-field system of agricultural
production which had predominated until then.
This whole development not only sharpened the social contradic-
tions between the great landowners and the rest of the population;
it also heightened the differences between the peasant farmers and
the rural workforce. The desire for profit on the part of the peasant
landowners, no longer limited by feudal constraints, and the effects
of this on the rural labourers who worked for them, together with
the attempts of these labourers to satisfy their growing needs, led to
an increasingly irreconcilable clash of interests between farmers
and labourers. This class antagonism was expressed in various
ways. Communications between the two groups became restricted;
marriage between the two groups became increasingly rare; con-
tacts outside the workplace at social gatherings were reduced to a
minimum; and even in the religious sphere — for example, with the
foundation of choral societies — attempts to bring the two sides
together foundered. There were even communes where the well-to-
do peasant farmers went to the extreme of setting up separate ceme-
teries for their own kind. They also tried to introduce new methods
of exploitation to meet the changed conditions, for example by
using written, often discriminatory, employment contracts, or, in
addition to the enforcement of the Gesindeordnung (which con-
trolled wage levels), by using the work book, and introducing piece-
work. All these measures were designed to keep the amount paid
for labour below its real value — one of the fundamental laws of
capitalism.
The rural labourers, for their part, developed new forms and
methods of resistance and opposition. Demands for higher wages
and greater independence became more frequent as the demand for
labour increased dramatically with the introduction of labour-
intensive sugar-beet cultivation and the parallel establishment of
numerous sugar refineries. The labour shortage was exacerbated
from about the middle of the nineteenth century by the industrial
development of Magdeburg and its environs. Increased mining pro-
duction and road and railway construction in this region from 1850
onwards created more jobs. Rural employers often responded to
this demand for industrial labour — which was naturally tempting
to their servants — with harsh counter-measures, including a strict
interpretation of the law governing servants, with threats, by for-

bidding them to go out, by forcing them to accept poor food and
lodgings, and even with actual physical violence. They also intro-
duced ‘servant books’ (Gesindebiicher) which meant that the
behaviour of a servant could be monitored over a much longer time
period than the previous system of employers’ references had
allowed. So-called Servant Improvement Societies (Dienstbotenver-
besserungsvereine) were founded towards the end of the 1830s in
neighbouring regions, and quickly spread over the whole of Prussia
and even further afield, the purpose of which was to keep labourers
in line by public commendations and prizes for good work and
loyal service. However, the early shortage of farm workers in the
Magdeburg regions because of the high local demand for labour,
meant that they failed to take root there.
The only way that a male or female farm servant could achieve a
genuine improvement was to leave farm service altogether and
become part of another social group — for example, by becoming
either a ‘free’ day-labourer or by joining the industrial proletariat
in the mining, factory, or railway and road construction industries.
The result of this was that, apart from an obvious shortage of farm
workers, there was also a marked shift in the average age of farm
workers. Previously it had not been uncommon to find a farm hand
thirty years old. It now became usual, as soon as he came of age, to
leave farm service altogether.
At the same time, production on the large estates and larger
peasant farms became increasingly mechanised and geared to sugar
beet while other branches of agriculture, such as cereal production
and livestock, became less important. As a result these farms
became more and more seasonal concerns. This tendency became
very evident in the Magdeburg region after 1850, during the con-
solidation phase of capitalist agriculture. As seasonal-based farms
only require large numbers of workers at particularly critical times
of the year, farmers and estate owners increasingly replaced per-
manent-contract farm workers by ‘free’ day-labourers and, after
1880, by seasonal migrant workers. By 1880 these farms were
employing virtually no permanent farm workers. Where other
branches of farming continued, the farmers increasingly employed
specialised agricultural workers for ploughing and keeping live-
stock. These were generally more likely to be married men
employed on a permanent contract, rather than being bound by the
old farm servant regulations. And in place of the dairy maids,
farmers increasingly employed female domestic servants (house-~

keepers, etc.).
The shift towards seasonal production had implications for other
sectors of the rural proletariat too, namely the permanent farm
workers. In the Magdeburg region the majority of these workers
were employed as threshers. The introduction of threshing
machines, in particular steam-threshers from the end of the 1850s,
was a decisive turning-point for them. Mechanisation considerably
reduced the amount of labour required for cereal production. For
the farmers this was an additional reason to dispense with perma-
nent farm labourers, and to replace them with ‘free’ day-labourers.
Where possible, these permanent farm workers attempted to find
other work with similar contractual arrangements, and many
moved into specialisation, such as looking after livestock. How-
ever, the majority, who owned their own house and perhaps a little
land, began to commute to work in the nearby industrial centres.
Underpinning these developments was the continual process of
differentiation and increasing social division between the larger and
middle-sized farmers on the one hand and the rural workforce on
the other. As in other areas of Germany, in the Magdeburg region
the relationship between the threshers and large-scale farmers was
characterised initially by a residual feudal arrangement in which the
thresher was granted an allotment to grow his own staple foods, and
was guaranteed a certain proportion of the harvest. At the begin-
ning of the 1830s the agricultural crisis, which had lasted for nearly
a decade, began to recede. Against the background of a general
increase in population and a disproportionate rise in those engaged
in non-agricultural work — the result of industrialisation — there
was a constant expansion of the market, which in turn led to a
general increase in agricultural production. The great landowners
and larger peasant farmers therefore became increasingly reluctant
to allow their labourers a fixed proportion of their increasing
harvest. From the first they attempted to replace this method of
payment, which was now disadvantageous for them, with money
wages. In the first instance they got rid of most payments in kind —
a process which was more or less complete in the Magdeburg region
by 1845. They carried on paying a proportion of corn to the
threshers until the 1860s though, for the simple reason that, while
hand-threshing was still the rule, this was a guarantee that the work
would be carried out carefully and waste kept to a minimum.
Stopping this method of payment would also have provoked stiff
resistance in the threshers themselves, who, after the abolition of

other payments in kind, certainly meant to maintain this one.
However, as soon as the farmers were able to do the threshing
just as reliably and more profitably by machine, with all the other
advantages this entailed, they began increasingly to reduce the pro-
portion of corn to which the threshers were entitled, and finally did
away with it completely. Even middle and small farms were able to
use steam-threshers, as farmers developed a system of jointly hiring
or purchasing a machine, which was then sent round the farms ona
rota system. Alongside this, the farmers introduced a new way of
paying for the threshers which enabled them to break the threshers’
resistance. In this steam-threshing machine owners worked hand in
glove with the farmers who hired their machines. What happened
was that the proportion of the corn that had previously been paid
to the threshers was now paid to the owner of the steam-threshing
machine instead, as payment for its hire, and the farm workers
were paid wholly in cash — not by the farmer, but by the machine
owner. The net result of this manoeuvre was that the threshers were
often paid half as much in cash as the value of the corn they had
formerly received. As a result the status of the permanent farm
workers suffered a significant deterioration. Previously they had
been relatively closely integrated into the farms they worked on —
not only through their contact with the farmer, but also economi-
cally, through their portion of the gross yield of the farm. Now this
relationship was broken and replaced by a cash relationship. In the
developmental stage of capitalist agricultural production they had
lost most of their payments in kind, and in the consolidation phase
they lost their right to a proportion of the corn threshed. Although
the permanent workers were still employed by farmers, they were
no longer entitled to a share in the produce of the farm, and the
proportion of wages paid in cash had been considerably increased.
With the change in the social status of permanent farm workers
and servants, a further and more comprehensive process was
initiated, which became increasingly evident in the later phase of
capitalist development. There was an increasing tendency towards a
unified rural labour force. The increasing importance of a cash
wage in the remuneration of permanent farm workers removed an
important distinction between this group and ‘free’ day-labourers.
As a result the feudal distinction between agricultural producers
with little or no land was lost and a unified and homogeneous
labour force emerged, characterised by ‘free’ wage labour.
Differences between the various social groups of the agricultural

proletariat diminished, and the social antagonism between estate
holders and large- and medium-sized peasant producers, on the one
hand, and the agricultural proletariat on the other hand, became
very evident. However, increasing capitalist production also meant
greater differentiation between large-, medium- and small-scale
peasant producers.
The trends in the social composition of the agricultural labour
force also facilitated increased mobility between the different cate-
gories and between rural and industrial employment. In particular
farm servants frequently became ‘free’ day-labourers and members
of both these groups tended to seek factory employment in the
developing sugar refineries after 1836, and from the 1850s onwards
in the metal-working factories which sprung up in and around
Magdeburg. This contributed to an intensification of contact
between the rural proletariat and the city. The breakthrough of
capitalist production in agriculture did not lead to a diminution in
social communication, but was accompanied by an expansion and
intensification, although only within each individual class and
group.
ill
The enclosure and division of common land and the abolition of

feudal dues had also deprived the peasant farmers of much of their
economic power, although this varied according to individual
groups. The early profits from their involvement in the sugar
industry were used, by and large, to pay off outstanding debts and
to retain their land. Thus at first, for these farmers, mechanisation
and the use of chemical fertilisers was out of the question. However
the early completion of the agrarian reforms and the retention of
land by the peasantry enabled large- and medium-sized peasant-
producers to benefit from the economic boom in Germany between
1853 and 1857, which continued unabated after 1859. This was
reflected particularly in their increased participation in sugar beet
production, which by now was one of the most profitable agricul-
tural sectors. Between 1850 and 1867 the number of sugar beet fac-
tories in the Magdeburg region increased from 40 to 70, by which
time approximately a quarter of all Prussian sugar beet production
was concentrated in this area. Competition for maximum profit
and market shares became particularly intense and led to a severe

deterioration in the living conditions of the indigenous agricultural
labour force.
Eventually there came a point when traditional methods of sugar
beet cultivation no longer realised the profit expectations of the
Junkers and the large- and middle-sized farmers. By the 1840s the
so-called ‘beet farmers’ (Riibenbauer) had moved over to a system
of continuous rotation, and by the end of the 1850s a much freer
system of cultivation without a set pattern of rotation had
developed in the Magdeburg region. The tenant farmers figured
particularly in the switch to monoculture. The proportion of fallow
land declined to a minimum. In 1878 in the district of Wanzleben,
the main area of beet cultivation in the Magdeburg region, only 0.3
per cent of arable lay fallow compared with 8.8 per cent for Prussia
as a whole. As a result the use of chemical fertilisers had become
common as early as the late 1850s. The introduction of machinery
dates from the same time. Formerly the ground had been dug by
hand, but this was increasingly replaced by deep ploughing with the
‘Wanzleben’ plough developed in the area. The former practice of
sowing the beet seed by hand was rapidly replaced by the use of
seed drills. A little later hand and mechanical (gin) threshing
machines appeared, along with clover- and rape-sowing machines,
and then seed drills for the other crops. There were also beet-
cutting machines and hand-sowing machines. Towards the end of
the 1850s came the steam-threshing machines and at the beginning
of the 1860s fully mechanised beet-harvesting machines, horse-
hoes, and — only on the large estates, however — steam ploughs.
From the end of the 1860s on the Junker estates there were also
mowing machines to be found. As a result of their participation in
the sugar industry even fairly small farmers had access — albeit toa
limited extent — to agricultural machinery.
The greater use of machinery meant that the amount of time
necessary to complete some agricultural tasks was significantly
reduced. The net result of this was to enhance the seasonal nature
of agricultural employment. The machines also released labour. It
should not be overlooked, however, that the introduction of machi-
nery also meant a reduction in the amount of hard physical labour
agricultural workers had to perform and an increase in the intellec-
tual skills that were demanded of them. Not only did they have to
master new techniques and skills, but mechanisation led also to the
appearance of specialised, skilled workers. The education of
technical agricultural workers had its origin in this development. °

Yet, in general, mechanisation and the increased seasonal
character of agricultural work reinforced the levelling process
within the rural workforce. The payment of a proportion of corn to
the permanent workers was abolished, wages were paid increasingly
in cash instead of in kind, and in the Magdeburg region payment in
kind had virtually disappeared by 1880. The previous relationship
between peasant farmers and farm hands was dissolved and the
permanent farm worker was increasingly replaced by the ‘free’ day-
labourer and seasonal migrant worker. The latter were generally
employed on contract, from April to November by large estate
owners and larger farmers. The farmers, naturally enough, were
concerned to make sure these workers were fully employed before
hiring any additional labour, so that local labourers were only hired
when economically necessary. The seasonal worker, who came
from the eastern provinces of Prussia and later from Poland, were
recruited not only to work in the beet fields, but also to help with
the cereal harvests. They were not only cheaper than local workers
and did not demand an allotment, but farmers also found it
profitable to use them in the wheat fields, where there was much to
do during the slack period in sugar beet cultivation between hoeing
and harvesting. Their contracts therefore kept them from spring
until late autumn. In particular, it was the local female farm
workers who suffered most from the use of seasonal workers. Now
they could often only find employment during the hoeing and
harvesting of the beet; the introduction of seed drills for sowing the
beet destroyed what had once been an exclusively female occupa-
tion. Finally, the employers used seasonal workers to depress
wages. They constituted a reserve army of agricultural labour
whose origins lay in the different pace of regional industrial
development characteristic of capitalism. The seasonal workers
were willing to accept wages regarded as insufficient by indigenous
labour, and the employers used this as a way to depress wages in
general.
This process, together with mechanisation, facilitated the intro-
duction of piecework, which further heightened the seasonal
character of agricultural production. For the workers this meant an
immediate and immense increase in the physical effort they were
required to put into their work. The opportunity of earning more
money, despite the extra physical effort involved, was an effective
incentive to use working hours to the full, or even to increase them.
In agriculture, where it was usual at critical times of the year to

have a 17-hour working day, an increase in the time worked could
only be achieved by reducing the number of rest periods. As the
employers became aware of the effectiveness of the piecework
system in getting the most out of their workers, they began, as the
English manufacturers had done before them, systematically to
reduce the amount paid per job.
The lust for profit and increased competition pushed the
employers to further measures which also had a direct effect on the
living standards of their workers. In the middle of the nineteenth
century it was still usual for permanent farm workers and servants
to be granted a small allotment of land by their employer on which
they grew potatoes or flax. Even the day-labourers who owned no
land were often able to rent an allotment. With the expansion of
sugar beet cultivation in particular, the farmers became increas-
ingly reluctant to rent out any land. The maximum they would
allow their farm servants or permanent workers to cultivate was a
small patch for potatoes, and as sugar beet production became
more lucrative, so land rents soared, making it impossible for the
labourer to rent anyway.
A labourer who is paid entirely in cash is naturally much more
vulnerable to price rises, which certainly occured in the early 1870s,
when inflation hit him harder than a labourer who received at least
part of his wages in kind. On the other hand, payment in kind
restricts the labourer’s mobility and makes him dependent on his
employer. Furthermore a rural worker employed in a village, per-
haps some miles from a main road, was often dependent on the
village storekeeper, who, with no competition, could generally
charge higher prices for food and clothing, etc. than his town
counterpart. On top of all this, the employers used the change to
payment in cash as an excuse to depress the real value of the rural
worker’s labour, by not making up in cash the true value of earlier
payments in kind.
The deterioration in the living conditions of rural labour was also
reinforced by the gradual change in the cycle of the agricultural
year. It was impossible to talk of the continuity of agricultural
work; the annual agricultural cycle was broken, and shortened by
at least two or three months. Even those labourers who managed to
find employment in the sugar factories after the beet harvest were
not fully employed. Despite increased sugar beet cultivation, new
technological developments in the last third of the nineteenth
century meant that production was usually over by the end of

January. In the winter months, therefore, until well into April,
there was virtually no regular work to be found in this area. The
working year of local male and female labourers was now differen-
tially structured, as women could only find employment later in the
year than men. Even with an increase in real wages, this meant that
wages were below the real value of labour, as ‘within the family the
number of wage-earners was reduced, while the cost of reproducing
labour within the family remained the same’.‘
The rural workforce could not be regarded as well-off even
before the decline in living standards in the 1860s. There were,
however, certain differences in the standard of living of specific
social groups, particularly between integrated farm workers (farm
servants and permanent workers) and ‘free’ day-labourers. The
threshers, being permanent farm workers, were generally able to
make ends meet. In addition to their money wages, they received
certain payments in kind, were able to maintain some livestock,
and received an adequate amount of land (1—1'% Morgen) for their
own needs. Even unmarried farm servants who received board and
lodgings from their master, and who often also had a small patch
of land for growing flax or potatoes, were relatively secure,
although the only way they could achieve their legitimate demands
for better wages or more personal freedom was to leave farm
service. However, as the employers came under more pressure from
the increasing scarcity of labour, brought about by the transition to
more intensive agriculture and the onset of industrialisation, the
farm servants began to realise some of their demands.
The social position of the ‘free’ day-labourers was much worse.
But even between the indigenous day-labourers and the seasonal
migrant workers there were certain differences. Thus most of the
day-labourers who owned a house and/or a little land were able to
keep small livestock or cultivate their own vegetables. The most
vulnerable were those day-labourers who owned neither land nor
property, or only a tiny patch of land. They were in practice com-
pletely dependent on their uncertain money wages, and if they were
able to rent a little additional land for flax and potato cultivation, it
meant parting with some of their hard-earned wages. We must
assume that, in general, these families lived on the very margin of
subsistence, and at certain times of the year fell below the subsis-
tence minimum. They could only increase their income significantly
by taking on continual piecework. It is no coincidence that this
group constituted the most mobile section of the rural proletariat.

As payment in kind became more rare, as farmers ceased to employ
permanent workers and came to rely increasingly on day-labourers
and seasonal migrant workers, and as renting or buying more land
became increasingly impossible, the general poverty of the rural
proletariat became not only more acute, but also more widespread.
The levelling process within the rural workforce was expressed in a
trend towards a common experience of poverty.
IV
This process of general impoverishment was reflected in concrete

changes in living conditions, diet and clothing. However, despite
the gradual levelling process within the rural proletariat, there still
remained very substantial differences between the various social
groups, particularly in housing conditions. Above all the degree of
integration into the employers’ economy, and the ownership of
some property (which generally included accommodation) con-
tinued to be significant. Living quarters for farm servants, without
exception, displayed two major characteristics: farm servants did
not form separate households; and their sleeping and living quar-
ters were physically separate from each other. Both were provided
by the master. Servants who were very strongly integrated into the
economy of their masters had very little say over the standard of
their living quarters. This was true both of farm servants employed
on the large estates and those employed by peasant farmers. There
was very little to choose between the sleeping quarters of these two
groups, but their living quarters differed considerably. On the
estates of the large estate owners and nobles, each of whom on
average employed between 18 and 30 male farm servants and about
as many maids, there was no possibility of a personal relationship
between employer and employee developing. Here, therefore,
special servants’ quarters had traditionally been provided.
On peasant farms it was different; where only one or two male
farm servants and the same number of maids were employed.
Servants on these farms were not only a part of the farming
economy, but also of the farmer’s family. They not only ate with
them — if not at the same table, then at least in the same room —
but also spent their free time in the farmer’s company. In the
Magdeburg region, where most farms were of the peasant type,
this was the predominant form of social organisation. During the

development of the capitalist mode of production, however, it was
destroyed. Two specific processes contributed to this: first, the dis-
solution of feudal ties and their replacement by a contract of work;
and secondly, the development of class antagonism between the
peasant farmers and the labouring classes. The relationship
between the farmer and his farmhands developed into one of overt
exploitation, without the mitigating influence of personal ties. One
direct and logical result of this was to exclude the maids and other
workers from the farmer’s family. The larger peasant farmers, with
between four and six servants, took the lead. Following the
example of the great estate owners, they began to provide separate
servants’ quarters: peasant farmers with only two servants followed
suit rather later, and only if they had the necessary space available.
However, it should be emphasised that the segregation from the
farmer’s family was welcomed by the servants themselves, as they
were glad to escape their employer’s constant surveillance, and in
many instances it seems that the exclusion took place as a result of
pressure from the servants themselves for greater independence and
more personal freedom.
From the 1860s, with the increasingly seasonal nature of agricul-
tural work, the larger beet farms kept on only a bare minimum of
permanent farm workers. In practice this was usually the married
stable hands and livestock men. This group of farm servants gained
a similar status to the other permanent farm workers, the threshers.
They usually lived in tied cottages, provided contractually by their
employers; but former threshers, who had managed to find
employment as grooms and already owned their own houses, con-
tinued to live in them; and a smaller number of these married farm
servants rented accommodation, either from small farmers or from
those labourers who owned their own houses. One common charac-
teristic of the married servants’ mode of living, in contrast to that
of single farm servants, was the fact that they constituted indepen-
dent households, with adjacent living and sleeping quarters. In so
far as single farm servants were still employed — usually on
middle-sized farms — either their living and sleeping quarters were
still separate, or they lived at home with their parents. Thus the
levelling process within the rural proletariat can be seen in this
respect as well.
Tied cottages were often located on estate land, and therefore
subject to certain ground rents and dues. Other cottages, like those
of the day labourers, were buiJt on common land. Until the 1860s,
against a general background of rising population, there was dis-
proportionate increase in the number of permanent farm workers
(threshers) living in their own houses in comparison with those
living in tied housing. This trend was clearly only possible for as
long as they received a portion of the harvest as part of their wages.
With the disappearance of this method of payment, and with the
transition to cash wages and the general reduction in the amount of
allotment land, building activity declined. This factor, together
with increasing labour shortages, which reflected the impoverish-
ment of the rural workforce and increasing urban migration,
forced the larger peasant farmers and sugar factory owners to begin
building houses for their permanent workers. By the turn of the
century in the Magdeburg region there were no permanent farm
workers who did not live in tied housing. The vast majority of
former permanent farm workers who owned their own homes had
become commuters, working in local sugar refineries or in the
metalworking industry.
Under the pressure of a rural exodus, the employers also found
themselves compelled to improve the living quarters provided for
their workers. However, as they also took every possible oppor-
tunity to reduce their capital outlay to a minimum, overcrowding
was the principal characteristic of most tied housing. Lack of space
and sparse furnishing were also common characteristics of many of
the houses owned by the permanent farm workers and day-
labourers, although here the overcrowding was not as severe as in
the tied housing. Similarly, overcrowding was common throughout
this period in the rented accommodation of the day-labourers.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, rented accommoda-
tion was usually in the houses of smaller peasant farmers. How-
ever, these farmers increasingly wanted the extra rooms themselves,
for example to provide separate accommodation for aged parents.
Evidently, the gradual loosening of family ties which had taken
place earlier in the larger peasant families, was also becoming
evident in this group. As a result, day-labourers now had to rent
accommodation either with other labourers who owned their own
houses, or perhaps with a village craftsman. As very few of these
‘free’ day-labourers would have been able to become home-owners
themselves, they thus constituted the most vulnerable section of the
agricultural proletariat.®
Evidence of the continuing levelling-down and impoverishment
of the rural workforce can also be found in their diet. In the

Magdeburg region in this period, as in other parts of Germany, the
largest part of an agricultural worker’s family budget went on
food: the proportion of annual income spent on food was approxi-
mately 60 per cent, a figure which corresponds well with the general
average for working families in pre-monopolistic Germany.” How-
ever, the daily diet of the different social groups within the rural
proletariat displayed certain variations which derived from their
differing social and economic status. So long as part of a labourer’s
wages were paid as a portion of the corn harvested — a thresher
received every 16th bushel for hand threshing, and every 20th
bushel for machine threshing — the threshers were not only pro-
vided with sufficient corn for bread for their own consumption, but
often had a surplus which could either be sold or traded for other
goods. In contrast, the ‘free’ day labourer would only receive a
payment of corn if he had been employed to harvest both the winter
and summer cereal crops. Moreover, the amount he received by
itself would scarcely have been enough to meet his own needs. In
these cases he would have to buy additional corn, flour or bread.
Permanent farm workers, with allotments or rented strips of land,
generally had adequate supplies of potatoes and other vegetables.
This was seldom the case for ‘free’ day labourers, unless they
owned their own houses with a kitchen garden.
Meat consumption was determined almost exclusively by the
weight of the family pig. This would have been supplemented at the
most by one or two goats. Extra meat was rarely purchased, and
then only during periods of hard physical labour, and for feast
days. However, only those rural labourers who had outbuildings
and enough land to grow animal feed could keep a pig or goat. This
factor also determined the consumption of goat’s milk and cheese.
Other products, such as butter, and to a large extent eggs (poultry-
keeping was not allowed everywhere), salt, sugar, lard, fish, rice,
barley, beer, coffee, spirits, etc. all had to be bought.
Thus the agricultural labourer’s diet was basically dependent on
the extent and quality of land available for cultivation; the amount
of wages paid in kind; the livestock kept; but also inevitably on the
level of real income.
The continual increase in the cost of living from about 1851 had
drastic consequences. From about 1845, when payment in kind
ceased apart from the portion of the crop paid to the threshers,
only the latter had enough cereals for their own subsistence. The
increase in the price of rye was accompanied by a marked decline in

bread consumption, and a corresponding increase in the consump-
tion of potatoes. Significantly, farmers continued to allow their
permanent workers enough land to grow their own potatoes, des-
pite the general reduction in the provision of allotment land. As the
size and availability of allotments and rented land decreased, the
possibility of keeping livestock declined. This led to a general
decrease in the consumption of meat, milk and dairy products.
Finally, this process contributed to a reduction in the consumption
of fruit and vegetables other than potatoes. Thus the standard of
nutrition for rural labourers of the Magdeburg region during the
period of the consolidation of agrarian capitalism was charac-
terised by a diet poor in meat and fat, with potatoes constituting
the main source of nourishment. More bread was eaten during the
summer months, both because the availability of piecework meant
that families could afford it, and also because potato stocks were
then at their lowest point.
While estate servants frequently complained about the poor
quality and quantity of their food, servants on peasant farms
generally received at least adequate food as long as they continued
to eat in the same room as the farmer’s family. Where they were
provided with separate quarters the quality of food generally
deteriorated, which once again reflected the increasing social
antagonism between farmers and servants. This development was
generally confined to larger peasant families; on the middling
farms, servants continued to eat in the same room as the farmer’s
family, and so did not experience a similar deterioration in their
diet.
During the 1860s the large capitalist estates began commuting the
part of a servant’s salary paid as board into cash payments. Just as
exclusion from the farmers’ families had in some ways been in the
interests of the servants, to some extent they also welcomed the
replacement of payment in kind by cash payments. Justified
grievances about the poor quality of food provided were added to
other specific provocative complaints, as servants realised that
more cash led to greater personal freedom and independence. The
same development occurred with married servants who were later
employed by farmers and estate owners in place of farm servants.
Thus in the Magdeburg region from the middle of the 1860s there
was a general levelling of the differences in nutrition, particularly
between permanent workers and day-labourers.
Clothing styles also reflected this levelling process. In the first

instance the differences had been mainly those of quality and dura-
bility. All peasant farmers wore a traditional costume (Trach?) until
at least the middle of the nineteenth century. But there is no
evidence that the labourers of the Magdeburg region ever wore a
distinctive costume. The only uniformity was the degree of shabbi-
ness. The labourers neither tried to emulate the Tracht, nor did
they develop a costume of their own. Their clothing, more than
anything, reflected what was on offer in the towns. One of the
typical features of their mode of dress was the careful distinction
between work clothes and Sunday clothes, which were for church
and feast days and festivals: a distinction that was maintained as
far as possible. Sunday clothes had not only to be decent, but also,
if possible, of a better quality than working clothes.
As far as work clothes were concerned the cheaper they were the
better. In crisis years — for example, 1848 — clothes could even
form part of payments in kind. Other sources of clothing were
secondhand clothes dealers and hand-outs from charitable gentry.
In this manner even quite smart ‘town’ clothes found their way into
the village. Next to cheapness, labourers were concerned with the
durability and hard-wearing quality of the clothes they bought, in
particular as their work clothes were subjected to a great deal of
wear and tear. With the increase in sugar beet cultivation from the
1840s in the Magdeburg region the amount of cultivated flax
declined sharply, at the same time as cotton in particular became
generally more available. Thus in place of the sturdy, hard-wearing
homespun linen clothes that former generations had worn, cotton
garments became the rule. This was another area where the position
of the rural labourers deteriorated. They now not only had to buy
their clothes in the first place, but, as cotton was less hard-wearing,
they had to replace them more frequently. This development con-
stituted an additional and continual drain on the household budget.
Vv
How did the labourers respond to increased exploitation and

declining living standards? Their response was characterised by
three elements: (i) family self-help, (ii) different forms of
solidarity, and (iii) particular methods of economic class warfare.
Family self-help frequently took the form of avoiding any
unnecessary expenditure and trying wherever possible to reduce

outgoings by making things at home. In particular in the
Magdeburg region labourers obtained their own supply of coal,
which was dug from local pits. Self-help also included the careful
preservation of clothing and household linen (by constant mending
and careful washing, the handing on of children’s clothes down
through the family, altering clothes at home, etc.) and saving on
lighting and heating costs by going to bed early. Where the family
engaged in supplementary activities, like spinning or quilting, they
often spent the evening working with neighbouring families; this
also enhanced social life and communication.
Rural workers and their families also gleaned the fields after they
had been harvested, and in times of crisis — for example, in the late
1840s when the living conditions of labourers seriously and dra-
matically declined — raids on fields, orchards and grain stores
became exceptionally common and widespread. In winter even the
sugar beet clamps were forced open and raided: ‘We’re going out
into the beet fields’ became a common expression. In November
1847, the Prussian administration passed a police law which
prohibited these practices and laid down suitable penalites. But the
labourers continued their understandable thieving forays, while the
farmers vocally but unsuccessfully demanded that only people with
a licence signed by the village authorities should be allowed into the
harvested fields. When the Prussian and then the Imperial Criminal
Law Code (passed in 1872) exempted children under 12 from the
penal code, many labourers sent their children to steal from the
fields.
Another illegal form of self-help was the insurance fraud, for
example deliberately starting fires in one’s own home. (This
obviously could only be practised by labourers who owned their
own homes.)
Mutual self-help within families consisted mainly in all family
members working the family plot of land, in the older children or
grandparents looking after smaller children, the aged, ill or handi-
capped members of the family, and in the elderly helping with the
housework. With the general and increasing impoverishment of the
labourers, family aid became increasingly important in the search
for new and more profitable work opportunities. Of course,
increasing or supplementing the family income took a high priority.
Idleness was simply not justifiable, and was actively scorned by the
labourers in the Magdeburg region.
Perhaps this is most clearly expressed in the restraint they

showed in the consumption of alcohol, an astonishing phenomenon
in view of the fact that average per capita consumption of spirits in
Germany increased steadily from the early nineteenth century.
Temperance had not always been the rule even in the Magdeburg
region, and in the early 1830s local clergy had frequently com-
plained of increasing drunkenness. The trend towards restraint
coincided with the introduction of sugar beet cultivation and the
change to payment by piecework. A contributory factor may have
been the introduction of coffee, which had the added attraction
that it could be ‘stretched’ by the addition of coffee substitutes
such as chicory, roasted rye, barley kernels and beet skins. As these
substitutes grew locally and were cheap, they thus provided a
further opportunity for savings, and from the early 1840s labourers
drank coffee substitutes instead of the traditional, and expensive,
beer to slake their thirst and to accompany their meals. This trend
began at exactly the same time as spirits, particularly potato
schnaps, were being offered as a cheaper and stronger alternative to
beer, and when employers began to use intensive methods of
exploitation, in particular piece-rate payments for specific agricul-
tural tasks, such as digging over the beet fields and harvesting
cereal crops.
This coincidence was certainly not a chance occurrence. In com-
parison with other foods it was cheaper to produce a meal based on
coffee (with bread, or potatoes), and the time factor was also
clearly important. Now the rest periods which the labourer had
been accustomed to when he was paid by the day, needed to be
voluntarily reduced to a minimum by the labourer himself so that
he could maximise his working day and realise a higher wage.
Nothing proved so suitable for this purpose as the relatively cheap
coffee substitute. It could be quickly prepared in the morning, and
also be taken into the fields in jugs and cans, which made returning
home to the village at lunchtime unnecessary. It should be noted,
however, that the disappearance of the practice of eating a hot mid-
day meal — and this not only at harvest time — represented a sig-
nificant deterioration in the labourer’s daily nutrition.
From the 1860s in the Magdeburg Borde spirits were increasingly
displaced as a stimulant and tonic by beer, which was now con-
siderably cheaper. The introduction of mechanisation certainly
contributed to this development. Looking after a machine did not
demand crude muscle power enhanced by schnaps, but rather,
greater care and skill. Employers, therefore, often wrote specific

clauses into work contracts which forbade the consumption of
spirits before and during working hours, as they were now con-
cerned with the maintenance of expensive machinery. In addition
particularly the younger labourers regarded beer-drinking as a kind
of status symbol, and its consumption was regarded as more
refined than drinking spirits. Despite the fact that it was clearly
unnecessary, the clergy in the Magdeburg region tried to set up
temperance unions as their counterparts in the United States and
Britain had done. They had no success.
Indigenous labourers also attempted to maximise their earning
capacity through the skilful utilisation of specific mechanisms of
the capitalist labour market, often depending on the assistance of
family members, friends and acquaintances. If they still had a little
land for growing flax, they could earn some supplementary income
by the sale of linen thread, but keeping livestock was more
significant. Even when the employers reduced the amount of allot-
ment and rented land, and thus limited the possibility of growing
animal feedstuffs, the labourers held on to their livestock, resorting
largely to field raids to feed them. This was not of course viable in
the long term, and the largest and most useful source of supple-
mentary income was derived from the remaining cultivable allot-
ment or plot, whether owned or leased by the labourer.
During the working week the labourer was supposed to work
only on the farmer’s land. This meant that the labourer could only
cultivate his own patch on Sundays and feast days, and even this
was restricted during harvest time. In addition there were numerous
religious restrictions about working on Sundays. At a time when
there were no legal limits to the amount of time a man could work,
the ban on Sunday working could have been to the labourers’
advantage, as it limited the working week to six days. However, as
it did not take account of the real situation of the working popu-
lation, in practice this measure worked against their interests.
While employers had the whole week, day by day, from morning
till evening, with 10, 12 and even 17 hours a day to cultivate their
land with others’ labour, the labourer had only Sundays and feast
days to cultivate his own patch. A genuinely humane and Christian
attitude — and the most vociferous advocates of banning Sunday
working claimed to represent such an approach — would have
taken into acount the real needs of the working population. Along
with banning work on a Sunday they should also have advocated
a regulation of working hours, which would have enabled the

labourer to cultivate his own patch of land at certain times during
the working week. Only then would labourers have been able to
enjoy Sundays as a day of rest. But this was not the case, as the
economic interests of the farmers precluded such a regulation of
working hours. As it was also in the farmers’ interests to maintain a
healthy working population they enforced the ban on Sunday
working and made their labourers observe Sundays and feast days
as rest days. The farmers were also concerned to leave open a
possible channel for ideological influence by the ruling class,
namely through church-going. The state was also interested in this
context in maintaining a relatively healthy rural population for
conscription purposes. However despite repeated threats and actual
punishments, the rural labourers continued openly to defy all laws
forbidding Sunday work.
In addition to putting the cultivation of their own patch of land
on a regular basis, the indigenous rural labouring families resorted
to another method of increasing the family labour force, apart
from using the labour of family members and friends. In order to
provide the family with additional labour they encouraged their
adult sons and daughters to marry early, although this met with
opposition from the children themselves, particularly from those in
service, who wanted greater personal independence. This ploy also
relieved the problem of overcrowding in the parental home. The
trend was further strengthened by the fact that women’s wages in
particular were declining in the 1860s: they were now unemployed
for longer periods during the year due to mechanisation and the
increasing use of seasonal migrant workers. Therefore it is not sur-
prising that parents should have favoured early marriage to relieve
the burden on the parental home. Easy relations between the sexes
were not only silently tolerated by the parents, but in very many
cases actively encouraged. It was also usual that where a couple had
engaged in sexual relations, they both recognised a moral obliga-
tion to marry. Under these circumstances it is no wonder that pre-
marital sex evoked no moral indignation on the part of the
indigenous rural proletariat. If disapproval was voiced, it was
usually on economic grounds, though if the daughter became preg-
nant marriage was certainly the most economic course.
The spirit of family self-help, typical of the relatively high moral
code of rual labourers in the Magdeburg region, was also evident in
their readiness to help others. In the crisis years of 1846/47 they
collected substantial donations for workers suffering in other parts

of Germany.
For a long time the acquisition of a sufficiently large plot of land
to ensure a degree of security seemed to the labourers of the
Magdeburg region a worthy goal, and one that was worth saving
and making sacrifices for. The demand for land was the main issue
in their conflict with the great landowners and employers of the
region. But they did not have the remotest chance of realising these
demands through legal means — for example, by influencing
village policies. This remained true even after the introduction in
1850 of progressive legislation governing local political structures,
a result of the struggles of the bourgeois-democratic revolution. In
any case, it was rescinded three years later by the victorious forces
of the counter-revolution. They were thus forced to resort to illegal
methods. They were particularly incensed by the measures con-
nected with enclosure, in particular by the inequity of the distri-
bution of former common land. In two villages collective arson
resulted, and two other parishes joined in the public disturbances
during the revolutionary year of 1848. In addition to the burning of
property, setting fire to wheat fields was also popular. However the
majority of these violent acts were isolated incidents and were
partly acts of revenge, or attempts at intimidation.
But collective actions stopped at the village boundaries. The
indigenous rural workers did not join together to form larger
regional associations. Their failure to increase their power and thus
improve their chances of success was a result of an undeveloped
class-consciousness and their geographical isolation. Of great sig-
nificance was the fact that in the Magdeburg region west of the
Elbe (in contrast to the situation to the east) class conflict had
developed very early between the peasantry and the rural prole-
tariat. On the one hand this tended to increase the development of
class-consciousness both of the rural proletariat and of the peasant
farmers. On the other hand, it also produced a feeling of isolation
on the part of the rural labourers within the framework of the dis-
integration of the village community. Their earlier alliance with the
peasantry, in particular with the more prosperous sections of it,
which was basically a non-feudal one, broke down as soon as the
peasantry were freed of their feudal restrictions. The increasingly
prosperous ‘sugar beet peasants’ were no longer their partners but
increasingly their class enemies, who now openly sided with the
great landowners.
This conflict, which reflected the class antagonism between the

Junkers and the rural proletariat, even affected the relationship
between farm servants and permanent farm workers and their
employers. It was particularly apparent in the struggle of these
workers for better working and living conditions. Again, however,
individual action was the rule in these struggles. Some of the most
widely used methods to improve or shorten the period of service
preferred by servants, and which were occasionally successful,
included deliberate damage to equipment, provocation, bad
behaviour, frequent changes of master, negotiating short-term
contracts, breaking contracts, and in the case of male farm servants
refusing to enter into a new contract after their period of
compulsory military service. After the defeat of the 1848/49
revolution, most of the methods of resistance which had been used
previously — for example, general disturbances or uprisings, or
acts of individual or collective terror — were no longer possible due
to the changed political situation. However, rapid industrialisation
allowed the more frequent use of one particular method, which
formerly had only been one among several, namely the actual or
threatened breach of the employment contract. In the case of the
day labourers this mostly involved quitting employment early —
for example during harvest time, or at least threatening to do so.
The most significant legal measure set in motion by the forces of
political reaction in the interests of the large estate owners was a
law ‘pertaining to the negligence of farm servants and labourers’,
passed in 1854. This law was characteristic of the counter-revolu-
tion’s method of protecting its own interests, and one can imagine
how unpopular it was with the Prussian rural proletariat.
The employers however could never achieve the success they
hoped for. So in the Magdeburg region, at least, they resorted to
other methods. Even the Anti-Socialist Law of 1878—90, which
made it easier to punish contract-breakers, failed to satisfy them.
The only method remaining to them was to bind their servants by
offering small concessions, while at the same time reducing cus-
tomary favours in their own interest. Thus the possibility of higher
earnings through piecework had to be paid for by the labourers by
enormous physical effort; the little potato allotment was set against
the impossibility of renting additional land; the small improve-
ments in living conditions were offset by the binding terms of the
written contract; and so on. However, the most profitable and
efficient method that the employers found to combat the effects
of the flight from the land was the massive employment of seasonal
migrant workers. In some places this might have made it easier to
break contracts, but its major significance lay in the fact that it
seriously undermined the position of the indigenous rural labourers
in their continuing struggle for a direct improvement in their living
and working conditions.
Notes
1. This article is a summary of the author’s monograph: Landarbeiterleben im

19. Jahrhundert. Eine volkskundliche Untersuchung tiber Verdnderungen in der
Lebensweise der einheimischen Landarbeiterschaft in den Dorfern der Magdeburger
Borde unter den Bedingungen der Herausbildung und Konsolidierung des
Kapitalismus in der Landwirtschaft. Tendzen und Triebkrdéfte (Akademie der
Wissenschaften der DDR. Zentralinstitut fiir Geschichte. Verdéffentlichungen zur
Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, Band 65, Berlin, 1979). Detailed source
references can be found in this book.
2. For a comparison see, for example, Christel Heinrich, ‘Lebensweise und
Kultur der in- und auslandischen landwirtschaftlichen Saisonarbeiter von der Mitte
des 19. Jahrhunderts bis 1918’, in Bauer und Landarbeiter im Kapitalismus in der
Magdeburger Borde. Zur Geschichte des dorflichen Alltags vom Ausgang des 18.
Jahrhunderts bis zum Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Akademie der Wissenschaften
der DDR. Zentralinstitut fiir Geschichte. Verdffentlichungen zur Volkskunde und
Kulturgeschichte, Band 66/3, Berlin, 1982), pp. 117-62.
3. For an extensive commentary see the article by Hans-Heinrich Miiller, ‘Zur
Geschichte und Bedeutung der Riibenzuckerindustrie in der Provinz Sachsen im 19.
Jahrhundert unter besonderer Berticksichtigung der Magdeburger Borde’, in Land-
wirtschaft und Kapitalismus. Zur Entwicklung der 6konomischen und sozialen Ver-
hdltnisse in der Magdeburger Borde vom Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum
Ende des ersten Weltkrieges, 2 (Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Zentral-
institut fiir Geschichte. Veréffentlichungen zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte,
vol. 66/2, Berlin, 1979), pp. 9-61.
4. For a comparison, see Siegfried Graffunder, Die gesetzmdssige Verelendung
der werktatigen Volkschichten unter den Bedingungen der landwirtschaftlichen Pro-
duktionssteigerung in Deutschland des vormonopolistischen Kapitalismus, Land-
wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Dissertation (Berlin, 1960).
5. Jiirgen Kuczynski, Die Theorie der Lage der Arbeiter (Die Geschichte der Lage
der Arbeiter unter dem Kapitalismus, vol. 36, Berlin, 1968), p. 73.
6. On living conditions for the rural labourers in this area, see Hans-Jiirgen Rach,
Bauernhaus, Landarbeiterkaten und Schnitterkaserne. Zur Geschichte von Bauen
und Wonhen der !dndlichen Agrarproduzenten in der Magdeburger Borde des 19.
Jahrhunderts (Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR. Zentralinstitut fiir
Geschichte. Verdffentlichungen zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, vol. 58,
Berlin, 1974).
7. Cf. Gaffunder, op. cit., p. 128.
8. Cf. Weyhe, ‘Vortrag tiber die Riibenzuckerfabrikation und deren Besteuerung,
gehalten in dem zu Frankfurt a.M. in November 1848 versammeiten Congress
deutscher Landwirthe’, in Zeitschrift des landwirtschaftlichen Central-Vereins der
Provinz Sachsen, vol. 6 (1849), p. 91.
5 FARMERS AND FACTORY WORKERS
Rural Society in Imperial Germany: the Example’ of
Maudach
Cathleen S. Catt
For a number of reasons which have been well rehearsed elsewhere!

the immediate post-war generation of German historians was pre-
occupied with the study of high politics in the conservative
scholarly tradition. During the 1960s a younger generation suc-
cessfully challenged this conservative interpretation of recent
German history both intellectually and institutionally.2 The overall
thesis that this new interpretation generated has been extremely
fruitful in terms of the research it has inspired, and it has become
widely accepted — so much so that it has been referrred to as a
‘new orthodoxy’. It sees Wilhelmine Germany as a basically pre-
industrial society suddenly catapulted into the industrial age.3
German industrialisation certainly occurred much later than in
Britain or France, where the origins of industrialisation are often
traced back to the 1750s.* Germany cannot be regarded as partially
industrialised even as late as the 1820s (although a convincing case
has been made for regarding the period 1800—50 as a period of
‘proto-industrialisation’ in certain parts of what was later the
German empire).° It is also claimed that German industrialisation
was partial, in that some sectors of the economy industrialised very
rapidly, while others lagged behind. Again there is certainly a great
deal of evidence to back up this view, although the evenness of
British and French industrialisation should not be overemphasised.
Finally, it is claimed, industrialisation in Germany was much more
rapid than was the case in Britain or France. As a result of these
three factors a series of stresses and strains was set up within the
social fabric, and the pre-industrial ruling élites were obliged to
come to terms with new social forces without the time for adjust-
ment which Britain and France had supposedly enjoyed. This set of
circumstances is sometimes referred to as ‘synchronous
anachronism’ (gleichzeitige Ungleichzeitigkeit).° This notion helps
129
130 Farmers and Factory Workers
account for both the reaction of the pre-industrial élites (regarded

by some as social imperialism)’ and their (later) attempts to use
Nazism. It also helps explain the political reaction of the middle
classes to the threat posed by the working-class movement, and
eventually, the underlying appeal of Nazi ideology.
The newer generation of historians, both in Britain and in West
Germany, have been widely influenced by this persuasive interpre-
tation of the history of Wilhelmine Germany. Nevertheless, for
some time it has been apparent that this view of German history
sees the immense social upheavals that were taking place in the
second half of the nineteenth century mainly from the point of view
of the élite circles of government and socially-privileged groups. By
simply stressing the continuity of German society through to the
1930s, it largely ignores the complexities of the changes that were
certainly taking place. So it is clearly in need of some revision. Thus
younger historians have increasingly stressed the importance of
‘history from below’ in illuminating this immensely complex
process of change.
Within this general context, the study of rural society has been
largely neglected — though this is now being rectified, as the contri-
butions to this volume show.® The same basic dichotomy is
reflected here: earlier studies of rural society stressed the tradi-
tionalism and conservatism of the German peasantry, and went on
to discuss in depth the way in which agrarian élites manipulated the
peasantry through various interest groups.’ More recent work has
stressed the extent to which the peasantry themselves became politi-
cised, through particular economic pressures, and has argued that
this politicisation was by no means a straightforward, conservative
one. Indeed, Ian Farr has stressed that it was peasant radicalism
that pushed the Centre Party into introducing more radical
policies,’ and David Blackbourn’s study of the Centre Party in
Wiirttemberg backs up the idea that to some extent the grassroots
of politics were as important in shaping policy as any national
criterion.!!
Within the general debate, there are very few detailed local
studies of rural society on which to base more wide-ranging conclu-
sions.’ It was for this reason that I undertook a study of one par-
ticular village — Maudach, in the Bavarian Palatinate. The
Palatinate belonged to the Bavarian state during the nineteenth
century, but it was economically and politically very different from
Bavaria. For a start, the Palatinate had been under the direct
Farmers and Factory Workers 131
Figure 5.1: Map of the Palatinate
( @ Frankfurt
GERMAN CONFEDERATION
PRUSSIA HESSE—DARMSTADT
Phe ¢
Sealed
Ludwigshafen Mannheim
o ele
Kaiserslautern Maudach © Heidelberg
e
Speyer
KEY
Boundary of the
ae German Confederation
~~ Boundaries between
a
German States
e Major towns
0 10) 20
ese) Scale in kilometres
control of the French during the Napoleonic wars. It retained

throughout its association with Bavaria its right to the Code Civil.
This affected many aspects of social and political life. The
Palatinate is a small region (5927.96 sq. km) with a diverse
climate and soil. The strip of land (some 10—15 km wide) running
alongside the Rhine is some of the most fertile farming soil in
Central Europe. In the nineteenth century it supported many pro-
sperous farming villages.'* It was on this fertile strip that cash crops
were first grown extensively, particularly tobacco and flax. These
crops were later replaced largely by market gardening, which still
flourishes today.'* Further west are the famous wine-growing
regions of the Palatinate, and westwards of these the impoverished
hilly region of the Westrich which stretches to the French border
(see Figure 5.1).
Maudach is situated in the fertile farming land approximately
4km from what is now the large industrial conurbation of
Ludwigshafen/Mannheim. To a large extent the social history of
Maudach has been shaped by the meteoric growth of the town of
Ludwigshafen. In 1840 there were only 90 inhabitants of the town’s

predecessor, the settlement called the Rheinschanze. These were
mainly farmers, dockers and warehousemen, as there was a landing
place on the river bank. By 1905 the population had risen to
72,286:'6 an increase by a factor of 83 in 65 years. The growth of
Ludwigshafen was associated with its increasing importance as a
port, but also with the development of the chemical and light
engineering industries. In particular the siting of the Badische
Anilin- und Sodafabrik (BASF) just to the north of the town in
1865 contributed to its growth.’
This meteoric population growth was not reflected in Maudach.
Its population only doubled in 60 years, rising from 828 in 1835 to
1521 in 1895. However, during this time Maudach changed from an
essentially rural community (some 70 per cent of the population
derived their living from agricultural pursuits in 1840) to a com-
munity split between those who still gained their living from agri-
culture and those who subsisted on industrial employment.!® Thus
Maudach represents an interesting context for a study of the
stresses within rural society caused by the rapid industrial growth
of Germany in the nineteenth century.!°
Within the context of a comprehensive social and economic
study of the village, based on a family reconstitution, I have
focused on one question in particular: Does the evidence support
the idea that rural society remained essentially traditional and con-
servative throughout the Wilhelmine period? Can we talk about the
unchanging nature of that society, in contrast to the changes taking
place in the urban environment? Or did the profound social
changes taking place directly affect the rural population in a funda-
mental way before 1900?
If local studies are to illuminate wider historical questions then it
is imperative that they should at least attempt to reflect adequately
the complexities of the societies they seek to represent. Some earlier
rural studies ran into the problem of an oversimplified analytical
structure which represented a rather static picture of village life
which ‘responded’ to changes which were generated outside the
village.”” From here it was a short step to seeing rural groups as the
dupes of outside:‘manipulative forces. In order to overcome this
problem it has been the main aim of this study to seek out the
differing and sometimes conflicting experiences of the various
social groups within the village of Maudach. In doing this, I hope
to answer the question as to whether village life was vitally affected
in the period 1840—1900 by the social tensions attendant on rapid

industrialisation, and to explore the problem of how far those
changes in village economic relations, power structure and under-
lying attitudes were generated within the village itself. In this way
we can question the myth of an unchanging rural society dominated
by peasant conservatism, and ultimately help explain why some sec-
tions of the rural population turned so readily to conservative and
finally fascist ideologies.
Il
Any attempt at classifying a population in the past runs immedi-

ately into problems. What categories should be used, and what
relation do they bear to social reality? Historians can either set up
their own categories and, using various socio-economic indices, slot
individuals into socio-economic categories of their own devising,?!
or they can use the classifications current at the time and investigate
the socio-economic reality behind the labels. Both methods have
certain methodological and theoretical problems associated with
them: any classification system cuts across what is essentially a con-
tinuum of human activity.
The classification system used here is the result of a compromise,
arrived at empirically. During the initial stages of data-collection it
became clear that the registrar of births, marriages and deaths was
dealing with — or thought he was dealing with — people who
belonged mainly to three occupational groups: farmers (Ackerer),
day-labourers (Tagner) and factory workers (Fabrikarbeiter). The
great majority of Maudach residents were listed under these three
occupations throughout the period. However, there were also a
great many other occupations listed, particularly from 1880
onwards, such as innkeepers, smiths, carpenters, tailors, builders,
bricklayers, and so on. Many of these occupations could be
regarded either as petty-bourgeois or as artisan occupations. How-
ever, there were not, in any of the three 20-year periods between
1840 and 1900, enough of these ‘other’ occupations to be analysed
statistically if the group was broken down further. There were,
however, too many to leave out of the picture entirely. Thus I have
included those whose occupation did not fall into the other three
occupational categories in a miscellaneous group referred! to
throughout as the ‘self-employed’, as the majority certainly were. I
make no claims for these to be regarded as a cohesive social group.

This certainly represents an oversimplification of the social situa-
tion in Maudach, and elsewhere I have looked at the group in
more detail, but it does have the advantage that it leaves three sub-
stantial and clear-cut occupational groups within the village which
can then be analysed to discover the social reality behind the labels
used at the time.
In the following, then, it should be remembered that the terms
‘farmers’, ‘labourers’ and ‘workers’ refer to those classified as such
by the registrar of births, marriages and deaths. It may be that the
social reality behind the term was rather different from our expec-
tations, and that the term was used to cover a wider range of activi-
ties than might at first be expected (this is particularly true of the
farmers). It does not seem reasonable, however, to set up, at this
stage, another, essentially arbitrary classification system. Through-
out I have used the term ‘farmers’ as a translation for Backerer
rather than peasant, as from the late eighteenth century at the latest
large sections of the Palatinate farming community had ceased to
be peasant farmers in the usually accepted sense of the word,”
although to regard them as fully capitalist farmers would be equally
mistaken.
Figure 5.2 shows graphically the changes in occupation that had
taken place in Maudach by 1900. Before discussing the changes in
more detail it is necessary first to introduce a note of caution about
the figures. The statistics on which this graph are based have been
compiled from a variety of sources — a family reconstitution,”
land tax records,** and some unpublished statistics of the Bavarian
administration in Speyer.” Each set of figures has its own biases
and pitfalls. In particular unmarried men and women who owned
no land are hard to identify. This is borne out by an examination of
the 1851 Bavarian government survey, which shows a slightly larger
percentage of labourers than appears from the family reconstitu-
tion, and a number of farm servants who do not appear at all in the
other sources, apart from the occasional mother of an illegitimate
child. The proportion of farm servants in the Bavarian government
survey is approximately 3 per cent of Maudach’s total population.
The discrepancy between the number of labourers shown in the
survey and the results of the family reconstitution is approximately
4 per cent. So in all, the single, landless element of the population
may have accounted for about 7 per cent in 1851. However, bearing
in mind the fact that the figures for the farmers in particular might
Figure 5.2: The Social Structure of Maudach, 1840—1900
50
40 4 ~~ar,
ra ~Ze,,
GAN ~
a —~
i a NS a
30 Ne
1@)
VsOo ‘ N
XN
NX
a
20 pee
ae X
Ne .
eat
oe ee es
¥
a ee sane \\
\
\
\
10 \
\
\
N
\
by
1 '
1840 1851 1860 1880 1900
Sources: St. A. Lu. Bes. Mau., pp. 631-848; L. A. Speyer Prasidialakten

H3 220 n-x.
be a little inflated because of this, the general trend of the changing

occupational structure of Maudach is clear enough.
In the decade 1840—S0 roughly one-third of the population were
farmers and their families, one-third labourers, and the remaining
third either fell into the category of ‘self-employed’ or were
weavers. By 1860 the situation had changed. The number of
farmers had actually increased slightly, as had the proportion of
the ‘self-employed’. However the proportion of labourers had
decreased slightly and there were now a few factory workers in the
village. By 1880 the trend had become clear. The proportion of
farmers in the village was declining, although it is important to
remember that this does not mean that the absolute number of
farmers was declining. In fact, there were slightly more farmers in
1880 than there had been in 1840; it was their numerical importance
in relation to the rest of the village, whose population had been
gradually increasing since 1860, which had declined. However, as
far as the labourers were concerned both their relative numerical
importance and their absolute number had declined considerably
since the 1860s, while the proportion of the ‘self-employed’
remained at approximately the same level. By 1900 the workers
were by far the most important group statistically in the village,
comprising over 50 per cent of the population. The numerical
importance of the farmers had declined even further, although
there were still more farmers in 1900 than there had been in 1840.
The labourers were by now a numerically almost insignificant
group, while the proportion of the self-employed had increased.
Thus the occupational profile of the village in 1900 was radically
different from the profile for the village in 1840. It is tempting to
conclude that what happened was that labourers left their work on
the land and took jobs in factories, changing their old masters for
new. However, the situation was far more complex than this. A
look at people’s life histories reveals that although most (80 to 90
per cent) farmers remained farmers throughout their lives,
labourers lived in a more precarious situation, drifting from
labouring to factory work and back again. Some managed to save
enough of the money they earned as factory workers to set up as
farmers, while some farmers, unable to survive the agricultural
depressions of the 1870s and 1880s became factory workers them-
selves. Certainly, many farmers’ sons also took work in the
factories either before inheriting their portion of the family farm or
as an alternative, leaving the farm intact to another brother.?’
Il
Maudach iies on some of the best farming land in the Palatinate, on

the fertile soil of the Rhine plain. Although its position has meant
that it has in the past been liable to serious flooding, and although
the presence of stagnant pools of surface water was detrimental to
the general health of the population throughout the nineteenth
century, this privileged position meant that it could support a fairly
large farming population on a relatively small amount of land.
Here, according to Mang and Zink,” a farming family could live

reasonably well on 2 hectares of land, provided it was farmed effi-
ciently. Two hectares may seem at first sight rather an underestima-
tion, particularly as contemporaries writing about other areas,
notably Bavaria, seem to have regarded 10 hectares as the mini-
mum requirement. However two points must be remembered.
First, the land in this area was regarded by contemporaries as
among the most fertile in Germany”? — Mang and Zink themselves
stress that further west on the hilly land of the Westrich even 10
hectares could be insufficient to keep a family. Secondly, the main
crop in the Palatinate was, by the 1840s at the latest, potatoes,
which grew particularly well in the fertile loam of the Rhine plain.
Other areas with similar conditions (for example the Black Fens of
East Anglia) have also been reported as producing enough food for
a family from 2 hectares.*°
All the farmers who lived in Maudach throughout the second
half of the nineteenth century owned some land, so we are not
dealing with a situation where there were large numbers of tenant
farmers, although there was a large area of council land which was
regularly leased out, and which farmers could use to supplement
their own land if it was insufficient.?! In 1840, when a new land tax
register was drawn up, nearly 40 per cent of the men classified as
farmers (Ackerer) owned under 2 hectares of land. Just over 35 per
cent owned between 3 and 5 hectares, while just under 20 per cent
owned between 6 and 10 hectares. Only 4 per cent owned over 10
hectares. In 1880 this pattern was even more pronounced, and 45
per cent of the men calling themselves farmers owned under 2
hectares of land. By 1900 however the proportion had dropped to
35 per cent, and the proportion falling into the 2—5 hectare cate-
gory had risen accordingly. The proportion of farmers in the other
size categories remained much the same throughout the period, as
we can see from Figure 5.3.
These figures are interesting for, on the face of it, they mean that
over one-third of the men in the village calling themselves farmers
owned insufficient land to feed themselves and a family. Further-
more the number, absolutely and relatively, of these men increased
between 1840 and 1880, although it thereafter declined. How can
this be accounted for? First, some may have had a supplementary
means of income. Petersen remarks? that the most widespread
form of supplementary income in the Palatinate was distilling
spirits from potatoes, and it is likely that some of the farmers were
Figure 5.3: Amount of Land Owned by Farmers in Maudach,

1840-1900
50
40
w oO
farmers
20
total
of
percent
10
1840 50 60 70 80 90 1900
involved in this. Other supplementary forms of income for the

Maudach farmer ranged from peat-cutting (there was an abundant
supply in the nearby peat bog formed by the Rhine) to the cash-
cropping of tobacco, flax or, in the later period, the production of
milk and fresh vegetables for the nearby town of Ludwigshafen.
Secondly, and more importantly, the amount of land a farmer
owned changed over his lifetime. In this region a son rarely
inherited a farm intact. In the first place, the area was governed by
the French Code Civil, which made it illegal for the father to hand
over the farm intact to one son; each child was entitled to an equal
share. What often happened was that when a son reached a certain
age — this varied from family to family, and does not appear to
coincide very exactly with marriage plans — the farmer would hand
over a small amount of land to his son to farm. Two hectares might
be necessary to feed a family, but less than 1 hectare would be suffi-
cient to keep one man in food. The son would almost certainly
eventually marry a girl who would bring some land with her as her
marriage portion, and thereafter he would strive to increase his

land through purchase, and if necessary rent some land either from
the village council or an absentee landowner (of whom there were
several). Clearly the nature of the local land market is crucial.
Petersen suggests? that throughout the Palatinate it was buoyant
between 1850 and 1880. Certainly the farmers of Maudach were
able to increase their land, as the land records clearly show.*4 This
can be partly accounted for by the amount of cash in the economy
as a result of cash-cropping, sales of local peat and timber, and the
proximity to Ludwigshafen. Thus there was a lively land market in
the Palatinate, and this pattern of acquisition of land over a life-
time was widespread.* Finally the farmer would begin settling land
on his sons and daughters as they married or became old enough to
set up for themsleves, and at the age of 70 he might well be left with
a plot of land about the size he started out with. Thus the fact that
about one-third of the men calling themselves farmers did not own
enough land to keep themselves and a family reflects as much this
cycle of landholding, as it indicates a growing impoverishment
through the vicissitudes of partible inheritance. Certainly this large
proportion of farmers owning under 2 hectares of land does suggest
that Maudach, in line with other villages in areas of partible inheri-
tance, did suffer from land morcellisation. Many could in fact be
classified as ‘smallholders’ and in economic terms there may have
been little difference between farmers at this end of the scale and
those labourers who managed, through the manipulation of the
local land market, to achieve a similar level of landholding. How-
ever it would be a mistake to overemphasise the extent of morce-
lisation, as many of those with land under 2 hectares did have either
a genuine expectation of more land through marriage (which few
labourers could aspire to) or had only themselves to keep in old age
— avery different situation from a labourer with 2 hectares and
seven children to provide for.
Yet the fact that the proportion of farmers owning less than 2
hectares of land increased between 1840 and 1880, coupled with the
fact that the absolute number of farmers also increased in these
years, does seem to indicate that increasing competition made it
more difficult for a young farmer to increase his land. The fairly
dramatic drop in the proportion of farmers owning under 2
hectares between 1880 and 1900 on the other hand, coupled with a
slight decrease in the absolute number of farmers, seem to indicate
that the weakest went to the wall. Those with some advantage,
perhaps better land or marketing sense, or who chose to diversify

and serve the growing population of Ludwigshafen, did well, and
the proportion of farmers in the 2—5 hectare category certainly
increased in the last two decades of the nineteenth century. A
process of rationalisation seems to have taken place in Maudach’s
farming in these years. Petersen highlights this development by
remarking that it was the small farmers rather than the large estates
that were maximising productivity by growing cash crops increas-
ingly from the 1870s.%¢ In particular tobacco, flax and onions were
grown in increasing quantities. Rather than the number of impove-
rished farmers continuing to rise, as one could expect in an area of
partible inheritance, the numbers dimished as the weaker, smaller
farmers found other occupations in the growing industrial and
service sectors. It seems reasonable to conclude that although many
of the farmers in Maudach owned less than 2 hectares of land,
many were able, during their lives, to increase the amount of land
they owned. Their proximity to a large industrial town from the
1870s meant that even smaller farmers in the late nineteenth
century could be assured of a certain level of income from market
gardening and cash crops — an assurance which did not extend to
wheat and cereal growers elsewhere, adversely affected by foreign
competition.*” There were opportunities of raising money to buy
extra land. However, it is also reasonable to suppose that some who
began farming in the 1870s and 1880s were not able to compete suc-
cessfully and chose other ways of earning a living, leaving a smaller
number of more successful farmers who may have maintained a
higher standard of living in the late nineteenth century.*8
Far more numerous, however, were the agricultural day-
labourers. There were in general a considerable number of day-
labourers on the land in the Palatinate in the nineteenth century; in
Maudach they accounted for about one-third of the population
until the 1860s. Thereafter their numbers began to decline, and they
quickly became a minority within the village. In Maudach the day
labourers were not landless, and until 1900 and beyond, almost all
day labourers owned some land. (The figures range from 95—7 per
cent, although this is probably an overestimation, due to the diffi-
culty of identifying the unmarried landless section of the popula-
tion.) The amount of land they owned was of course very small,
and usually insufficient to keep a family. In 1840 only 3.5 per cent
of day labourers owned over 2 hectares of land, in 1880 3.1 per
cent; in general these were labourers descended from weaving
families. However in 1900, although the absolute number of day-

labourers had fallen to under half the number there had been in
1840, 17 per cent owned over 2 hectares of land. Most of the day-
labourers throughout the period, however, owned less (often con-
siderably less) than 0.34 hectares (1 Tagwerk) of land, and the
absolute necessity of labouring to obtain the basic necessities of life
cannot be seriously disputed. The fact that there were labourers
Owning more than 2 hectares and that the proportion of these
increased can perhaps also be accounted for by reference to bureau-
cratic registration procedures, and the traditional nomenclature of
holdings, which may not have taken into account the way in which
holding size could fluctuate. This means that there may well have
been some overlap between the economic position ‘of those at the
bottom of the scale in the occupational group of farmers, and those
at the top of the scale in the labouring group. A degree of overlap is
however, inevitable in any classification system, and as long as it is
remembered that labels specify groups along a continuum, this
should not be an insuperable problem.
The day-labourers generally worked for the larger farmers, and
for the one large estate owner, Count von Waldkirchen, who
owned a large estate in Maudach until 1849. They also found work
in the summer months as peat-cutters, working either directly for
the village council or again for one of the larger farmers. There
were Other jobs offered by the village council as well; while they
meant a steady income, there were several problems attached to
these. There were two field watchers, whose job was to prevent
theft from the fields, report the first signs of pest problems such as
beetles and mice, and whose job it was to keep the paths and walk-
ways clear of weeds. There was also a nightwatchman, a cowherd, a
gooseherd and a man who looked after the horses which were
grazed on the council meadow land. In the 1830s these council
workers were still paid partly in kind, and this continued right up to
the 1890s, although the money part of the wages became increas-
ingly important.
How adequate was the wage paid to the agricultural labourers?
Of course this is a particularly difficult question to answer. For the
period 1840—60 it is very difficult to say with any certainty what the
standard of living of an agricultural worker might be. Wages were
still paid at least partly in kind, so that in a bad year a labourer or
council employee would at least be sure of a certain amount of
grain, irrespective of price. However this was seldom enough
to feed a family on, and the labourer had to supplement this grain
both with the produce of his own plot and by buying in necessary
staples. Food prices varied enormously, depending on the weather,
pests and crop diseases, and when food prices were high this was
often when the produce from the labourers’ own patch of land was
inadequate too. What was an adequate wage one year might be piti-
fully inadequate the next. For the 1840s particularly there is
evidence of widespread poverty and distress in Maudach, as all over
Germany. In 1840 Maudach’s council had to pay out 84 florins
from the poor relief fund. This rose to 130 florins in 1842 and 210
in 1847.39 In 1843, 490 loaves of bread were distributed to the
poor,” and in the same year the council petitioned the Bavarian
administration to be allowed to let 36 debtors to the council post-
pone payment*! ‘because there is no possibility of any work for the
lower classes’. The potato famine in 1847/48 struck the Palatinate
particularly hard, as for many years the poorer classes of the popu-
lation had subsisted almost entirely on a diet of potatoes and sour
milk.4? In Maudach the village council had to set up a vigilante
group to prevent thefts from the fields, which threatened to over-
whelm them.*
The 1850s were better in some respects, and there was no repeat
of the terrible failure of the potato crop. Yet the problem of
poverty did not disappear. Contemporary reports all agree that the
poorer classes in the Palatinate lived on simple, unvaried fare, in
overcrowded, poorly-lit and poorly-heated accommodation, and
were frequently exhausted by long hours of hard work outside and
wore ragged inadequate clothing.“ In the late nineteenth century
the labourers were consistently paid less — often considerably less
— than the unskilled factory workers, whose wages were often well
below the level considered by contemporaries as the minimum pos-
sible to keep a family on* although payments in kind continued for
council workers until well into the 1880s. For example in 1886 the
nightwatchman was paid 120 Marks p.a. and 10 hectolitres of
grain. During this period the average general wage for an adult
male agricultural labourer was around 200 Marks p.a. They were
paid from 50 pfennigs to 1 Mark less per day than the average
worker in the chemical industry.“ They did of course have the
produce of their own plots of land. Thus the evidence suggests that
the day labourers continued throughout the nineteenth century to
subsist on the threshold of poverty. However, the day labourers of
Maudach were certainly in a better position than the entirely
landless labourers further east.4” ,

A third occupational group in the village consisted of the self-
employed. Fewer people in this group owned land in the village but
even so, throughout the period, between 68 and 73 per cent of them
owned some land. The amount of land they owned varied tremen-
dously. The village smiths were by far the largest landowners,
closely followed by innkeepers. Carpenters and bricklayers, tailors
and shopkeepers, if they owned land at all, owned less than 2
hectares.** The tax paid by this group bears out this estimate of
relative wealth, the innkeepers and smiths emerging as wealthy
village characters.*? The position of this group in relation to other
groups in the village seems to have remained fairly constant over
the 60 years from 1840—1900, although contemporaries claim to
have noticed an increase in the prosperity and respectability of the
craftsmen and shopkeepers in rural villages over the Palatinate as a
whole.°*°
Finally, from 1859 the number of factory workers living in
Maudach increased continually. The growth was gradual at first,
but accelerated after the founding of the BASF works in Ludwig-
shafen in 1865. The vast majority of factory workers who lived in
Maudach had to commute to nearby towns every day for their
work. Most went on foot until 1890, when a narrow-gauge railway
connecting Dannstadt, Mutterstadt, Maudach and Mundenheim
with Ludwigshafen was opened. An idea of the numbers involved
in commuting can be obtained from looking at the sale of tickets: in
December 1890 over 9000 workers’ season tickets (Arbeitermonat-
skarten) were sold for this stretch of line, and over 500 single tickets
were issued daily.*! Conditions in the factories in this area have
been fully described elsewhere.*? They were, of course, far from
pleasant, and the workers in the chemical industry had to face the
additional hazards of working with toxic chemicals with minimal
safety procedures. Breunig concluded that the average wage paid
to an unskilled worker was not adequate to support him and his
family in the town.
The workers from Maudach were in a slightly better position as
rents were far lower in Maudach than in the city, and if they owned
a little land there was always the possibility that food grown on that
land could supplement the family diet. However, the proportion of
factory workers in this position should not be overemphasised. In
1880 only about one-fifth owned any land, although this figure rose
to one-third by 1900. This is an interesting development, open to a
number of interpretations. The first and perhaps most obvious

interpretation is that, given partible inheritance and the increasing
employment prospects in the factories, day labourers were increas-
ingly attracted to industrial employment. And this certainly partly
accounts for the phenomenon. However, many of the factory
workers who owned land in thevillage were in fact immigrants into
the village. Presumably this group moved to the village first of all,
attracted by the job opportunities in the area, and then used their
industrial wages to buy land, later marrying into settled Maudach
families — a source of possible conflict with farmers, who were
also attempting to purchase land. Selective migration would then
account for the rise in the proportion of factory workers owning
land, as those with no stake in the village would tend to move out,
particularly as firms in the area increasingly offered their own
accommodation to their workers. Overall, however, the number of
workers living in Maudach continued to rise until after 1900.
In summary, then, the picture that emerges from a detailed
statistical examination of the village of Maudach between 1840 ‘and
1900 is not one of a homogeneous ‘peasant’ village, although from
1840-60 the overwhelming majority of the population were
employed in the agricultural sector. There were considerable differ-
ences in the amount of land owned, the amount of tax paid, and the
kinds of work undertaken by the different occupational groups,
and there was a considerable gap between the expectations and the
possibilities open to those who were reasonably secure and sure of
being able to cover their basic needs and those who were not. Nor
did the relative positions of the groups remain the same over these
60 years. The farmers as a group seem to have experienced
increased difficulty in obtaining land during the 1870s and 1880s,
and some of the smaller farmers were probably squeezed out during
this period. By the 1890s, however, the farmers seem to have solved
this problem, and as a group appear more prosperous than before.
This point should not be overemphasised, since there were certainly
in 1900, as in 1840, a number of smallholders within this occupa-
tional group who were struggling to make a living. The day-
labourers, subsisting throughout the 1840s and 1850s on the thres-
hold of poverty, and hit by a series of crises, the most serious being
the potato famine, continued in much the same way throughout the
later years of the century, although perhaps marginally more pros-
perous than before. However their numbers declined as work
became more freely available in the factories. Certainly the kind of |
lives they led, with the constant possibility of being laid off by the
factories in accordance with market pressures, meant that a good
many drifted from day-labouring to factory work and back again
as the circumstances demanded.
The position of the craftsmen and shopkeepers included in the
‘self-employed’ group seems to have remained relatively stable
throughout the 60 years, although it must be remembered that this
group covers a wide variation in wealth and social standing. The
workers from the 1860s gradually became numerically the most
important group in the village. The majority of them lived on their
wages from the factories, and thus were dependent on outside
forces for their livelihood. However some did have land in the
village, and the proportion of them increased quite substantially in
the 20 years between 1880 and 1900. This meant that what was
originally an essentially rootless immigrant group (though some
indigenous former day labourers were also included) increasingly
had a stake in the economic and social life of the village.
IV
In some ways the farmers (bearing in mind that this label covers a
wide range of people) constituted a privileged group within the
village. This is borne out by an examination of the registrar’s
records, which show clearly that the farmers as a group differed in
important ways from the other groups in the village. For example,
an examination of age-specific fertility patterns reveals that
farmers’ wives married younger (often as young as 17), had their
children at younger ages, and stopped producing children at a
younger age than the labourers’ wives. The highest rate of marital
fertility is found for farmers’ wives aged 15—19, while for
labourers’ wives, their peak of fertility is not reached until 20—24 in
the period 1840—69, and 25—29 in the period 1870—99.*° Farmers
were certainly a privileged group in terms of mortality, and farmers
and their families on average lived longer, and enjoyed a lower
infant mortality rate (although overall infant mortality in Maudach
was high in comparison to other villages). The mortality rates also
reveal that although farmers maintained their relatively privileged
position as regards mortality, the 1860s and 1870s — the years of
progress and expansion in nearby Ludwigshafen — were years of
increasing mortality for all groups in Maudach. Poverty and hard-
ship seem to have increased in these years. The study of differential

mortality according to socio-economic status is still in its infancy,°°
but differences in mortality should not be simplistically seen as a
direct reflection of differences in income. The standard of housing,
extent of overcrowding, sanitary arrangements, availability of
medical care, levels of nutrition, work patterns, attitudes towards
and care of the sick and elderly, breast-feeding and general
standards of education all affected mortality. Certainly, however,
the farmers of Maudach, their wives and their children enjoyed an
advantage over labourers and workers with regard to mortality
rates.
The 1880s and 1890s, however, were characterised by general
improvements in health and mortality, and the introduction of new
regulations for public hygiene and better medical care was reflected
in the clear overall decline in mortality for all the groups in the
village towards the end of the nineteenth century. From the council
records it is clear that there was an increasing awareness about
public hygiene from about 1880 onwards, particularly with regard
to the public water supply and waste disposal. Regulations regard-
ing sanitation in public houses, butchers’ shops and food proces-
sing were also enforced, and the introduction of sickness insurance
meant that the groups in the village least able to afford medical
assistance had at least minimal cover.*’ Thus the data from statis-
tics bear out the thesis that the farmers were a privileged group
within the village in the context of a situation which deteriorated
gradually from 1840 to 1880 and then improved quite rapidly.
By this time, however, the proportion of factory workers living
in the village was increasing dramatically. The farmers had been the
most powerful group within the village in the 1840s. At that time
the lower classes had been financially dependent on them, and they
had thus exerted both political and economic power over the
labourers. However, factory workers were not financially depen-
dent on the farmers as employers. How then did the farmers cope
with a situation where their economic ascendancy over the rest of
the village was being undermined by changing employment pat-
terns? To examine this question we need to look carefully at the
changing political constellations in the village. Who were the most
powerful people? What was the nature of the power they enjoyed?
How successful were they in maintaining their power in the 60-year
period 1840—1900?
In Maudach*®* the most important governing body was the
council (Gemeinderat) which enjoyed a considerable degree of

autonomy over certain areas of village life. It was responsible for
the way agriculture was carried out in the village, and appointed the
animal inspectors, the weights and measures officials, and orga-
nised pest control, all within the guidelines laid down by the
regional government, based in Speyer. It was responsible for law
and order in the village, and to this end appointed nightwatchmen
and a police officer (whose appointment nevertheless had to be
ratified by the regional government). It was in charge of education,
and appointed the teachers of the schools (there was both a
Protestant and a Catholic school in Maudach). It decided how
much money the poor relief committee should have, and deter-
mined who was entitled to aid in disputed cases. It was in charge of
public health and fire-fighting, though again initiatives in this area
usually came from the regional government. It also constituted the
link between the village and the regional government in Speyer,
which in turn was responsible to Munich, and it was obliged to put
into practice what the regional government decided was necessary
in terms of road-building and maintenance, and the quartering of
troops and provision of foodstuffs for the army when its
manoeuvres took it to the region.
The mayor (Burgermeister) and his assistant (Adjunkt) and 14
councillors (Gemeinderatsmitglieder) were elected by the citizens
(Biirger) of Maudach every five years. Council members were
drawn from a restricted number of families, basically the larger
farming families; this continued throughout the nineteenth cen-
tury. The position of mayor was almost hereditary in Maudach:
from 1818 to 1863 the post was held successively by Peter Gruner
(1818—33), Johann Gruner (1833-48), Michael Amberger
(1848/9), Anton Gruner (1849-59), and Johann Gruner again
(1859-63). After this the schoolteacher, Johann Adam Anton
Ginkel (who also owned a 10-hectare farm) was mayor until 1872,
followed by Georg Kummermehr (1872-85) and Johann
Kummermehr (1885—99), both of whom owned over 10 hectares of
land. Essentially this is a list of the most substantial farmers in
Maudach. The council members too were drawn from the larger
farming families, although during the 1850s and 1860s three inn-
keepers served on the council, and in the 1890s the teacher Heinrich
Bossong and the barber and farmer Hieronymus Rosenkranz also
served. There was a remarkable degree of continuity. In 1874, 9 of
the 14 council members had fathers or uncles who had served on
the council elected in 1849; in 1895 there were 10 council members

whose fathers or uncles had served on previous councils.*®
. The only people entitled to vote in a local council election were
those who were formally registered as citizens. (This category did
not include women, who did not have a right to vote.) The electoral
roll in March 1848 shows that 80 per cent of the farmers living in
Maudach at that time were registered as voters, while 92 per cent of
the self-employed, and 74 per cent of the labourers were registered.
There is only one other roll that has survived, and that is for 1874.
This list shows 72 per cent of farmers, 65 per cent of labourers, 65
per cent of self-employed, and 42 per cent of factory workers were
entitled to vote. In the earlier period, then, the majority of men in
Maudach from all groups were entitled to vote for the council,
although there were more labourers than farmers who did not have
a vote. By 1874 there had clearly been important changes. For all
groups the proportion of voters had fallen. It had fallen least for
the farmers: on the other hand, less than half the workers had the
vote at this time. The reasons for the fall in numbers of voters are
fairly obvious. Those who were born in Maudach were citizens by
right. But it cost 100 florins for a person moving into Maudach to
become a citizen. Furthermore, the request had to be submitted toa
higher authority through the council, and ratified by the Bavarian
government. With wages at about 200 florins p.a. for an agricul-
tural labourer in the 1860s buying citizenship was certainly beyond
the means of most. For men marrying women from Maudach the
charge was reduced to 50 florins but even so this was a considerable
sum of money for most. As more people from outside moved into
the village, the electoral base of the council became more heavily
weighted in favour of those with property, and in favour of the old
established families. This then is the first part of the answer to the
question of how the farmers maintained their position of power
over an increasingly diverse population. The restricted franchise
certainly operated in their favour.©
Nevertheless, the story is not as simple as this. For the meaning
and nature of political power at this level changed during the period
we are considering. There are two facets to power at any inter-
mediate level: its relation to the higher authority and its relation to
those below. The relationship between the council and the regional
government (ultimately the central Bavarian government) changed
during the second half of the nineteenth century. In some respects
this was as a direct result of the increasing centralisation of state
power,°®! but the council’s attitude towards its own role also
changed. Until about 1860 there are numerous examples in the local
council records® of instances where the council refused to put into
effect decisions taken by the regional authority before a lengthy
debate had taken place. The most striking example is over the
question of building a road between Neustadt and Mannheim.*®
Maudach’s council regarded the road as a matter for the regional
government and did not agree that it should pay part of the main-
tenance and construction costs. The dispute continued for over a
year, and several strongly-worded messages passed between the
council and the regional government. The local council eventually
lost the battle. By the 1890s, however, a different spirit was abroad.
For a start, the job of being a mayor, or even simply a council
member, had become a much more complicated affair. There were
abundant forms and questionnaires from the regional and central
government to fill in. For example in August 1882 a whole meeting
was devoted to setting out the average agricultural wage for the
different sexes and age-groups for sickness insurance purposes.
Then again, the council’s finances had become much more complex
as they had sums invested in the railways and several companies, as
well as money loaned out to individuals, and to other villages, on
which the interest had to be collected. Alongside this increasing
bureaucratisation of the local council’s tasks went a decrease in its
areas of jurisdiction. Education, planning, even matters of law and
order came increasingly under the control of the regional govern-
ment. Thus there was ever more work and ever less power. The
council became less and less representative of their village, and
more and more like a band of civil servants. This was a parallel
development to their loss of economic power over their fellow
villagers.
The council’s relationship to those below its members on the
social scale (and the majority of the villagers fell into this category)
was at all times an ambivalent one. On the one hand council
workers such as the nightwatchmen and even the police officer were
drawn from the labourers of the village, and on the other it was the
labourers by and large who threatened the peace and order of the
village. This tension can clearly be seen if we trace the relations
between the council and its employees. The post of field-watcher™
was a continuous problem. In 1848 half the council, led by the
mayor, wanted to dismiss Martin Mohr and Johann Sosser because
they had allegedly been
partisan in their work. Sosser often stays overnight or for several

days in other villages, and has been fined for drunkenness in
- Oggersheim. He often works his own land. Michael Miiller and
Georg Mohr both agree that Martin Mohr incited them to steal
from Philip Gebhardt’s fields. Furthermore he lives with his son
who has been convicted for stealing. Neither of them reports
daily to the mayor as he is supposed to do.
They were both dismissed. In January 1849 two new field-

watchers were appointed: Georg Adam Scheibel, formerly a
Bavarian soldier who had left the army with a good reference, and
Jakob Borstler IV, who also had a good reputation.© Two years
later more problems had arisen. Forty-five landowners complained
to the council officially about the way the field-watchers were
carrying out their job. The council was split. Some thought the only
thing to be said against them was that in the previous winter the
theft of potatoes had got out of control and someone had destroyed
the young trees on the parish meadow, but this had all been cleared
up and it certainly had not been the fault of the field-watchers.
Others thought they were guilty of gross negligence and should
certainly be sacked. This affair caused a great deal of bitterness and
in September of the same year we discover that the council was
again discussing whether to dismiss Scheibel, but this time because
the mayor had taken court proceedings against him for uncouth
behaviour.
There are similar instances in the council records up until the end
of the century, and the nightwatchmen too could not always be
relied on to perform their duties conscientiously. Until the 1860s
the main problems in terms of law and order that the council — or,
more accurately, the council employees — had to deal with were
drunkenness and theft from the fields. But as the number of
workers in the village increased other tensions surfaced, although
the problems of order and drunkenness continued.” It became
increasingly difficult over the last two decades of the nineteenth
century for the council to maintain its authority. We find incidents
where council members had their hayricks burned, and they took
court proceedings against other members of the community who
publicly expressed their disapproval of the council.® These tensions
were most clearly expressed in the growing rift between the
Catholic and Protestant communities in Maudach. Most of the
farmers and the village council members were Catholics (although
in the 1880s there was one Protestant farmer on the council). From
the 1880s onwards there were increasing signs of tension both
between the two religious communities and within the Catholic
community. In 1882 for example the council issued a proclamation
to the effect that
All possible steps must be taken to settle the present unrest in the
village, and to avoid further disturbances. The police are ordered
to carry out their duty with the utmost severity, and those in the
village who object to the Catholic priest should seek redress for
their grievances through the proper channels.”
There are no details about the causes of the disturbances, but the
priest in question, Konrad Reith, was removed from Maudach the
following year.”
Friction between the two communities came to a head when the
council funded the building of the new Catholic priest’s house in
1890. It cost 28,000 Marks, and caused a great deal of ill-feeling in
the village. For example the council noted in 1891 that
many refuse to enter the inn of Johann Jakob Gruner ‘zum

bayerischen Hof’, because of differences with the landlord, who
was an active agitator in the council election and when the new
Catholic priest’s house was built. [Johann Jakob Gruner was a
staunch Catholic, and at his death in 1903 his religion was
recorded as ‘altcatholisch’.]7!
The feeling was widespread, and resulted in an incident which made

clear the delicate nature of the situation that the council had to deal
with. The incident began in July 1893 when the Protestant teacher,
Eduard Theobald, made insulting remarks about the council in the
hearing of the Catholic teachers, Heinrich Bossong and Heinrich
Stauber. The council took legal proceedings against him, despite
the fact that Theobald made a public apology. In November of the
same year the council recommended that Theobald be removed
from his post.
Teacher Theobald is not respectful. He insulted the council,

saying ‘I’ll put an end to this pig’s mess; the council is a band
of robbers; the mayor is a rascal, etc.’ He has been fined by a
court for this. At school committee meetings he often swears,
152. Farmers and Factory Workers
particularly at the two priests, calling them lazy pigs, which

undermines their respect and effectiveness. This is a religiously
-mixed community but he has continually complained that the
Catholics are exploiting the Protestant minority, and he said that
the new Catholic priest’s house is a proof of this, despite the fact
that the council had proper authority to build it. He has also
neglected his duty [. . .] in view of the delicate social situation in
this village, a teacher who consistently undermines temporal and
spiritual authority must have a detrimental effect on the children
he teaches. We recommend that he be moved to another school.
This lengthy petition to the regional government highlights both the

tension between the two religious communities in the village, and
the way in which national issues impinged on village life. The
Kulturkampf of the 1870s did not end with a piece of Bismarckian
legislation, but continued to divide rural Germany long after
official approval for harassment of Catholics ceased. Clearly a
Protestant teacher in a Catholic village would be at odds with the
prevailing authority. Probably a liberal, he would have had power-
ful ideological weapons at his disposal to withstand the authority of
the Catholic council.
This is partly a reflection of the fact that during the 1880s and
1890s the various groups in the village became increasingly politi-
cised. This can be seen in the proliferation of clubs and societies
(there is no evidence of any of these existing before the 1880s) and
in increased police surveillance of political activities. Most of the
social and sporting clubs in Maudach had a clear political division.
There was, for instance, a workers’ choir (Arbeitergesangverein)
and a village choral society; there was a workers’ gymnastic club
and a ‘Kriegerverein’ (veterans’ club) whose members practised
shooting.” As regards national politics, the voting behaviour of
Maudachers is rather difficult to disentangle, particularly support
for the Catholic Centre Party. There seems to have been a fairly
constant hard core of about 70—80 voters for the Centre Party,
although in 1890 this rose to 143. This is considerably below the
number of farmers in Maudach, or for that matter the number of
Catholics, so it is reasonable to conclude that for many voting in
national elections appeared irrelevant. The percentage poll for
Maudach was rather lower than the Reich average: in Reichstag
elections it was 52.7 per cent in 1878, 51.3 per cent in 1881 and 80.5
per cent in 1898. In 1886 there were 60 votes for the National
Liberals. Support for this party declined steadily until, in the 1903
election, there were only seven Maudachers who voted for them
The vote for the SPD, on the other hand, consistently increased —
from 56 in 1887 to 195 in 1898, although this figure dropped back
to 150 in the 1903 elections. In the end, the voting pattern reflects
the social composition of the village fairly accurately, with a
majority of workers mostly voting for the SPD, and a sizeable
minority of Catholic farmers and shopkeepers voting for the
Centre Party.”
Vi
I began this paper by focusing on the question of whether or not a

detailed empirical study of a German village would reveal it as a
traditional peasant society left behind by the developments in the
town, and characterised by conservative, traditional attitudes, or
whether the village itself changed dramatically over the 60 years.
The answer is of course, something of both. The farmers of
Maudach certainly constituted a group who maintained traditional
behaviour norms in their marriage patterns and retained their posi-
tions of power over the rest of the village. However, the nature of
that power changed radically. In the 1840s and 1850s the village
oligarchy of substantial farmers had had greater autonomy from
central government. It was thus able to exercise greater control over
what went on in the village. The larger farmers had been in a posi-
tion of economic ascendancy over the poorer strata of the village
and had thus been able to exert their power more effectively. In the
1880s and 1890s this was no longer the case. The economic divi-
sions within the village had radically altered, and the workers were
no longer financially dependent on the ruling farming group.
Nevertheless the farmers retained a good deal of their traditional
position of power over the village, through the structure of the
local franchise to some extent, but also through their increasing
role as administrators rather than as representatives of the village
to a higher authority. Thus as their real economic power over the
village waned their importance was bolstered by the power of an
increasingly bureaucratic state (Bavaria in the first instance, and
later the German empire). The few signs of social integration of the
workers into the farming community were not mirrored by corres-
ponding changes in the power structure of the village. It is tempting
to conclude that such integration that did take place was with the
poorer section of the farming community rather than with the
village oligarchy. There were no workers on the village council until
after the end of the First World War.
These changes in the position of the farmers of Maudach may be
taken as symptomatic of changes that were taking place all over
Germany. There were certainly villages where this change did not
take place as quickly, and where the substantial farmers continued
to be the main employers in their villages. But equally, recent
research is uncovering more villages where a large proportion of the
population found work outside the village in nearby towns while
continuing to live in the village. The nature of German industria-
lisation — late, rapid, but above all, much more evenly spread out
geographically than was the case in Britain or France — coloured
the nature of changes within rural society. Within the context of
great changes in the position of farmers in rural society, questions
about peasant political affiliations become more comprehensible.
The lure of Mittelstand ideology for the farmers of Germany was
probably not its inherent conservatism, but the fact that it offered
an ideological rationale for their continued prominence in their
own communities at a time when the economic basis of their power
was declining. For the farmers of rural Germany in the nineteenth
century the threat posed by the Social Democratic Party appeared
frighteningly real, directly rooted as it was in their own everyday
experience within the village.
There are certain parallels to be drawn with what was happening
to other traditional groups in German society. In some important
respects the peasant farmers faced the same forces that were under-
mining the power of the traditional élites and this makes their
alliance at certain junctures with those élites far more compre-
hensible. All this is not to stress the continuity of rural society. The
first point to underline is that at no time during the second half of
the nineteenth century could rural society in this area be regarded
as an essentially ‘peasant’ society. There were within every village
other groups of people with whom the farmers had to deal.
Secondly, the relative positions of these groups changed drama-
tically during the century, and it was the stresses and tensions
generated by those changes that informed the political attitudes and
actions of the farmers, day labourers and workers who constituted
the rural population.
Notes
1. See the discussion in R. J. Evans (ed.), Society and Politics in Wilhelmine

Germany (London, 1978), pp. 1—5; Geoff Eley, ‘Memories of Underdevelopment:
Social History in Germany’, Social History, Vol. 2, No. 3 (September 1977),
pp. 785—91; J. Kocka, ‘Recent Historiography of Germany and Austria’, Journal
of Modern History, Vol. 47, (1975), pp. 57 ff.
2. For an account, see John A. Moses, The Politics of Illusion (London, 1975).
Various viewpoints in the debate are expressed in H. W. Koch, The Origins of the
First World War (London, 1972). See also F. Fischer, War of Illusions. German
Politics from 1911—1914 (London, 1975); and V. R. Berghahn, Germany and the
Approach of War in 1914 (London, 1973).
3. See H.-U. Wehler, Das deutsche Kaiserreich, 1871—1918 (Gottingen, 1973)
(Eng. transl. The German Empire, 1871—1918 (Leamington Spa, 1985).
4. T. S. Ashton, The Industrial Revolution (London, 1964);sM. W. Flinn, An
Economic and Social History of Britain since 1700 (London, 1975).
5. P. Kriedte, H. Medick and J. Schlumbohm, /ndustrialisation before Industria-
lisation (Cambridge, 1981).
6. The phrase is Ernst Bloch’s. For a sustained exposition, see A. Gerschenkron,
Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge, Mass., 1962).
7. Cf. Berghahn, op. cit.; Wehler, op. cit.
8. In the past 8—10 years there have been several studies of German rural society.
For example, W. R. Lee, Population Growth, Economic Development and Social
Change in Bavaria, 1750—1850 (New York, 1977); A. E. Imhof, ‘Landliche
Familienstrukturen an einem hessischen Beispiel: Heuchelheim 1690-1900’, in
Werner Conze, Sozialgeschichte der Familie in der Neuzeit Europas (Stuttgart,
1976), A. Ilien and U. Jeggle, Leben auf dem Dorf. Zur Sozialgeschichte des Dorfes
und Sozialpsychologie ihrer Einwohner (Opladen, 1978); Kriedte ef al/., op. cit.; D.
Sabean, ‘Unehelichkeit: Ein Aspekt sozialer Reproduktion kleinbauerlicher Pro-
duzenten. Zur Analyse dorflicher Quellen um 1800’, in Robert Berdahl ef al.,
Klassen und Kultur. Sozialanthropologische Perspektiven in der Geschichtsschrei-
bung (Frankfurt, 1982), pp. 54—76. These are just a few of the new publications.
For a very good bibliography see W. Kaschuba and C. Lipp, Dorfliches Uberleben
(Tiibingen, 1982), pp. 610 ff.
9. The classic work is H. J. Puhle, Agrarische Interessenpolitik und preussischer
Konservatismus im wilhelminischen Reich, 1893—1914 (Hanover, 1966).
10. Cf. Ian Farr, ‘Populism in the Countryside: The Bavarian Peasant Leagues in
Bavaria in the 1890s’, in Evans (ed.), op. cit.
11. D. Blackbourn, Class, Religion and Local Politics in Wilhlmine Germany.
The Centre Party in Wiirttemberg before 1914 (London, 1981); G. Eley, Reshaping
the German Right (London, 1980), lan Farr and David Blackbourn, European
History Quarterly (1984); and other chapters in the present volume.
12-7 See note’s:
13. Brockhaus, Konversationslexikon (Berlin and Vienna, 1898), Vol. 13,
-. 41 ff.
ota. Aug. Becker, Die Pfalz und die Pfdlzer (Neustadt an der Haardt, 1857),
mo:
J 15. W. Weidmann, Die pfalzische Landwirtschaft zu Beginn des 19. Jahrhun-
derts (Saarbriicken, 1968), pp. 54 ff; H. Petersen, ‘Bauerliche Verhaltnisse
Zustande in der Pfalz’, Schriften des Vereins fiir Sozialpolitik (Leipzig, 1883), Vol.
iepps 23) —73.
16. W. Breunig, Socialverhdltnisse der Arbeiterschaft und sozialistische Arbeiter-
bewegung in Ludwigshafen am Rhein, 1869-1919 (Ludwigshafen am Rhein, 1976),
pp. 376 ff.
17. J. Esselborn, Geschichte der Stadt Ludwigshafen (Ludwigshafen am Rhein,

1887): S. Fauck, Ludwigshafen am Rhein in Daten (Speyer, 1972).
18. I compiled the statistics from a family reconstitution using the birth, marriage
and death registers for Maudach. The relevant references are: Stadtarchiv Ludwigs-
hafen, Bestand Maudach, pp. 631-848 (Hereafter referred to as
St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau.).
19. The question of typicality should perhaps be raised at this point. Maudach
certainly cannot be regarded as a ‘typical’. German village. However present research
is uncovering a number of villages which share many of Maudach’s characteristics.
See in particular Kaschuba and Lipp, op. cit., pp. 610 ff.
20. Examples of literature using a rather static model include: R. Thabault,
Education and Change in a Village Community. Maziéres en Gatine 1848—19]4
(London, 1971). An explicit exhortation to adopt this model can be found in H.-U.
Wehler, Modernisierungstheorie und Geschichte (Gottingen, 1975).
21. For exainple, Kaschuba and Lipp, op. cit., have attempted their own classi-
fication system, which runs into some serious problems. See H. Rosenbaum,
Formen der Familie. Untersuchungen zum Zusammenhang von Familienverhalt-
nissen, Sozialstruktur und sozialem Wandel in der deutschen Gesellschaft des 19.
Jahrhunderts (Frankfurt, 1982), pp. 5—49, for a discussion of this.
22. More detailed results are contained in C. S. Catt, Family, Land and Gree
tion. German Rural Society in the late Nineteenth Century. The example of
Maudach in the Lower Palatinate, 1840—1900, Ph.D. dissertation (University of
East Anglia, forthcoming).
23. There is a good discussion of what constitutes a peasant in T. Shanin,
Peasants and Peasant Societies (Harmondsworth, 1971), pp. 6—12.
24. Figures from the family reconstitution. See note 18.
25. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau., 247—250.
26. Landesarchiv Speyer (La. Sp.), Prasidialakten H3 220 n-x.
27. Fam.'y reconstitution, see note 18.
28. L. Mang and Th. Zink, Das Wirtschaftsleben der Pfalz in Vergangenheit und
Gegenwart (Munich, 1913), p. 12.
29.Brockhaus, op. cit., p. 41; Becker, op. cit., p. 67; Weidmann, op. cit.,
Pps o2 tf,
30.W. Cobbett, Rural Rides (London, 1830).
31.St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, Gemeinderatsprotokolle, 1840 ft.
32. Petersen, Joc. cit.
33. Ibid.
34. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, 247—250.
35. Petersen.
36. Ibid., p. 262. Petersen suggested that peasant indebtedness was far lower in
the Palatinate than elsewhere in the empire, particularly Bavaria. He provides many
details about the crop rotation used in the lower Palatinate. In particular he notes
the increase in the cultivation of onions and early potatoes for the market, the
increase in tobacco and the introduction of sugar beet cultivation.
37. There are parallels here with the situation on the Magdeburger Borde. See H.
Plaul, Landarbeiterleben im 19. Jahrhundert (East Berlin, 1979), p. 38; Petersen,
loc cit.; J. Kermann, ‘Die gesundheitliche Lage der pfalzischen Landbevélkerung in
der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts nach Berichten der Kantonsdrzte und des Kreis-
medizinalrats’, in Mitteilungen des Historischen Vereins der Pfalz, Vol. 74 (Speyer,
1976), pp. 101 ff.
38. Petersen, p. 173.
39. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, 282.
40. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, Gemeinderatsprotokolle, 1843.
42. Petersen, p. 271; Kermann, p. 103.

44. Kermann, p. 109.
45. Breunig, p. 60.
46. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, Gemeinderatsprotokolle, 1881, 1887, 1890; Breunig, op.
cit., p. 387.
47. cf. Plaul, op. cit., p. 38.
48. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, 247-250.
49. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, 282.
50. Petersen, p. 209.
51. Breunig, p. 386.
52. Breunig; J. Queva, ‘Auf geht die Saat’, Bei uns Daheim, Heimatsheilage der
‘Pfalzischen Post’ (Ludwigshafen am Rehein, 1928).
53. In particular the aniline dyes, which have now been proved to contain certain
active carcinogens.
54. Breunig, pp. 380 ff.
55. Space forbids a comprehensive survey of the figures. See Catt, Family, Land
and Occupation, op. cit.
56. R. Spree, Soziale Ungleichheit vor Krankheit und Tod (Gottingen, 1981).
57. The Palatinate enjoyed a privileged constitutional position within the
Bavarian state. It retained the Code Civil granted by Napoleon during the French
occupation of the left bank of the Rhine, and the retention of the Code was one of
the provisions of the Congress of Vienna.
58. A citizen (Burger) was a member of the village entitled to vote.
59. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau Gemeinderatsprotokolle; St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, 631—848.
60. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau. Wa4hlerlisten, 1848—1874.
61. Ibid.
62. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau Gemeinderatsprotokolle.
63. Ibid.
64. The field-watchers’ main task was to ensure that no produce from the fields
was stolen. They were also responsible for keeping paths clear and undertook
routine maintenance.
65. Gemeinderatsprotokolle, 1848.
66. Ibid., 1849.
67. There was a definite degree of ambivalence on the part of the council towards
the question of drunkenness. On the one hand, it was certainly the largest problem
in terms of law and order the village had to deal with. On the other, the farmers
produced a lot of the spirits (Branntwein) sold, and moreover many were related to
the village’s innkeepers; thus they had a vested interest in keeping the inns open for
as long as possible.
69. K. Kreuter, Maudach im Wandel der Zeiten (Ludwigshafen, 1955).
71. Ibid., 1885.
72. St.A.Lu.Bes.Mau, Verzeichnis der Vereine, 1890.
73. Cf. Breunig, op. cit.
6 PEASANTS AND FARMERS’ MAIDS
Female Farm Servants in Bavaria at the End of the
Nineteenth Century*
Regina Schulte
Of course, the best that could happen was to have some money
and get married to someone, and she had soon worked out who
that someone could be. About a quarter of an hour’s walk from
Kolbach there stood a small house close by a wood, where a
thousand Marks cash would be very welcome. The house
belonged to a widow who owned two cows. She had one son.
During the winter months he worked as a forester, and during
the summer, when he had finished working their own land
(which didn’t take long), as an agricultural day-labourer.
During the previous harvest season he had worked for Schor-
mayer for a while, and she had often sat by him at lunchtime on
the edge of a field or under the shade of a hazel hedgerow. He
was a cheerful lad, who enjoyed a joke with any girl. Now she
thought of it, he had said something to her. Once, while she was
on her way to the farm, she had seen him in the distance. He had
put down his axe and told her that if he knew for certain that she
could raise a thousand marks, perhaps they could talk.!
Many young women from the agricultural lower classes left home
to work as farm servants in order to earn the money they needed to
marry and set up home. For these women, however, going into
service was more than merely a means of earning money. The work
they performed and the social situation in which the work was
carried out formed a distinctive way of life. It was shared by many
young women from the rural lower classes at the end of the nine-
teenth century. The real social significance of this way of life, and
its relation to the farm servants’ eventual chances of marriage, is
*Translated by Cathleen S. Catt.
158
Peasants and Farmers’ Maids 159
examined in detail in this paper.

In 1882, 3.5 per cent of the total population of the German
Empire worked as farm servants. In Bavaria the figure was higher:
7 per cent of the population were employed as farm servants, and
this figure accounted for more than a third of all people employed
in agriculture. These male and female farm servants were not so
much a separate social group but rather an age group or cohort of
the sons and daughters of agricultural day labourers and small
farmers. For them, ‘service’ was a transitional phase. From the
statistics gathered in 1882, apparently only 10.8 per cent of the
farm servants were older than 40. The average age of the Bavarian
female farm servants was 25. Furthermore, 90 per cent of the
servants were single.*? Farm servants married between the ages of 25
and 30 at the earliest, and marriage meant effectively the end of
service life. The peasant household, which in Bavaria was usually
based on a middle-sized holding, was unable to absorb married
couples or families: there was simply not enough land to integrate
the labour of servants’ offspring into the household economy. In
the last analysis, farm servants were only used by peasant farmers
when their own families were too small to perform all the necessary
labour.* The farmers preferred to employ single farm servants
because they demanded less — they required only a place to sleep,
and they could be dismissed after a year.
Thus in general the years of service covered only the 10—15 years
between childhood and marriage. Nevertheless these years were of
crucial significance for the future prospects of women from the
rural lower classes. The years spent as a farm servant were decisive
for a woman’s eventual position in village society.
Female farm servants were usually the daughters of agricultural
day labourers, cottagers or small farmers.’ Their parents usually
owned less than 10 hectares of land. The productivity of the land
could vary enormously according to geographical location, but in
general it was probably sufficient to keep one or two cows, several
goats and possibly some chickens. In addition there would be a
kitchen garden, which in Bavaria usually provided the family with
vegetables, fruit and some of the staple foodstuffs. For a small
household this amount of land would be sufficient to provide
enough basic food for the family. Of course, many of these small
concerns depended on some form of supplementary income. Some
cottagers were also artisans or craftsmen, and undertook various
jobs around the village as shoemakers, carpenters, bricklayers, etc.
160 Peasants and Farmers’ Maids
Others worked as day labourers for the larger farmers in the

village, either harvesting hay and corn in summer, threshing in the
autumn, or working in the woods in winter. The draining of marsh-
land and stone-breaking for road construction was also undertaken
by agricultural day labourers. If the children were old enough to
look after the house and mind younger brothers and sisters, then
the wife would also sometimes undertake some form of day
labouring.°®
The female farm servants who came from these small farming
and labouring families had mostly grown up sharing in the family’s
work. They had looked after smaller brothers and sisters, done the
lighter housework, tended the livestock, harvested potatoes and
gathered berries, and as they grew older and stronger they had also
been initiated into the harder farming tasks.’ After they had left
school these children had to leave home and make their own way in
the world. The labourers and cottagers were not in a position to be
able to feed older children longer than was necessary, and their
labour was not needed on the small patch of land belonging to the
family. For the sons and daughters of smaller peasants the situation
was much the same once there were enough children to work the
land: younger sons and daughters would be sent into service.’
Thus when young girls of 13 or 14 took their first position on a
farm, they had, by and large, already learned many of the tasks
they were expected to carry out, and they were already used to a
certain degree of responsibility. Probably for many of these girls
the memory of their parents’ home and way of life served as a
pattern on which to model their future.? Some, of course, entered
service in an industrialising area, or perhaps found a position with
a town family, and finally left village life behind.'!° But in Bavaria,
at least until the beginning of the twentieth century, the majority of
young men and women from a rural background remained firmly
tied to village life and agricultural employment. They went into
service tO ensure an independent existence, and to acquire the
material basis for that purpose.
The hiring and firing of farm servants followed the cycle of the
farming year. The law governing the conditions of service (Gesin-
deordnung) laid down two dates on which farm servants could
enter into employment with a farmer: Either in Spring on 2

February, Candlemas Day, before the spring sowing took place
(this was a day on which a great migration of farm servants from
one farm to another took place); or on 29 September, Michaelmas
Day, at the end of the harvest.!! When a girl went into service this
generally meant the beginning of a period of migration between
farms, and from village to village, as the majority of them changed
their employer annually. If they stayed with the same employer it
was generally only for two or three years at the most. Service thus
meant that a young farm servant would come into contact with
several different-sized farming concerns, different families and
different ways of working within a certain area. Farm servants
seldom went further afield than one or two hours’ walk from their
parental home, which they visited on their free Sunday
afternoons.!?
From the moment that a girl left home and took a place in
service, her status was no longer defined primarily by her relation-
ship within the household (as it had been at home), but by her posi-
tion in the work of the farm. ‘Belonging’ to a farmer’s family
meant being subject to the patriarchal authority of the household
— the farm servant would have to obey the farmer in the same way
as his children did.'3 The rules governing service meant that the girl
had to live in the same house as the farmer and his wife, share the
work and the holidays with them, and finally — and this continued
even at the end of the century on middling peasant farms — she had
to eat the same food at the same table. In all, this meant complete
integration into the hierarchy of the household.'* Both male and
female farm servants were in a similar position to the children of
the peasant family on whose farm they were employed; however,
their rights and their participation in the work of the farm differed
from that of the farmer’s own children in a fundamental way: they
were employed by him, and stood to inherit no land from him.
The continued complaints of farmers about the negligence and
apathy of their farm servants, common enough at any time, were
particularly loud and frequent at the end of the nineteenth
century.'5 In all probability, the performance of farm servants
underwent no real decline during the period. It was simply the fact
that they never fulfilled their tasks in the way that farmers could
demand of their own children. Of course, the female farm servants
undertook the same tasks as the farmer’s daughters, but the
amount a female farm servant would be able to save during the
course of the year bore no relation to the rewards the farmer’s

daughter would reap eventually for work well done.'®
‘Belonging to a peasant household also meant belonging to the
village of which it was a part, and the kind of household to which
the servants belonged determined her social identity in that village.
She was a member of that village only as the farm servant to the
mayor or a prosperous farmer. In order to be part of the village
outside of this position, she would have to be married and run her
own household, which implied a house and a bit of land. This was
the only way that she could earn the right to be a bona fide member
of the village with all the rights which this implied (Heimatrecht
erwerben), and meant, of course, that she would have to leave her
job as a farm servant.
Local court records show the lengths to which a village would go
to get rid of an unemployed, possibly sick, farm servant. The case
of Anna K. is typical. She was badly injured by an accident involv-
ing a threshing machine, and it was also suspected that she was
pregnant. She was living temporarily with the foster-mother of her
first illegitimate child. The mayor of the village applied to the court
in Ebersberg for permission to ban her from the village:
Anna K., single, from the Upper Palatinate, is staying in this

village against the will of the undersigned village administration.
Since she had an accident while working in the village of Assling
she is causing a great deal of work for this village, which we are
not legally liable to provide. Also there is the danger that her
condition will mean that the local sickness insurance fund will
have to pay for her treatment, because she has no work and no
relatives in the village. For these reasons we have decided that she
should be forced to leave the village within three days starting
from today.!’
Other applications from villages to ban unemployed female farm

servants show that village officials regarded the presence of
unmarried farm servants as a moral danger. This applied above all
to those who had left their previous employers without due notice.!8
Village officials feared that because these women lacked money or
relatives they would strain the meagre resources of the village and
would also endanger the prevailing code of sexual ethics. And an
illegitimate child whose father came from the village would be
entitled to support from the village’s poor relief fund, or would be
an additional burden on some village family. Village officials were

always concerned to avoid such extra financial burdens on the
community as far as possible.
Thus an unemployed female farm servant did not come under the
protection of the village’s forms of social control and responsi-
bility, but was regarded as an interloper. This period of service and
moving from household to household meant living continually on
the borderlines of belonging and alienation. If she failed to follow
the rules of service she was very soon beyond the pale, an outsider,
an asocial being. Court records show that female farm servants
who got on the wrong side of the law were usually convicted of beg-
ging, vagrancy or theft. They frequently show to what straits a
farm servant could be reduced.!9
ill
The fact that female farm servants ‘won’t stay longer than two or
three years on the same farm’ was a frequent cause for complaint
from farmers.”” But for the servant this continual change of
employment not only entailed the risk of vagrancy, it was also the
only way she could work her way up through the hierarchy of farm
servants. Promotion, however, was dependent on physical fitness
and experience as well as age:
First, a girl 13—14 years old will be taken on to help the peasant’s
wife with the household chores and looking after the children. As
she grows she is promoted to under-servant (Unterdirn) and
starts learning farming tasks. Then she gets promoted to middle
servant, who milks the cows and feeds them under supervision.
Finally she becomes an upper servant, who is responsible for the
animals. One or other of the stages can be left out, depending on
the size of the farm, what position the farmer wants to fill, the
age of the girl when she came into service, and what experience
the girl brings with her from her own home.?!
The classification of the various levels of servants varied in the

different regions of Bavaria. In some areas, for instance, a girl’s
career could begin with the position of gooseherd.”
A farm servant’s position within the hierarchy of servants pre-
scribed both the kinds of work she had to perform and her function
within the economy of the peasant household. It determined what

work she would have to undertake in the house and in the cowshed,
and especially what she was expected to undertake at harvest time.
Ideally a female farm servant was initiated into all aspects of
women’s work on a farm during her time of service. As a kitchen or
scullery maid she would learn, under the supervision of the
farmer’s wife or the housekeeper, all the skills of household
management, how to keep house and kitchen clean, how to prepare
food, how to preserve vegetables and meat, how to dry fruit from
the garden in autumn. She learnt how to purify honey and how to
prepare for the slaughtering of an animal. Stable and dairy maids
usually worked in the cowshed in Bavaria. They were in charge of
feeding the animals, in particular the calves, mucking out the shed,
and later undertook the milking. Pigs, hens and geese were also
looked after by the women. Stable maids often spent the entire day
in the cowshed. In winter their working day began at 6 a.m., in
summer at 3 a.m. The cows had to be milked before breakfast, and
the day would only end at 7 or 8 in the evening after the last feed.”
Most of this work had to be carried out on Sundays as well. When a
cow calved this could well mean the maid had to spend the night in
the cowshed. This constant presence amongst the animals meant
that a maid would get to know the individual animals very well, the
way they behaved, their illnesses and their dispositions. This very
exact knowledge was the key to successful treatment of sick animals
or in dealing with a weak calf. The importance of the maid to the
well-being of the animals was recognised by the farmers, and maids
regularly received a bonus when an animal was sold.*4 The very
great trust farmers placed in their dairy maids is exemplified by the
Sennerinnen, who often spent the entire summer quite alone (or
perhaps accompanied only by a small boy) on the high Alpine pas-
tures looking after the cows, milking them and making the butter
and cheese.*>
The hardest work on a farm was the variable seasonal work in
the fields. This was, of course, particularly so at harvest time,
dependent on the weather. At certain times every available hand
had to get out into the fields to gather in the harvest, and this would
include servants whose main work was in the house -— sometimes
even the cook had to join in. The working day began in summer
with the first ray of light and ended late in the evening. Mowing
with a sickle and stacking hay and corn were regarded as women’s
work,’ despite the strenuousness of these tasks, particularly as
most of the harvest work was carried out in dry, often boiling hot
weather. Finally, in the autumn, the maids were also expected to
help with the threshing, not only that carried out on the farm on
which they were employed, but also on the neighbouring farms
which required help when the threshing machine was doing the
rounds. Thus many maids spent two long weeks working in the
noise and dust produced by these dangerous machines.”8
Agricultural reports are full of complaints about maids who
absconded just before harvest time because the work was too
hard.” It is difficult to ascertain exactly how many were involved in
reality. Farmers always feared that at the critical moment that the
harvest had to be gathered in, there would suddenly not be enough
hands to help, and at harvest time no extra hands could be hired.
They feared in particular that their maids would be pregnant at this
crucial time. At any rate, a maid who did abscond from a farm
before or during the harvest would find it very difficult to obtain a
new position. She had thrown away her reputation as a useful and
reliable servant, something that was not only important to prospec-
tive employers, but also counted for much with a prospective
husband. It does not therefore seen reasonable to suppose that the
number of maids who absconded from service was very large. The
frequency of the complaints probably reflects the seriousness of
such a situation for the farmer and the maids themselves.
A hierarchy of servants and the strict division of labour was only
possible on farms large enough to require many servants. The mid-
dling and smaller peasant farmers were not in a position to employ
several maids to undertake the different kinds of tasks, so a maid
employed on a smaller farm would almost certainly help both in the
house and in the cowshed. She would be responsible for the kitchen
garden and quite possibly would have to look after the children
too. It there was only one maid on a farm she would have to be able
to take over if the farmer’s wife was ill or in childbirth, or if she
spent a day visiting relatives or shopping in town. These demands
on the maids make it clear that a ‘good maid’ had to be capable of
undertaking any household or agricultural task independently and
reliably.*°
The economy of the peasant farm did not lay down strict divid-
ing lines between the work expected of a male farm servant and that
expected of a female one. This would have cut across the real needs
of this method of production. Stable boys and dairy maids were
expected to perform much the same tasks or, at least, their work
complemented each others’, especially at harvest time. They went

to the fields together in the mornings and ended work at the same
time. In the cowshed the maid was responsible for feeding and
milking the cows, the boy for fetching the feed.*! The only area of
work that was exclusively female was in the house and kitchen,
which meant effectively that the maids generally worked longer
hours than the men, as in the evening after work in the fields and
cowsheds was over they would have to help with the preparation
and clearing up of the evening meal. At harvest time the housework
had still to be done after returning from the fields. In the winter the
maids were also expected to do any darning and sewing. And
finally, until the turn of the century, many maids would spend
winter evenings with the farmer’s wife and daughters at the spin-
ning wheel, in order to spin linen thread to weave into the bales of
cloth that the farmer’s wife needed for her linen cupboard, the
daughters needed for their bottom drawers, and the maid too
wished eventually to take with her when she married.*?
Wages, like work, also varied according to the age and experi-
ence of the maid. This was particularly clearly expressed in the
money portion of a maid’s salary, which was paid annually at
Candlemas. In 1890 in Bavaria housekeepers received 240 Marks
p.a., cooks 150—80 Marks, and house- and dairy maids, scullery
and undermaids 120—80 Marks.*? In some areas, particularly those
near larger towns towards the end of the century, weekly payments
became more common.** The basic wage was supplemented by
certain cash bonuses: sometimes as recognition for their hard work
they might receive a bonus when an animal or some crops (for
example hops), were sold, or as Christmas, Easter or Whitsun
bonuses, or on village festival days. Over the year these bonuses
usually amounted to about 12-15 Marks. A dairy maid might
make up to an extra 15 Marks in bonuses when animals were sold.?5
The portion of wages that was paid in kind also took the form of
bonuses or gifts, and this was commonly given at Christmas. They
usually consisted of flax and linen thread, up to 20 ells (Ellen) of
linen and cloth, often a ‘Wachsstock’, working clothes, aprons,
shoes and sometimes kerchiefs and a Sunday dress. As the domestic
production of thread, linen and cloth waned, and the spinning-
wheels and looms disappeared from winter evening work, and
clothing and material were brought in the town, the practice of sub-
stituting these payments in kind with money sums grew. This
happened first and foremost in those areas near to towns. As the
maids usually paid their annual wage into a savings account, the
extra payments for feast days and special bonuses allowed them the
chance to pay for extra costs that arose without their having to
touch their yearly lump-sum, which they needed for their future
dowry. Their savings also had to pay for the upkeep of any illegiti-
mate children they had. The payments in kind also served the same
function. They provided the clothes the maid needed in the short
term, while the linen and flax were a contribution to her future
dowry.’ Overall, the wages and the payments in kind were made
with a future marriage in view.
IV
A maid’s existence was entirely oriented towards her future

marriage. In the last analysis marriage was the only opportunity she
had to achieve a secure position for herself and her children within
the village, with financial security, status and prestige. During the
period of service maids saved the ‘dowries’ they needed in order to
become attractive marriage partners. Even amongst the poorest
sections of the village, the group from which the maids were
generally drawn, a potential husband would have to take into
account the financial contribution his intended wife could make.
The dowry consisted of several separate elements. The first was
money. In order to buy or take over a smallholding — a necessary
preliminary to starting a family in this peasant farming world —
and in order to buy the necessary household and agricultural equip-
ment and livestock, it was necessary first of all to have a little
capital; and the wife had to pay a portion of it. If she stood to
inherit nothing from her parents and could only expect at most a
small sum of money from her brothers (it was usual in Bavaria for
brothers to take over the family smallholding) it was up to the maid
to save some money herself.
The gifts which the maid received at the end of the year and at
Christmas — the flax and the linen and woollen cloth, which, with
the passage of years, could mount up to a sizeable quantity —
formed the second part of the dowry. With the money that she had
managed to save, the maid had demonstrated her understanding of
thrift, an important virtue for a future manager of an agricultural
smallholding. The amount and quality of the material she had
managed to acquire were proof of her capability in the specifically
female areas of the household economy. With this she demon-

strated the kind of household she would run. As this would also
reflect on the household where she had been employed, the
farmer’s wife also had an interest in ensuring that her maid had a
respectable quantity of linen in her bottom drawer when she
married.3? Other women would judge both the maid and the
farmer’s wife by the quality and quantity of the cloth — especially
her future mother-in-law.
A further, less tangible, but no less important element of a
maid’s dowry consisted in the domestic and agricultural skills she
had learned during her years of service. She would need these in
order to run her own household, cultivate her kitchen garden and
look after whatever livestock they might have. As a married woman
she would also need to be able to undertake some of the field work
as well, as the men were usually employed as day-labourers or
would have to work at some other kind of supplementary handi-
craft. Character witnesses of maids in criminal court records given
by labourers and male farm servants (potential husbands) show
how much they valued these skills. Working together in the fields
or the cowshed meant that a maid and a male farm servant would
know very well whether the other knew how to pull their weight and
work well.*®
A further important element of a maid’s dowry was the network
of relations and acquaintances that she brought with her, through
her family or through her years of service. It is likely that working
with other farm servants, both male and female, created the basis
for the individual maid’s future network of neighbours and friends
on whose co-operation her future might depend. The farm servants
were also the bearers of future generations of the lower classes in
the villages and thus formed a distinctive group within the village
youth who were of marriageable age. The farm servants knew the
farms and their owners well, within their own area, and also had
personal knowledge of the labouring families from which they
themselves had come. They thus had a fairly comprehensive view of
their local society in its important features.
Finally, and very important for the reputation of any future
family, was the position the maid had established for herself by
getting to know her neighbours through gossip in the female society
in the village. This was vital, for the women of the village would be
her future neighbours and helpers. Thus, when they married, maids
were already in some ways integrated into the female community of
the village, which, though it wielded its power in an informal way,

was nevertheless the way in which women vitally influenced village
life?”
Vv
The following letter, sent by Agathe S., shows another side of the
life of farm servants — their love affairs, and the care of the illegiti-
mate children that resulted from these affairs.
Spittelsberg, 19th August 1894

Dear Josef,
Once again I take up my pen to write you a short letter, you
must believe it is very difficult for me, but I have to as, you
know, my parents have no spare money and can’t bring up the
boy for nothing, and you know they can’t wait until he is eleven
years old to get something back from him — they might not live
that long, you must understand this, you know I wouldn’t
trouble you if I didn’t have to, if I could manage on my own I
would, but I can’t. Dear Josef, how I have ruined my happiness.
It is good that I have left home, that I can stop thinking about it,
I was going mad from reproach [?], but now I have no time,
there’s too much work. Andreas, who works for the miller, will
have told you that I went back to my old farm to work, to
Spittelsberg, and I should stay until Candlemas, but I don’t
know for sure. And I have to tell you that if you pay me off,
father will let you off half of it, because I know there’s no chance
that we will get back together again. My father doesn’t want to
do everything himself, he’s already paying something for the
boy, as long as my father and mother live, he’Il be all right, they
are looking after him and they allow me to go where I want to,
but they won’t let you go there again. They are very happy when
I go to see them on Sundays, and even my brothers like it. Anton
calls Josef [the child, presumably], a little friend. I must finish
writing now, with best wishes, I remain your unforgettable
Agathe S. I beg you once again from my heart. . .*°
The situation Agathe S. found herself in was not ususual. Many
farm maids had illegitimate children. Illegitimacy in the lower
classes was not a scandal, nor was it even in farming circles if the
father was a genuine marriage prospect. In Upper Bavaria the ille-
gitimacy rate was about 15 per cent even at the end of the century,
though this rate varied from region to region within Bavaria.*!

Male and female farm servants frequently had one or even several
children by the time they married. Often the children lived with
their grandparents, like the two children of Agathe S. The mother
paid for their keep out of her wages, and the father also con-
tributed, like the above-mentioned Josef, who finally contributed
about 80 Marks annually towards the boy’s keep — approximately
one-third of a male farm servant’s wage. There were similar con-
ditions attached when the child was sent to foster-parents, which
happened either if the grandparents were dead or were too old, or
were not themselves willing to take on the illegitimate children of
their own daughters. There was no place for these children on the
farms where their mothers worked. The maids were employed to
work — for them motherhood had to begin with marriage. Unmar-
ried mothers, who brought their children into the world with the
help of the village midwife or their parents, spent scarcely any time
living in the same house as their children. Almost immediately after
the birth the child was given to foster-parents, and the mother
would visit it on their free Sunday afternoons. Under these circum-
stances, brothers and sisters would often grow up separately. If the
mother finally did get married, her children might themselves
already be in service to another farmer, and the family would never
have the chance of living together.’
The farm maid, Agathe S., who wrote the letter was in a par-
ticularly difficult situation. From court records* it appears that
Josef D., himself a farm servant, whom she had met, like many
other maids had met their future husbands, when they were in
service together, was not prepared to marry her, and had tried to
avoid paying any maintenance for the child. In her next job, she
began a new affair with another farm servant, Michael B., who
again worked on the same farm. She became pregnant again, and
Michael B. refused to acknowledge paternity. Like Josef D. he was
also a farmer’s son, with a little land, while Agathe S. was the
daughter of a labourer. She was thus from a lower class that the
fathers of her two illegitimate children; and from the beginning, as
far as the men were concerned, she was not a marriage prospect for
them. In the statements of the two men Agathe S. was described as
‘liderlich’ (a woman of easy virtue) and it seems that she had the
same reputation even in her own class. With two illegitimate
children by two different men, neither of whom, according to
village wisdom, could have been regarded as suitable suitors,
Agathe S. had damaged her reputation with her own people. If a

maid had to pay to keep a child she had had by another man, in the
eyes of a potential suitor, this meant a reduction in the dowry a
maid could bring with her.
In the final analysis, the reputation of an unmarried mother was
bound up with her material and familial status within village
society. Thus another unmarried mother“ was regarded as a
‘proper and respectable’ person, although the father of her first
children had ended his relationship with her, and the father of her
third illegitimate child had been a stranger to the village with whom
she had worked in service for a short while, but who had shortly
thereafter disappeared. She was in the position where she could
bring up her children without much problem, because, apart from
her wages, she stood to inherit a little land and had some capital.
With this material background, she was probably still sought-after
as a possible spouse. The money which she would be able to con-
tribute, and the reputation of her family, still counted for more
than the total savings of a maid from another area, who had no
connections with the village.
The life of the farm maids was thus not just a ‘transitional’
phase: it was also the time of life when the material basis for a
future marriage was created, and it was here that the options which
village society offered the lower classes at the turn of the century
became apparent. The time spent as a farm servant was not only
characterised by the pressure to survive and the harsh working con-
ditions on the farm, but also prepared them for the demands which
their projected future would make on them. As mothers, and as a
farmer’s or cottager’s wife on a small plot of land, they would have
to be able independently to undertake a large part of the domestic
and agricultural labour.
Notes
1. Ludwig Thoma, ‘Der Wittiber’, in idem., Jubildumausgabe in sechs Banden

(Munich, 1978), Vol. 4, pp. 7-171.
2. Wilhelm Kahler, Gesindewesen und Gesinderecht in Deutschland (Jena, 1898),
. 100.
4 3. Ibid., p. 63. Cf. Walter Hartinger, ‘Bayerisches Dienstbotenleben auf dem
Land vom 16. bis 18. Jahrhundert’, Zeitschrift fiir bayerische Landesgeschichte 38
(1975), pp. 598-638. See also Michael Mitterauer, ‘Zur Familienstruktur in
landlichen Gebieten Osterreichs im 17. Jahrhundert’, Beitrdge zur Bevélkerungs-
und Sozialgeschichte Osterreichs (1973), pp. 167-222.
7
4. Cf. Rosa Kempf, Arbeits- und Lebensverhdltnisse der Frauen in der Lan.!wirt-
schaft Bayerns (Schriften des standigen Ausschusses zur Forderung der
Arbeiterinnen-Interesen, Heft 9, Jena, 1918), pp. 8 ff. On the proportion of rural
workers who belonged to the farmer’s family, see Kahler, op. cit., p. 100.
5. Kempf, op. cit., pp. 74—S.
6. On the situation of the rural lower classes, cf. Axel Schnorbus, ‘Die landlichen
Unterschichten in der bayerischen Gesellschaft am Ausgang des 19. Jahrhunderts’,
Zeitschrift fiir bayerische Landesgeschichie, 30 (1967), pp. 824—52. See also Kempf,
op. cit., pp. 55—73; and individual examples in Untersuchung der wirtschaftlichen
Verhdiltnissé in 24 Gemeinden des Konigreiches Bayern (Munich, 1895), pp.94, 116,
138, 200, 232, 260, 419, 420.
7. Ibid., pp. 59, 169, 200, 231, 260.
8. Ibid., pp. 46, 81, 115; see also Kempf, op. cit., p. 56.
9. Ibid., p. 78.
10. Cf. Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, pp. 60, 259, 351, 420, 488; also Kempf,
op. cit., pp. 38 (for 1907).
11. Hartinger, Joc. cit., p. 606.
12. Cf. the portrayal of serving women’s daily life in criminal files such as
Staatsarchiv Miinchen (StAM), Staatsanwaltschaftsakte, St. Anw, 1177.
Ids Kanter, Op. Cll. Ss. 22.
14. Cf., for example, Franz Schweyer, Schdffau. Eine oberbayerische Landge-
meinde. Eine wirtschaftliche und soziale Studie (Stuttgart, 1896), p. 126; and the
Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, pp. 45, 60.
15. Ibid., pp. 17, 259, 373, 421, 488-9.
16. On the position of maids in peasant families and households in general, see
Edit Fel, and Tamas Hofer, Proper Peasants. Traditional Life in a Hungarian
Village (Budapest, 1969), p. 101; and for a description of the dowry of a peasant’s
daughter, see Lena Christ, Werke (Munich, 1970), pp.247—503; also Karl von
Leoprechting, Bauernbrauch und Volksglaube in Oberbayern (1885; reprinted
Munich, 1975, p. 218).
17. StAM, LRA, 78105.
18. Cf. SAM, LRA, 78101.
19. Cf. for example StAM, St Anw, 840, 1177, 1458.
20. Kempf, op. cit., p. 82.
Zee bide ep L6-
22. Cf. Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, pp. 59, 80, 93, 337; Hans Platzer,
Geschichte der ldndlichen Arbeitsverhdltnisse in Bayern (Munich, 1904), p. 207.
23. Kuno Frankenstein, Die Verhdltnisse der Landarbeiter in Deutschland. 2. Bd.
(Schriften des Vereins fiir Sozialpolitik LIV, Leipzig, 1892), p. 156. For another
description of the work situation, see Lena Christ, ‘Rumpelhanni’, Werke (Munich,
1970), pp. 505—672. For a description of the woman’s role during the slaughter of a
pig, see the fascinating book by Yvonne Verdier, Fagons de dire, fagons de faire.
La laveuse, la couturiére, la cuisiniére (Paris, 1979), pp. 24 ff.
24. Frankenstein, op. cit., p. 156.
25. Cf. Christ, loc. cit., pp. 318—19.
26. Cf. St Anw, 185, 693.
27. Kempf, op. cit., pp. 82, 102; cf. Christ, Joc. cit., pp. 516, 553.
28. Cf. StAm, LRA, 78105, Kempf, op. cit., p. 87.
29. Cf. Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, pp. 511, 373.
30. Cf. StAm, St Anw, 185.
31. Cf. StAm, St Anw, 185, 682, 693.
32. Schweyer, op. cit., p. 79.
33. Frankenstein, op. cit., p. 184.
34. Cf. for example Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, p. 84.
35. Cf. Frankenstein, op. cit., p. 184; Untersuchung in 24 Gemeinden, eg. pp. 17,
45, 80, 94, 260, 36; ibid., pp. 15, 29.
36. Ibid., pp. 15, 29.
37. Cf. Lena Christ, ‘Matthias Bichler’, pp. 342-3.
38. Cf. for example StAM, St.Anw. 185.
39. Cf. Susan Carol Rogers, ‘Les femmes et le pouvoir’, in H. Lamarche, S. C.
Rogers and C. Karnoouh, Paysans, femmes et citoyens. Luttes pour le pouvoir dans
un village lorrain (Paris, 1980), here pp. 97-9.
40. StAM, St.Anw. 177.
41. W. R. Lee, ‘Bastardy and the Socioeconomic Structure of South Germany’,
Journal of Interdisciplinary History 7 (1977), pp. 403—25, esp. p. 410; on Bavaria
_ see also F. Lindner, Die unehelichen Geburten als Sozialphédnomen (Leipzig, 1900);
see also David Sabean, ‘Unehelichkeit: Ein Aspekt sozialer Reproduktion
kleinbduerlicher Produzenten. Zu einer Analyse dorflicher Quellen um 1800’, in
| Robert Berdahl et al., Klassen und Kultur. Sozialanthropologishce PerspeKtiven in
| der Geschichtsschreibung (Frankfurt, 1982), pp. 54-76. On the situation of
domestic servants with unmarried children, see Regina Schulte, ‘Kindsmérderinnen
| auf dem Lande’, in H. Medick and D. Sabean (eds), Emotion und materielle
Interessen in Familie und Verwandtschaft. Anthropologische und _ historische
| Beitrdge zur Familienforschung (Gottingen, 1983).
42. Cf. StAM, St.Anw. 185, the situation of the three illegitimate children of
Anna H. On the actual circumstances of the birth of the illegitimate children of
female farm servants, see Schulte, ‘Kindsmérdinnen’, Joc. cit.
43. StAM, St. Anw. 177. '
44. StAM, St.Anw. 682.
y/ THE SINS OF THE FATHERS :
Village Society and Social Control in the Weimar
Republic
Gerhard Wilke
The village of Korle lies in the valley of the River Fulda in northern
Hesse, about 20 km south of Kassel. The old village centre is
dominated by a Lutheran church which stands elevated on a little
hill. Spread around the church walls are the old timber-framed
wattle-and-daub houses typical of the area. The size and design of
the individual houses depended on the class position and land-
holding of the inhabitants. They formed the economic and social
base for a large household, or das ganze Haus’,' rather than a
nuclear family. The household’s reputation rather than individual
identity was at the centre of perceptions; both the self and the other
were defined in terms of the household’s name and standing in the
village. With one exception, all households of the village were
involved in agricultural production in the 1920s and up to and
including the 1950s. The inhabitants assumed that the cultivation
of land, or seasonal work on one of the larger farms of the village,
was necessary for the maintenance of the household’s economy.
Despite the increasing integration into the industrial labour force of
ever larger numbers of villagers, the possession of land and a house
and the ability to do agricultural work remained central to everyday
life in the village during the first half of this century. The
possession of land, and the draught animals necessary to cultivate
it, formed the basis for the local class structure.
A villager who had ‘a lot of land’ and used horses for cultivation
was classified as a Pferdebauer (horse farmer). These were the full-
time professional farmers who owned between 10 and 30 hectares
of land, produced food for the market, and employed both full-
time and casual labour. In terms of status and prestige it was
important that they did not have to earn a supplementary income.
In 1928, there were 14 of these horse farmers in the village.
The owners of, as they saw it, ‘less, but still quite a lot of land’,
174
The Sins of the Fathers 175
who used cows for draught purposes, for breeding and for dairy
produce were classified as Kuhbauern (cow farmers).? Statistics
from the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture record that there were 66
of these households in 1928.3 Oral evidence makes it clear that none
of these could live off the land alone, although they did produce
varying amounts of agricultural produce for the market. Individual
members of these households earned a cash income to contribute to
what was essentially a ‘dual economy’.* The male heads or eldest
sons worked as self-employed or wage-earning artisans and made
up the bulk of the village craftsmen. The daughters went into
service on larger farms in the surrounding area, or with bourgeois
or petit-bourgeois families in Kassel. P
Those villagers who owned a ‘small patch of land’, a kitchen
garden, or were reduced to renting allotments or parts of country
lanes, and possessed no draught animals, but kept goats and pigs,
were called Ziegenbauern (goat farmers). These households num-
bered 80 in 1928 and they were primarily dependent on industrial
wages, commuting to the factories in nearby towns to work. These
industrial workers still spent their ‘free time’ on the land and con-
tinued to derive their identity within the village from the agricul-
tural sphere. In their perception, continued residence in the village
and the preservation of ‘the whole house’ provided them with a
minimum of security, self-determination and self-respect. Their
households were seen as protection against the incursion of
capitalist society into all aspects of their lives. They regarded their
additional income from the agricultural sector as indispensable to
their household economy and were determined to defend them-
selves against the poverty and insecurity they associated with the
life-style of their urban working-class colleagues. Up to a point,
they perceived this life-style as their own calculated and conscious
response to industrial society, and interpreted it as a form of
resistance to the controlling influence of that society:
There was no sense in moving to Kassel. Where would we have

found a place to live? Who would have looked after us when we
were ill or needed help? How would we have fed ourselves during
periods of unemployment? No. . ., we had to make sure that we
grew some food, kept what was ours and we had to help our-
selves and each other. All of us pulled together and we all had to
do what we had to do.°
176 The Sins of the Fathers
Though some of the images in this quotation might echo the mythi-
cal associations of the ‘good old days’, its underlying message was
repeated so often in interviews and by so many people that I believe
it to be accurate.® The older villagers’ experience of the social and
economic catastrophes of war has not receded from their con-
sciousness. Their relationship to industrialisation has remained
ambivalent.
The horse farmers were glad to exploit the market opportunities
offered by the growth of Kassel, but hated the threat to their
authority which this industrial centre posed. The cow farmers were
ready to pick up part-time employment in small industrial concerns
and from the state, but they also tried to move heaven and earth to
avoid sliding into the goat farmer class. The goat farmers were
grateful for their industrial jobs which formed the basis of their
survival, but also lacked confidence in the ability of industrial
society to offer them a secure future. They expressed incomprehen-
sion when I asked them why they hadn’t abandoned their farms
during the earlier part of the century. The key to understanding the
behaviour and thinking of all three classes in Weimar village society
was agriculture. It remained the central organising principle behind
the economic, social, political and cultural patterns which we can
reconstruct both with the help of oral accounts and on the basis of
documentary evidence, like the Preussische Viehzdhlungslisten,
which show that all but one household kept animals and cultivated
land.’
A price had to be paid in order to maintain this adaptation to
industrial society. The goat farmers’ households were not just
dependent on one industrial employer, instead they entered into a
number of dependency relationships in both town and village. They
depended on the horse farmers to cultivate their patch of land —
the horse farmers ploughed it, and in return, the goat farmers’
households provided casual labour (Arbeitsleute) throughout the
year. Without this labour supply, the horse farmers could not have
produced for the market with the given low level of mechanisation.
The inequality of this relationship was glaring, but to fit its
injustice into the prevailing perception that all villagers were part of
a ‘community’, the parties involved entered, in several instances,
fictive kinship relationships. The head of the horse farmer’s house-
hold and his wife became godfather and godmother to one or more
children in the house of ‘their’ Arbeitsleute.2 The economic link
between the horse farmer and goat farmer classes and the social
and cultural form in which their relationship was publicly

expressed, provided the basis on which the community ideology
could be preserved and was indispensable to the maintenance of
social order and the containment of social conflict.
During the Weimar period a consciousness based on industrial or
state employment began to develop. It started to affect the private
and public actions and the thinking of all villagers, but it did not
actually dominate the struggle for hegemony. The change expressed
itself in the foundation of separate party organisations by the SPD
and KPD and the concomitant fragmentation of associational life.
The village clubs split into ‘German nationalist’ and ‘workers’’
camps. The workers’ clubs and party organisations recruited their
members, with very few exceptions, from the households of the
goat farmers. These cultural and political innovations of the period
were an indication of a new form of political consciousness. They
allow us to say that the worker-peasants in the village were begin-
ning to create a new identity and sub-culture in terms of a capitalist
society. It would, however, be wrong if we concluded that this form
of political consciousness was developed to the point where it
became the basis for all actions of the households. The economic
and social relations between individual households and between the
three classes within the village were only marginally affected by
these developments during the 1920s. The class struggle within the
village did not touch the existing social and economic hierarchy in
any fundamental way. The open expression of conflicting interests
was confined to casting votes, going to different pubs, organising
meetings under different banners and ideas, and splitting the
villages’ clubs. These divisions themselves were not new, as the
dominant horse farmer class had always ‘kept to themselves’, only
the expression of the existing divisions changed. What one can say
is that the SPD and KPD established enough of a foothold in the
village during the 1920s to prevent the Nazis ever getting an
absolute majority in a free election.
The village economy and its social relations continued to be
dominated by the horse farmers throughout the Weimar years. In a
democratic context this was achieved through the continued
exercise of their economic power, based on their ability to provide
casual employment for the goat farmers, and through their co-
option of most of the cow farmers and their households in the field
of politics and associational life. The cow farmers knew they could
not be magically transformed into powerful horse farmers but they
tried to prevent a drop in their social standing. This made them

willing allies of the horse farmers in their efforts to assert their class
hegemony. Goat farmers, who also happened to be Communists or
Social Democrats, would read their party newspapers and share a
class analysis of society, but they would not dream of declaring war
on the enemy in the shape of the horse farmers. The symbiotic
nature of their economic relationship ensured the continuance of
that relationship in its paternalistic form. They perceived each
other in non-political terms. The ‘worth’ of an individual or a
household was still judged in terms of the possession of land and
house and the use made of them, the way mutual obligations were
discharged, and above all the quality of somebody’s work. A horse
farmer who employed a Communist as one of his Arbeitsleute
would not let this fact affect his opinion of the person. The Com-
munist would have to refrain from openly condemning ‘his’ horse
farmer as a member of a reactionary political party if he and his
household wanted to continue working on the farm. The conse-
quence of this tacit agreement to keep politics out of ‘real life’ was
that conflicts between the different interest groups had to be dealt
with in some other way. People continued to enter reciprocal
relationships based on inequality and exploitation. The terms were
negotiated publicly through the channels of gossip, the use of
rough justice against transgressors, the ritualised and highly
symbolic consumption of food, and the social and moral diagnosis
of illness and disease. In short, seemingly ‘traditional’ forms of
verbal and non-verbal communication and exchange were used to
deal with conflicts that arose in this ‘modern’ version of a moral
economy.
Throughout the 1920s most horse farmers and cow farmers con-
tinued to argue against the right of everybody freely to choose a
political party or an association. The phrases, ‘No good could
come of this . . .’, ‘Clubs should be kept free of politics . . .’, ‘A
village and its concerns should not be a matter of party politics
..., kept being repeated in interviews. Along with everyone else,
the interviewers had to come to terms with the fact that, in reality,
at a formal, institutional level villagers were beginning to use their
right to choose a party or become a member of a club. Neverthe-
less, the yardstick for the performance of elected members of the
village council, right across the political spectrum, remained their
willingness to ‘act in the interest of the whole village’. The peculia-
rities of the economic relations within the village endorsed a sense
of pragmatism and limited the extent to which ideological

differences could come to dominate social relations.
The working-class clubs represented the beginnings of a counter-
culture to the nationalist and conservative clubs which had become
the ‘natural’ domain for the horse farmers and their allies, the
teachers. However, one should not overestimate their oppositional
effect, over and above the fact that they were established on the
basis of social and ideological divisions, and thereby acted as land-
marks. The Social Democratic handball club and the Communist
cycling club in many ways reproduced elements of bourgeois
culture. Like the nationalist clubs they were very concerned with
respectability, banners, properly-minuted meetings, orderly-con-
ducted affairs, as well as being hierarchical and competitive. All
village clubs, irrespective of ideology, excluded women from
positions of responsibility. In relation to the outside world all the
clubs shared a concern for representing the honour of the village
and thereby effectively helped to recreate the myth or reality of the
community spirit. In effect, the clubs became an important
mechanism for institutionalising existing class antagonisms in a
form which was not threatening to the whole economic and social
system. The ‘dangerous’ implications of your neighbour’s class
position or political beliefs could be contained within the sphere of
formalised politics and leisure. Only against this background can
the ease with which the Nazis were to dismantle the separate
working-class clubs be understood.’
Although the impetus for these changes in the cultural and politi-
cal institutions of the village came from the surrounding industrial
towns and the experience of wider society through the First World
War, the form these institutions took and the associated patterns of
social interaction were not simply a mirror-image of what can be
found in urban working-class communities. The adaptation of
bourgeois and working-class culture within the village reflected the
special needs of village society and the consciousness of its mem-
bers. Given the relatively poor agricultural land, the small size of
the holdings, the low level of mechanisation and the conscious
decision to maintain agricultural production within all three classes
in Koérle, some form of class compromise had to be found. Labour-
intensive agriculture could only be kept up by the continued co-
operation between different households and between horse and
goat farmers. The horse farmers could not have remained inde-
pendent agricultural producers without the supply of casual labour
from the goat farmers’ households. The cow farmers could not
have maintained their ‘middle-class’ position without the existence
of the two other classes, who supplied them with a market for their
artisan skills. The goat farmers, who paid the highest price for the
system’s survival, saw additional incomes, through agricultural
work and self-sufficiency in food, as a defence against the indus-
trial system. If one places these calculations in the historic context
in which only the horse famers were well-off and everybody else
lived under the threat of poverty, then it begins to make sense that
the villagers tried to turn the idea of a community into a working
reality. However, one must remember that their idea of community
was not the same as that portrayed by theorists like Toennies.!° As
one villager put it to me: ‘One should not have any illusions about
the old world. People knew that in those days as well. Those at the
top, the teachers, the pastors and the big farmers could live, but in
that poverty we all depended on each other.’!! The consequences of
this adaptation to industrialisation of the inhabitants of Kérle was
that household membership remained more central to the per-
ception of the se/f and the other than social class allegiance.
Conflict, therefore, was also mediated through the household. The
relative absence of open political and work conflict must not how-
ever be confused with the total absence of conflict and the existence
of a stable, timeless and traditional social structure. Social
inequality is not timeless. It is created by members of society and as
such it does not survive by itself but must be re-enacted and re-
negotiated over time. This process always involves a clash of
interests and the expression of social conflict.
During the Weimar years, class hegemony pervaded all aspects of
everyday life in Korle. It was a period when class differences con-
tinued to be expressed through some well-established social
channels but also took on new forms in the establishment of
separate working-class organisations. The existence of a class struc-
ture meant that apparently unconnected aspects of everyday life,
like eating, drinking, illness or health served in some way to remind
everybody of the existence of inequality, subservience and domina-
tion. Conflict and order were permanently ‘reconstructed’ and
‘renegotiated’ through interaction in everyday situations. Social
order and conflict did not just happen, they were actively ‘accom-
plished’. The drama of everyday life was acted out in the context of
existing structural constraints, imposed by inequality, but also
involved each village in interpreting the meaning of his or her
own role. Every social interaction, every event, was charged with
symbolic significance and moral meaning.
Il
Class membership in Korle was essentially based on the possession

of land and animals. Class position not only allowed fellow-
villagers to know how much land a household owned and what type
of animals they kept in their stables, but also what position the
head of this household occupied in the social, economic and politi-
cal hierarchy of the village. These possessions also signalled to the
rest of the world the respect due to the owner, who sat next to
whom in church or at public functions, and who could think of
marrying into the household.
Ownership of land and house was an integral part of the con-
sciousness and personal security of most villagers. If a household
had little or no property, its members were seen as ‘inadequate
human beings’ who could not expect to be taken ‘seriously’. Land-
ownership pervaded the whole social system and was a fixed
reference-point in all social interaction and in every individual’s
psychology. However, it was not just the idea of property which
served as a measure for status assessment; equal importance was
attached to the way in which a household was making use of its
agricultural property. In a sense, Kérle was an ‘occupational com-
munity’ and the quality of the labour a household put into the land
and the way it distributed the annual produce were as important as
landownership itself. These ideas are typical of a ‘moral economy’
based on the whole household, in which not all economic activity
can be judged in accountancy terms.'* To ensure their survival,
villagers developed appropriate enforcement rituals. The old men
of the village would, on their daily walks through the fields, look
out for crooked furrows and other examples of bad husbandry.
The older women would jiook over the garden fences and gossip
about the member of the household who had not pulled her weight
to get the seasonal work done. This gossip amounted to social
control, but it could also enhance the reputation of a person or a
household. It was taken for granted that any household which
tolerated members who deviated from the norms would collectively
lose prestige and suffer damage to its reputation.
The ‘name’ of a household was a forceful moral instrument.
Most houses had names associated with them that were indepen-
dent of the family name of the present occupants and could be
traced back over many generations. The house, the name and the
attached land had persona of their own. It was expected of people
that they preserve these symbols of social and economic continuity.
Attempts were made to nip any deviant behaviour in the bud, or to
channel it into socially acceptable forms. It was recognised that
young people in the village were liable, in each generation, to
question and step across established boundaries of behaviour (viber
die Strdnge schlagen). They were encouraged to channel their
energy into ritualised forms of pranks (Streiche) or rough justice
which were, with village approval, carried out against legitimate
targets. This served as an instrument of public denunciation when
‘common rights’ had been wilfully ignored. The pranks were often
directed against people with power and authority — favourite
targets were teachers, the pastor, and horse farmers with a reputa-
tion for meanness — rough justice was also meted out to deviants
within the peer group.
Those at the top of the existing class structure tried to present
their own order as timeless. Their ideology pervaded all aspects of
everyday life. A class society wants to survive beyond tomorrow
and inheritance and marriage are key institutions for its perpetua-
tion. The children of horse farmers had to be kept away from the
children of the other two classes. When ‘inappropriate’ romances
occurred those concerned could become victims of pranks. If a
couple thought they had evaded the ever-present eyes of the rest of
the village and escaped to a house, they could find themselves
locked in. A popular method was to block the doors with a pile of
dung or piles of firewood. Rituals ensured that the marriage
politics of the various classes could be pursued as rationally as
possible. Because sexuality was seen as an incalculable quantity, the
potential sexual partners had to be prevented from enjoying too
much privacy and the beginnings of courtship were placed under
strict public supervision, although there were couples who ended up
‘having to get married’. Nobody married across the class barriers
before 1949. Marriage thus remained an effective instrument of
class domination.'3
The best-remembered form of prank or rough justice against
horse farmers was a raid on their sausage pantry. The spoils of the
raid would be taken to the local inn (not one the horse farmers
themselves frequented) and were shared out very ostentatiously
among everyone present. No doubt the consumption of the food

and the stories of more transgressions by the same household fixed
this event firmly in the public mind and restored a belief in the local
system of dealing with injustice. Stealing, therefore, when done at
the appropriate time and by the right person could be an act of
justice. Pranks like this were also a rich source of oral tradition.
The most celebrated prank of all was one aimed at a horse farmer
whose farm was opposite the biggest inn in the village. He had a
reputation for excessive meanness and deviousness, and was con-
sidered to work too hard and demand too much of his employees.
One weekend he wanted to spread manure on his fields. To get a
very early start on the Saturday morning, he had decided to load up
his manure wagon on the Friday night. In this way he would not
lose any time on loading up the wagon in the morning and could
proceed, without delay, with the spreading (a very time-consuming
task) in the fields. He was seen doing this by some village youths at
the inn who, after the farmer had gone to bed, started to unload
and dismantle the wagon, which was then reassembled in the
farmer’s hayloft and loaded up again. As the morning wore on, the
farmer was seen strutting up and down the village looking in vain
for his vanished dung wagon. By the time he found it, he had lost a
day’s work. This seems to have met with universal approval: every-
one who relates the story makes it very clear that ‘he had it coming
to him’.
Pranks within the peer group usually had to do with controlling
someone’s supposed sexual licence or ensuring that the young men
were given a fair chance to meet their sweethearts. A very common
way for boys and girls to meet during the long winter evenings was
for the girls to assemble for a spinning bee, where they were later
joined by the young men. On one occasion when, as sometimes
happened, the girls locked the boys out, the boys decided to take
their revenge. They climbed in through the kitchen window, stole
the waffles that had been baked for the evening and nailed them to
the fence-posts along the streets. As far as ensuring proper court-
ship was concerned, a favourite prank was to tie a pram to the
chimney of a house when the daughter of the family was pregnant
and ‘had to get married’. Peer-group pressure was applied to those
people who tried to get away and have some privacy by the threat
of public exposure through such pranks. As already mentioned,
they were frequently barricaded into the house with piles of fire-
wood or manure. Trails of sawdust arrows publicly linked the
homes of secret lovers or adulterers.

The openness and directness of these pranks were typical of sanc-
tions against the behaviour of villagers. Conflict with official
authority figures took on a more private and individualistic form.
Memories of teachers and pastors are ambivalent. They are remem-
bered for having been very strict or even brutal and sadistic but at
the same time they were ‘good for one’s future character’ or ‘one
had learned something from them’. These feelings of hatred and
gratitude are inextricably linked in the memories of the older
generation. Most people tell how they had tried at one time or
another to put a Bible in their shorts or under their skirts to take the
sting out of the pastor’s cane when they went to confirmation
classes. The boys unhinged the pastor’s front door and carried it to
the other end of the village so that he had to go around looking for
it. On other occasions, they smeared soap on the steps leading up to
the teacher’s house in the hope that he would slip. His front door-
step was covered in Baldriantropfen, a medicine which was believed
to attract cats and induce them to nocturnal caterwauling. In these
ways the pupils hoped to repay the teacher or pastor for some of
the suffering they inflicted on them. Open defiance only broke out
when some pupils had joined the Hitler Youth and perceived their
pastor as old-fashioned and an unreliable patriot. The teachers
were Open sympathisers of the Nazi movement and there was no
need to rebel against them.
There was also a policeman in the village who patrolled daily on
his bicycle. His role and authority were fully accepted. When he
intervened in law and order issues it was usually in an informal
way. He expected to control by ‘having a word’. When the police-
man made an arrest he was exposed to public censure. Such action
reflected badly on the community as a whole and constituted a
threat to community ideology. However, respect for authority was
such that it was the policeman as an individual who was blamed,
not the office he held. By contrast the villagers loved to hate the
forester. Each household was involved in annual negotiations with
the Forestry Commission for their supply of firewood. Though
they had a common right to the wood, the forester decided where
they could gather it, and what quality they got. Leaves for their
stables, twigs for garden use or the manufacture of brooms and
baskets also had to be obtained in this way. The horse farmers who
went shooting cultivated good relations with the forester. The other
classes perceived him as someone who administered supposed
concessions which should have been unconditional common rights.

These attitudes must have been formed or strongly reinforced
during the nineteenth century when common grazing and collecting
in the forest were abolished and the rights sold off. In protest
against the interfering forester, households tried to steal leaves or
wood to supplement their annual allocation. The boys from goat
farmer households were encouraged by their parents to poach the
odd hare or fish. Only after such acts had been accomplished were
they made public and proudly described. In some of these cases the
forester seems to have resorted to police investigations.
Pranks against official authorities primarily served to reinforce a
sense of community and gave those who committed them the
feeling that they belonged — they were part of the village. When
directed against the ruling class of the village, these pranks served
to define, in a theatrical way, the limits to exploitation; when
directed against young people, they served to define the boundaries
of courtship and sexual behaviour." In the absence of any formal
redress, villagers who worked as casual labourers for horse farmers
used such symbolic statements to signal to an employer that he had
offended against the common law contained in the moral economy
of the village and that, therefore, he had incurred a social debt
which he or his household had to repay in the future. These con-
flicts were an integral part of class relationships within the village.
They reinforced both the notion and reality of social order based
on inequality. The conflicts suggest that there was a highly
developed sense of class position, but this awareness was not trans-
lated into class conflict. These ‘interaction rituals’ served to clarify
the social differences and define the boundaries of acceptable and
normal behaviour. The symbolic language used to communicate
these messages was taken for granted and only rarely questioned.
Perhaps this implies that rituals are not unique occasions which
serve to reinforce the ordinary by breaking the routine of every-
dayness. They can be interpreted as exaggerations of normality, as
everyday life is generally based on habit and ritual.
il
Food was of great importance for the cosmology of the villagers;

consumption of food was seen in cultural, moral and medical
terms. The manner in which food was eaten, the occasion and the
participants had cultural significance. Moral censure was placed on

people who ate too much of the wrong type of food, whereas those
who ate properly were ‘virtuous’. Food was an essential part of pre-
ventative and curative medicine. It could be argued that eating went
to the heart of the most deeply-felt cultural values of village society
and dealt with complex moral issues that the inhabitants of Korle
might have found difficult to express in ordinary language. Apart
from work, eating was a way of defining a person’s identity, and
the perception of the food consumed served as a way of evaluating
changes in an individual’s standing and role; interpreting the con-
sumption of food was the most important issue in everyone’s mind.
The symbolism surrounding it served to establish the terms of the
village’s moral economy. The making, serving and eating of food
were central to the negotiation of power relationships and the
division of labour within each household and between different
social classes. The consumption of the ‘right food’ could be seen as
one of the keys to achieving status, health, normality, happiness
and a sense of belonging or of being different. The selection, the
quantity and quality of food eaten clearly helped to signify to the
onlooker the class membership and self-image of the eater.!5 At
mealtimes and on festive occasions children learned the extent and
nature of the kinship system and the sexual division of labour.
They could also familiarise themselves with the kind of reciprocal
and hierarchical relationships which existed between their own
house and households in the neighbourhood and in the village. The
exchange of labour between households at peak times of the agri-
cultural season was always associated with eating, and often food
was the only formal payment. The annual slaughter of a pig
involved the ritualistic giving away of food. The sharing-out was
not arbitrary, but reflected the social network of the household.
Only relatives and those who participated in the annual work of the
household were given some meat or sausages, with those most
indispensable to the household’s division of labour receiving the
best cuts. Others, whose help one might need in the future, were
given a token share. Even the stock in which the meat and sausages
were cooked was carried all round the neighbourhood and handed
out. When horse farmers slaughtered a pig the poorest families
were entitled to demand a share. These people ‘disguised’ their
identity with masks.
Mealtimes provided a structure to the normal working day.
People ate when it ‘was time to eat’ and the sequence of meals was
inseparable from the routine of the day. The breaking of this

routine amounted to a breach of custom and was seen to be an act
of stupidity or provocation. Normally, a hot meal was eaten at
lunch-time even if this meant carrying food into the fields. Agricul-
tural workers regarded it as one of their few fundamental rights to
receive a hot meal and understood it to be part of the employment
contract. The daily hot meal was part of ensuring the health, nor-
mality and well-being of all household members. Not having a hot
meal a day was associated with want, poverty and loss of self-
respect. The speed of work, the tone of address and the food a
worker received during the working day served to define the nature
of the relationship between employer and employee. Hiring, firing
or giving up a job were often associated with food. The extent of
the integration of the workforce into the employer’s household and
the general attitudes of the employer could be publicly gauged at
mealtimes. Most horse farmers made a point of eating meals at the
same table as their relatives and workforce. This showed a willing-
ness to adhere to customary practices whilst it also served as a thea-
trical enactment of differences in authority, status and sex roles, as
the serving duties and seating order were clearly defined.
There were two horse farmers who broke these conventions.
They ate in a separate room, consumed better food and served up
what the locals called ‘pig shit’ to their employees. Consequently,
these farmers became legitimate targets for rough justice and their
employees could enforce the moral code without suffering sanc-
tions. The story is told of an employee who left his job on one of
those farms during a meal after being served bad food for several
days. He threw the hot food at the wall and shouted that they
should ‘. . . eat their own shit and do their own shitty work’. This
was, incidentally, the same farmer whose sausage pantry was
raided by the village youths, who, as recounted a few paragraphs
above, then took their ‘spoils’ to the local pub, sharing them with
everyone present, thus drawing further public attention to his
meanness.
Food was important in preventing illness and disease in addition
to providing nutritional needs. It was classified according to which
ilinesses it could prevent and cure. The perception of food as pre-
ventative medicine made health the responsibility of each indivi-
dual. One dictum that was central for socialisation was: you eat
what is put in front of you. Eating properly, cleaning the plate and
eating what you were given demonstrated your willingness to abide
by the rules. As the survival of most village households — with the

exception of the horse farmers — was precarious, it is not sur-
prising that the idea of choosing one’s food was unknown and the
eating of all the food was expected. An example of the way in
which the horse farmers reinforced their separate class position was
by adopting bourgeois table manners. The inhabitants of Korle
believed that eating properly was-the route to good health, health
was the precondition for good work, and work was the main source
of identity and the way to attain Christian immortality. As one
villager put it to me: ‘The way a man eats is the way he works.’
IV
During the Weimar years doctors were called in to deal with serious
diseases such as TB and conditions needing surgery. School child-
ren and those members of the goat farmers’ households who
worked for one of the big industrial firms in Kassel were the first
sections of the community to receive professional medical care. In
1923 the village council decided to pay for the training and part-
time employment of a village nurse and midwife, and the introduc-
tion of a health system eventually transformed the treatment of the
sick.'© Many of the diagnostic practices and ideas have survived in a
fragmented form. Villagers will use a combination of orthodox and
traditional remedies and the decision to go to the doctor is still a
matter of debate within the household and neighbourhood.!”
The ability to diagnose illness and practise folk medicine was
important for the prestige of women in the village. Illness was
diagnosed in two ways: the disease was ‘named’ on the basis of
natural and physical causes and an additional analysis of the wider
social implications was made. The neighbourhood was consulted in
order to reach a consensual social diagnosis so that responsibility
was not left solely to the healer, a practice which was intended to
prevent false accusations of laziness or moral and social decline.
This collective decision-making process also protected women
healers from accusations of witchcraft. Although there was a
generally recognised body of folk medicine, each individual
household believed it had found its own magic formulae. The
principal aim was to prevent illness and the villagers hoped to
achieve this by several means. They aimed to follow correct dietary
and social habits, believed that magical practices could protect
them, and looked for warning signals in nature. As people were
aware of the fact that many diseases were incurable and that their
own health was the most important economic asset they possessed,
a considerable amount of time was devoted to preventive measures.
The gathering of teas for tisanes, lotions and poultices, etc. was
usually the responsibility of the older women of the household.
Girls helped in this and thus began to be initiated into their future
caring and healing role. Each herb, leaf or blossom was classified
and associated with powers to cure or prevent particular diseases.
The mixture was usually brewed by the elder women, but others
were involved in order to share this medical knowledge. The most
important medical plant was camomile. It was freely available and
had the widest application. It could only be collected on certain
hallowed days in order to ensure maximum effect — a practice
which prevented over-harvesting and reminded people of the fact
that medicine and magic were inseparable. With the exception of
the old, who regularly drank certain herbal teas to keep them
healthy, all other age groups drank the teas only at times when they
were particularly susceptible to illness. They were drunk with
honey, which was thought to soothe and tranquilise the nerves. At
this time the diet was meagre and illness was thought to be caused,
in part, by malutrition. Teas and dietary supplements were thought
to restore health in the same way as tablets today. Without excep-
tion, the teas and foodstuffs associated with magical curing powers
were not included in the everyday diet.
Throughout the year there was an overriding concern to prevent
TB and pneumonia. Colds and fevers were seen as the first step to
these killer diseases and efforts were concentrated on preventing
these minor ailments. To this end, people at risk kept warm,
avoided draughts, bathed their feet in hot salt water, inhaled an
infusion of camomile, and drank an assortment of hot beverages
including hot milk and honey, hot juniper juice and boiled onions
with candy sugar. In addition, they would wrap themselves up in
the special family shawl or blanket, only used on such occasions,
which was believed to have protective powers. Usually, these
garments had belonged to a woman (one or two generations back)
who had a reputation of having had a ‘special knack of curing
diseases’. When people were confined to bed with colds and ’flu
these treatments continued to be applied. In addition, the back and
chest were massaged with hot fat, people slept on sheep and cat
skins in order to prevent the cold getting ‘into their bones’, or put
unwashed sheep’s wool on their chest in the belief that the irritation
and warmth would ‘drive out’ the illness. Sick people confined to
bed were kept unusually warm in an attempt to force ‘the dirt’ out
of the body and restore it to its normal ‘clean’ balance
(Schwitzkur).'8 High fevers were brought down by soaking towels
in cold water and wrapping them around the patients’ calves. This
process was sometimes repeated for several days. After each treat-
ment, the patient’s body was washed down with vinegar water.
Only when someone got pneumonia or TB, or when a fever could
not be reduced, was a doctor called and, in most cases, the patient
was hospitalised.
Though taboos played an important part in normal socialisation,
they were broken if this was deemed necessary for the treatment of
illness. For instance, dog fat was regarded as the only possible cure
for serious lung disease and the few people who survived attacks of
TB and pneumonia continued to eat small quantities as a preventa-
tive measure. Butter and lard were invested with similar powers and
it was believed that the fat was stored by the body for needy days.
The more your body saved, the better equipped it was to defend
itself against any attack, especially of TB which was thought to ‘eat
away the body’. The ‘saving for a rainy day’ idea of prevention of
disease, and the significance of fat as a defence against the threat of
destruction, were consistent with the social ideal of a healthy body
and a secure existence. A slim person was regarded as socially
needy, in danger of illness, and either mean or impoverished. Well-
built people had wealth and status. It was believed that health, in
contrast to inherited land and kinship structures, was the only asset
over which a person had some degree of control. Magical beliefs
were important in helping the villagers interpret the coincidental
nature of disease and formed an integral part of folk medicine and
preventive strategies. These beliefs offered the individual the
‘comfort’ of holding an insurance policy in his or her hands, but
they also helped to establish behavioural norms which appeared
classless and natural and thereby provided an independent set of
rules for evaluating the actions of every household in a seemingly
objective way.!9
Superstitions had a social control function but they also ensured
a degree of humanity and defined the difference between reason-
able and unreasonable degrees of exploitation and oppression.
Curses were the last resort of the down-trodden and an important
symbol of resistance and defiance. During pregnancy, for example,
women were protected by taboo. They were not allowed to go
underneath a washing line otherwise it would be a difficult birth.

The washing line was a symbol of hard work and heavy lifting,
both of which were taboo during pregnancy. Wife-beating was
believed to affect the health of the child, produce a birthmark on
the baby’s body, and in some cases lead to a stillbirth. Women were
not to touch any rodents during pregnancy and had to be protected
from any frightening or upsetting situation. The effects of these
beliefs was to afford the pregnant woman some protection from the
daily workload and the maltreatment of others. When women did
not want their baby, they apparently turned all these ‘superstitious’
beliefs upside down and broke them systematically in order to
induce a miscarriage. In addition, they ate household soap to
‘make the baby slide out’. Vinegar was believed to cleanse the
blood and the body if taken in small quantities and, consequently,
some women drank large quantities in the hope that it would trigger
off a spontaneous abortion.
The old women, apart from being the most effective healers,
could also bring illness, misfortune and strife into a household
because their curses were thought to be potent. Senility was not
regarded as a disease in the physical but in the social sense. The
symptoms could be seen in the bad temper of those affected, who
were believed to lack courtesy. In this state, old women (not old
men) were thought to be deliberately antisocial. Again, ‘super-
stitions’ identified the danger, offered people a defence, and
warned them of the likely consequences. On Walpurgisnacht
(Hallowe’en) people nailed three wreaths to their doors to protect
themselves and their animals against witchcraft or the evil eye of
old women. On the night before May Day, if older women came to
borrow from their neighbours, it was a sign of antisocial intentions.
The neighbours were obliged to lend the things out but were not
supposed to answer more than one request with a simple ‘yes’.
They were to think of a counter-curse — usually ‘kiss my arse’ —
with each answer. Throughout the year, old women from other
households were kept away from the stables, as they were believed
to bring ‘bad luck’ to the animals.
In relation to the death and illness of people and animals there
were omens in nature which had to be interpreted and read cor-
rectly in order to avoid the danger. An exceptionally large molehill
in the vegetable garden or meadows of the farm signified a death
within the year for someone in the household. A barn owl heard at
the wrong time of year signalled danger, but swallows nesting in
192. The Sins of the Fathers
stables or under the roof were a good insurance policy against mis-
fortune. People who destroyed swallows’ nests stepped outside the
confines of social and natural order. A link between society and
nature was central to the cosmology of villagers as they believed
that chance, misfortune and unusual natural events constituted
supernatural happenings which had to be faced with the help of
magic, superstition, ritual and taboo.
Through the treatment of the sick, the social actors ‘made state-
ments’ about social reality. Medical practices functioned as a
focusing mechanism and a control of experience. A link was
created between the cosmological principles adhered to by the
villagers and the structures of the social world which they
inhabited. The ritualistic context in which illness was diagnosed
and the sick treated resembled what social anthropologists have
called a ‘rite of passage’. These rites tended to be structured in
three phases: the person was separated from the normal role and
status, initiated into a temporary state of abnormality and social
marginality, and finally brought back to normal and reintegrated
into society. As the illness label amounted to a dispensation from
normal work duties, no one could be allowed to define him or her-
self as ill or healthy. The difference between having just a cough
and ’flu was a matter of social definition. Only when there was
agreement that the symptoms were serious enough was the patient
advised to withdraw to the sickbed. Through visits, the outside
world kept in touch and was able to prevent the patient from taking
advantage of the situation. The logic of these events remained
obscure to most participants, but the rituals of treatment and its
associated metaphorical language of folk medicine and ‘good’
magic, which resembles mythology in pre-industrial society,
allowed people to engage in a ‘dialogue’ about the nature of social
relations and order. These ideas about order could not be free of
contradictions in a class society. Both the beliefs and the ritualised
context of behaviour, such as being ill, were forms of communica-
tion through which social controversy could be maintained and a
resemblance of ‘community’ constructed.”!
Through folk medicine the ‘binary principles’ of order and dis-
order in village cosmology were made clear. Health was associated
with purity and cleanliness; illness signified danger and pollution.
Treatment was perceived as a method of magical transformation.
The patient was restored to ‘normal’ by cleansing the body of its
dirt. What also became apparent was the ambivalent role in which
women were cast in this patriarchal society. The ambilvalence was

made public through the perception of women as practitioners of
good and bad magic. Women were associated with care and love,
their involvement in reciprocal relationships was believed to be
emotionally based. Therefore, women constituted a threat to the
male principles of social order which were seen in terms of mutual
obligations and contractual duty. Just as sexuality had to be
curbed, so women had to be controlled and watched in the public
sphere in order to ensure the continuity of class and property. Class
collaboration and the ‘resolution’ of conflicts within the village
were inseparably linked with the diagnosis and labelling of disease.
Villagers perceived offences against the behavioural code contained
in the moral economy as a debt which had to be settled by a process
of public discussion and subsequent compensation.” The ‘inquest’
into an illness looked at such questions as: is this person’s illness a
direct punishment for his or her own deviancy, a repayment of a
social debt incurred by previous generations or, in the absence of
any other explanation, could fate be responsible?
The predictability of behaviour within the household and in the
marriage market were central to the reproduction of the division of
labour and class relations within the village. The invocation of
supernatural threats to make people ‘pull themselves together’ (sich
zusammenreissen) depersonalised social control, but the enforce-
ment of these ‘laws’ took place in a highly-charged atmosphere as
people put curses on each other or their houses. Curses were a last
resort and only people who had broken some of the strongest
taboos of social conduct became targets: those, for example, who
maltreated their parents, cheated siblings out of a ‘legitimate’
inheritance, refused to work for the household, or married across
class lines. Conflicts between siblings were inevitable as the
property usually passed into the hands of the eldest son and as the
other brothers and sisters were expected to work for the household
with equal enthusiasm and accept that their standing in the village
depended on their dutiful behaviour. The person who inherited the
house and land also had reasons for resentment. He took over the
farm on condition that he and his family would take care of the
older relatives and offer board and lodging to any unmarried
brother and sister. As the one group resented the fact that they had
been left empty-handed (mit leeren Hdnden dastehen, leer
ausgegangen zu sein) and the heir began to view his siblings as extra
mouths to feed, niggling conflicts could turn into internal
household feuds. These quarrels were then frequently accompanied

by curses.
Some of these curses are reported to have worked. There was
always a household within living memory whose string of misfor-
tunes and illnesses could be interpreted in this way to give villagers
ground for believing in this system of retribution. It is also possible
that tension within an authoritarian and relatively enclosed social
order built up to such an extent that it could only be relieved
through the hysterical reactions of individuals who genuinely
believed in these powers. Heart failure, circulation trouble, cancer
and infections signified faulty socialisation of those afflicted. The
diagnosis amounted to a lesson in public morality. Too much work
could cause mental illness but too little work was thought to bring
about a circulation collapse and lead to heart failure. Those suffer-
ing from heart disease were suspected of personal weakness and
social irresponsibility — their human nature was somehow flawed.
The disease made public the life-history of a secret deviant. As
heart disease undermined a person’s ability to work, it constituted a
threat to the household’s division of labour. In the eyes of the
others, the person affected had to be carried and was labelled as
being responsible for his or her failure to pull his or her weight. The
inability to work was the ultimate expression of sickness and there-
fore one of the severest threats to social order and personal self-
discipline. Work was the only cure for heart and circulation prob-
lems and the way to restore public confidence.
Vv
The diagnosis of mental illness took account of the dynamics of

internal household relationships. Those people within the house-
hold ‘who had driven a relative to the brink of insanity’ were held
responsible. Mental disorder was rarely seen as the product of the
sick person’s psyche; it was viewed in relation to the actions of
those who had flouted the principles of seniority and reciprocity
which were supposed to regulate the relationships within each
household. In KGrle, individuals had to affirm both themselves and
the collective values of the household and community. Character
and reputation depended not solely on birth and class position, but
also upon deeds. Deeds and actions defined the quality and charac-
ter of people in terms of reciprocity, social responsibility and
mutual obligation. The network of relationships within the house-

hold was fundamental to a determination of what was regarded as
natural and unnatural, of what it was to be fully human. The
‘appearance’ of mental illness was indicative of disorder and
‘unnatural’ events, it pointed to a separation between appearance
and reality within that household. Very often the accusatory finger
was pointed at somebody by a relative who was part of the wider
network of the household but had left the parental home. At the
first sign of mental disorder, this person would name the guilty
party and relate the breakdown to a catalogue of grievances and
resentments that he or she might harbour against the household.
The local dialect contains a number of stock phrases designed to
explain mental illness in these environmental terms: ‘His parents
drove her to it ...’,b ‘No wonder that she has gone gaga, they
treated her worse than their animals ...’, ‘The others are not
innocent . . .”, ‘Nobody could bear what she had to put up with in
that house. . .’, ‘He suffers on behalf of all of them. . .’, and so
on.
In one such case there had been three children in the family, who
lived with their mother and two married relatives. Later, the two
younger children married and left the house. The eldest son stayed
at home and combined building work and farming. People were
worried that he would fail to get a wife; they said he was married to
his work. Eventually, he did marry, after a long period of having
been mocked about his sedentary habits. The wife came from an
outside village and was suspected of being ‘stupid’ and ‘not good
enough’. By this was meant that she took this unrepentant bachelor
because she was unable to get anybody better, and it also implied
that she had not brought a sufficient dowry with her. They had a
daughter and when the household had shrunk to grandmother,
wife, daughter and husband, he began to be picked on in the village
for being ruled by a ‘Weiberwirtschaft’ (female rule). The village
gossips also suspected tensions between the household and the sib-
lings who had ‘married out’. Consequently when the husband had a
mental breakdown, the village blamed the women in his household
and the relatives connected with it for his condition and his failure
to control ‘his own house’.
In another house, ‘the woman of the house’ (Froche) was com-
mitted to an asylum. Her condition was blamed on her husband
because he was seen to be too weak and hadn’t defended ‘his own
wife’ against the bullying of his ‘own mother’ and ‘his own
unmarried brother’ who still lived in the house. This system of

diagnosis submitted the reputation of the whole household to
public scrutiny and enabled villagers, through the channels of
gossip, to identify tensions.” The tensions were implicit in clashes
of interest which were built into the composition of the whole
house: generation against generation, own-family against in-laws,
husband and wife against mother- and father-in-law, husband and
mother-in-law against wife, resident relatives against the rest, and
so on. Each person or group could be accused of having driven any
of the others mad. The exceptions were people who lived on their
own, had declined into destitution, and had no ties with any house-
hold. They went mad because they did not have any of these stabi-
lising relationships. Mental illness, therefore, represented both a
form of conflict and a legitimate form of escape from a social
world that had become unbearable.
Unlike the Azande, where all death and illness had to be
explained by reference to misfortune and supernatural interven-
tion, the inhabitants of Kérle exempted TB and pneumonia from
this interpretative framework. These diseases were seen as per-
sonal catastrophes rather than a form of retribution. The threat of
TB hung over everybody and the disease’s unpredictability and fre-
quent occurrence seemed to make a nonsense of all ‘normal’ con-
siderations. The Almighty and Nature were perceived to be more
orderly and calculable. Too many undeserving cases would have
had to be explained and the beliefs in natural and social justice
would have lost credibility. ‘Getting’ TB was a personal and collec-
tive disaster. Apart from depriving the household of one of its
labourers, TB led to the social isolation of the sufferer and those
who cared for him or her. Fatal illnesses — and TB in particular —
were a testing-ground for the moral character of both the indivi-
dual and the household. Death came slowly to the sufferer and the
illness exposed the relatives to danger. Consequently, the neigh-
bours had an opportunity to see the virtues of self-discipline and
mutual obligation in action and they could make judgements about
resilience and social discipline. Death from TB could be a stigma or
enhance the reputation and name of the victim and household.
These perceptions of lung disease related to more general notions
associated with pain and suffering. Patients with serious illnesses
and in great pain were expected to suffer stoically. Visits were
restricted and conducted in an unassuming manner. These long-
term illnesses were threatening to the routine of everyday life and
the assumption that the absence of illness was normal. In contrast,

those who had minor accidents or suffered from curable diseases
were placed in the public’s view and their symptoms acted as a
focus for the expression of open sympathy and charity.
The perception of TB and pain would, on first impressions, sug-
gest that these villagers were locked into a traditional system of
beliefs which had lost nothing in coherence and displayed stability
and resilience. However, traditions are not as changeless as they
appear. Although it is impossible to reconstruct the origin of the
ideas associated with the TB sufferer, it would perhaps not be too
speculative to suggest they bear a resemblance to notions we find in
the literary tradition of the early nineteenth century. Villagers
probably perceived the TB sufferer in the 1920s through a perspec-
tive that was, in part, constructed from traditional beliefs in folk
medicine but also incorporated influences which had been brought
into the villages through contact with doctors, teachers, news-
papers, cheap novels and other aspects of bourgeois culture. It is
probably no accident that the TB sufferer in the village was
shrouded in a very similar mythology to that surrounding the
unwordly, refined and over-sensitive poet and member of the nine-
teenth-century intellectual aristocracy.*> In both village society in
the Weimar period, and in nineteenth-century upper-class circles,
TB was an illness that liberated its victims from an oppressing
reality. The people afflicted by TB were perceived as ‘too good for
this world’, its hard work, its sexuality, its insensitivity and its
injustice. In some sense they were envied their fate and secretly one
admired them for having been chosen by Nature, Fate and God to
be released from the bondage of everyday life. They were like
children who had regained their innocence, progressing through TB
towards the spiritual and pure. In a fundamentally Protestant
sense, these tubercular victims served as models of purity and
spiritual cleanliness. They could be among the elect and achieve
immortality without having to pursue the path of hard work, social
obedience and duty. TB, as the exception among the diseases,
‘taught’ villagers that exemption from moral pollution and escape
from the cycle of inequality and social debt could only be achieved
beyond the confines of the social universe. Help, if it existed, came
through death, not the charity of men.
Cancer was seen as a punishment for sexual transgressions com-
mitted during adolescence. The victims most frequently labelled in
this way were women who were seen to have followed their
emotional and sexual impulses rather than social conscience and

sense of responsibility. As a socialisation device, the diagnosis of
cancer highlighted the importance of the politics of marriage and
the evils of independent character development. The class structure
and the household economy, based on the uneven distribution of
land, survived within K6rle through the limitation of marriage
across class boundaries. In order to achieve this, sexuality and
certain types of social contact had to be associated with a high
degree of moral pollution. It was the diagnosis of cancer, besides
charivaris and pranks, which dealt with this important aspect of
class rule. On a societal level, the cancer metaphor served even
more sinister purposes. Both in the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies, the image of the cancerous growth was used by the anti-
semitic movements that ravaged the Hessian countryside to
describe the Jewish population. It invoked the idea of ‘the threat
from within’, and the Nazis made full use of it. They equated
‘cancer’ with ‘enemy’ and the ‘threat from within’ with the cause of
all social evil. Social and economic factors were recast as a medical
problem which required radical surgery and a hygienic solution.
The medical metaphor provided an ideal tool for the Nazis to
exploit the hidden fears among sections of the rural population and
they used it to incite, justify and legitimise violence, murder and
genocide.” Nazi propaganda linked in with a number of ideas
which formed the basis of the dominant village ideology. Those
who joined the Nazi movement seized upon this rhetoric and used it
ruthlessly against minorities and organised sections of the working
class, whom they perceived as posing a threat to the idealised
village community. In its early years, the Nazi Party consisted
almost entirely of the sons of the horse and cow farmers who hoped
that the movement could preserve or restore their class hegemony
by reversing trends towards class polarisation. The magic formula
was the ‘coordination’ (Gleichschaltung) of social organisations
and cultural values and the restoration of ‘health’ and virility to the
Volk. The enemies of this order had to be ‘cleansed’ or ‘eradicated’
in the same way as disease was expelled from the body of the sick.
What becomes apparent is that the illness metaphor could be
applied in a ‘rational’ way to the analysis of social conflict, but that
the overall perspective rested on ‘irrational’ premises, the under-
lying assumptions being fear, obedience and control. These were
the sentiments of class rule, the emotions used to intimidate and
control those who were different or wanted to effect fundamental
change: ‘Wir haben uns doch nicht getraut, was zu sagen. Wir
haben friiher doch nichts als Angst gekannt.’”
In the ‘theatre’ of everyday life, the inhabitants of Kérle acted
out a variety of roles, each of which required the ‘presentation’ of a
different aspect of self. Everyday social interaction involved the
negotiation of these images of self and other and implied the recon-
struction of social reality. Definitions of illness have been examined
in some detail because they enabled me to piece together some of
the fundamental cosmological notions which formed the basis for
defining the self and other in a context of inequality, poverty and
class compromise. The threatening moral symbolism associated
with health and illness was a powerful social control mechanism
which was linked to the ideology of class and the practice of Protes-
tantism. The key to personal self-discipline and public accounta-
bility was individual conscience. By not listening to his or her cons-
cience a person was believed to put the whole household at the
mercy of misfortune. The attempt to establish a connection
between the victim, the disease and the idea that illness and mis-
fortunes were apt punishments for social, political and economic
‘offences’ mystified complex and historically specific social and
economic issues while, at the same time, trying to make sense of
these phenomena.
Luther’s dictum ‘Let work be the way to salvation’, and Hippo-
crates’ prescription ‘Let food be your medicine and medicine your
food’ embodied the struggle by these villagers to make the preven-
tion of illness a social duty and mark of responsible behaviour.
This survival strategy depended on the objective of retaining a
degree of self-determination and security but also confined the
individual to the hierarchical and authoritarian order of each
household. By linking disease, collective guilt and individual
deviancy with the public reputation of a household, the preserva-
tion of the individual and household name became a strategy for
maintaining the status quo. Health, in the minds of most villagers,
represented something desirable, a state of purity and normality.
Sickness was a condition of physical and spiritual danger and pollu-
tion, and both prevention and cure were seen in terms of magical
transformations. The diagnosis and treatment of illness metaphori-
cally restated fundamental assumptions of the ruling ideology and
clarified role and authority divisions. The diagnostic model used
tackled the problem of ‘managing’ the social injustice implicit in
reciprocal social relationships based on inequality of wealth and
power. The process of arriving at a diagnosis of disease by means

of public debate, and balancing social debts against individual mis-
fortune created the appearance of ‘objective’ justice and kept alive
the oral history of the village.”8
The sick suffered on behalf of the social system, their pain served
as a focus for the hidden tensions in the class relationships. Disease
and misfortune, something beyond human control, were seen as the
only legitimate form of disruption permitted within the existing
social order. The pain caused by exploitation and internalised
resentments was privatised and personalised. The fact that the
repressive social system could be the cause of suffering, injustice
and actual disease was obscured. Illness could not become a rally-
ing point for wider social discontent. The system of settling
accounts, of cancelling out social debts and offences against the
moral economy only allowed social scapegoating and provided, at
best, temporary relief. Instead of being cathartic, in social terms,
the diagnosis of disease became another occasion for the household
to keep up a social front and confirmed its position within the exist-
ing class structure. The perception of illness and health were a vital
ingredient in the perpetuation of class rule and helped to neutralise
structural conflict and threats to the ruling ideology of the village
community.
From the poorer villagers’ point of view, industrialisation con-
fronted them with one overriding existential problem: to feed every
member of their household and protect them, as far as humanly
possible, from misfortune, poverty and destitution. To this end, all
households, but in particular the goat farmers, mobilised whatever
resources they could muster: trading, hiring out, wage labour,
neighbourliness, barter, exchange of gifts, mutual obligations and
last, but not least, politics.
We earned very little in those days. Compared to now, anyway.

. . . We had to make do with whatever came our way. We helped
each other, we had to go and work for those horse farmers... .
That’s how it was. . . . Politics alone doesn’t feed anyone. . .
Nobody has ever come through my door and given me 10 marks.
. . . You have to work for everything, and. . . you have to try to
help each other. Who but your fellow villagers could you turn to
in the bad days?
In the eyes of this witness, the village community and his household
could not have survived without the limitation of open conflict:

Given the unequal distribution of land and draught animals and the
relatively poor quality of the arable land, the seasonal work in
agriculture could not have been accomplished without co-operation
and the exchange of labour within each kinship and neighbourhood
network and across the class boundaries. This created a ‘com-
munity’ of labour which in no way resembled or could be described
as a village idyll. The sense of community was also strengthened by
festivities both within the village and among relatives. On festive
occasions gifts were exchanged and invitations were issued which
served to reinforce existing social relationships. Hospitality and
gifts obliged the receivers to cancel out moral and social debt
incurred through their acceptance. Last but not least, the mutual
antagonism directed at strangers and outsiders was important in
restricting access to the village and helped to reinforce the village’s
own identity. This was taken so far that the worker-peasants com-
muted in groups from the village to the factories in nearby Kassel.
Often the rival groups taunted each other and enacted ritual fights
which confirmed the identity of the combatants as ‘KGrler’ or
‘Guxenhagener’ (the neighbouring village) .”
It is important to recognise that consciousness is not logically
consistent. A person’s or a society’s cosmology can be constructed
from a number of contradictory elements and yet be perceived as a
coherent and meaningful system. The people from Koérle whom I
interviewed saw no problem in reconciling the seemingly contra-
dictory needs for conflict and order. Their community of poverty
was not based on fatalism but on the quest for sufficiency. In the
context of poverty and insecurity inherent in the capitalist system,
this was a struggle for relative self-determination and security. Self-
sufficiency in food could only be realised in the poor households of
the goat farmers if they co-operated with the ruling class of the
village, who owned the draught animals needed for cultivation.
Both cow and goat farmers recognised that this system was unjust,
in the sense that the agricultural land was distributed unequally.
However, as they saw no immediate alternative or new life-style
around the corner, they were resigned to the fact that the whole
cycle of inequality started at birth. In their view, any real hope of
justice and equality lay beyond the grave or could only be realised
through divine retribution or the workings of misfortune. The
horse farmers themselves could not have survived as independent
operators without the supply of cheap casual labour from the goat
farmers’ households. This explains why conflict had to be excluded

from the sphere of agricultural production within the village and
why the system was not challenged, despite the increasing rate of
change in German society. Nevertheless, as the potential for con-
flict was still present in the class structure of village society, it had
to be expressed through other forms than the open clash of
employer and employee. During the Weimar years open political
debate increasingly featured in the life of the village as separate
working-class organisations were established, but issues of equality
and inequality and justice and injustice concerning the moral
economy continued to be perceived through the ‘traditional’ or
‘established’ metaphors of illness and health.
To the Korler, continuity did not represent traditionalism or a
dogged resistance to the forces of change, but symbolised a degree
of hope which ensured some protection against natural, economic
and social disasters. Apparently contradictory allegiances emerged
as a consequence of industrialisation between urban employment
and work on the land, affiliation to working-class organisations
and continued submission to the rule of the horse farmers. These
contradictions were recognised as a part of everyday life, which had
to be accepted or faced up to, not overcome. What was seen as
changeable were the forces which directly intervened in their daily
existence but which were beyond the villagers’ control and often
their comprehension. These were: the capitalist economy, and the
forces of the state, Nature and Fate. Of these Nature and Fate (or
fortune) were most accessible to the villagers and were seized by
them as modes of explanation. While recognizing that change was
the most important factor which industrialisation had brought into
their lives, the initial reaction of these villagers was to strengthen
their familiar agricultural life-style. In the long run, worker-
peasants were to have a very profound effect on the development of
the village’s social, economic and political structures. However, it
took the further upheavals of the Nazi period, the Second World
War, and the post-war economic ‘miracle’ to consolidate these
changes. They are still going on today. It was the defeat of the
Nazis which was to break the political and cultural stranglehold
which the horse farmers had over the village. Only when a certain
standard of living had been reached and when industrial employ-
ment was deemed to be as secure as land or a job with the state, did
the goat farmers and cow farmers abandon farming in large
numbers. This radical transformation of the village landscape was
not evident before the 1960s. As far as the Weimar years are con-
cerned, therefore, the worker-peasants remained an integral part of
the village and their economic dependence on the horse farmers
explains the relative stability of the community. In this context it is
crucial to analyse patterns of socialisation and social control which
were linked to politics and economics. Until recently these have
only been studied by social anthropologists or in isolation as part of
the domestic world. Yet the domestic world is inseparable from the
class structure. It provides one of the keys in helping us understand
how class relations are perpetuated and negotiated, and how social
order is, in part, created through the socialisation of individual
people.
Notes
1. Otto Brunner, ‘Das ‘‘ganze Haus’’ und die alteuropaische Okonomik’, in

Neue Wege der Verfassungs- und Sozialgeschichte (Gottingen, 1968).
2. Vorratsermittlung des Staates Preussen, 1923: Gemeindeverwaltung, Korle.
3. Preussische Viehzaéhlungslisten, 1923-1929: Gemeindeverwaltung, Korle.
4. P. Kriedte, H. Medick and J. Schlumbohm, /ndustrialisierung vor der Indus-
trialisierung (G6ttingen, 1977).
5. Oral evidence.
6. Lutz Niethammer (ed.), Lebenserfahrung und kollektives Gedéchtnis. Die
Praxis der ‘Oral History’ (Frankfurt, 1980).
7. Preussische Viehzahlungsliste.
8. These kinds of relationship have also been found by social anthropologists in
other parts of the world. For details see E. N. Goody, ‘Forms of Pro-Parenthood:
The Sharing and Substitution of Parental Roles’, in J. Goody (ed.), Kinship
(Harmondsworth, 1971), pp. 331—45; S. W. Mintz and E. R. Wolf, ‘An Analysis of
Ritual Co-parenthood (compadrazgo)’, Southwestern Journal of Anthropology,
Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 341-65.
9. Kurt Wagner and Gerhard Wilke, ‘Dorfleben im Dritten Reich: Korle in
Hessen’, in D. Peukert and J. Relecke (eds.), Die Reihen fast geschlossen, Beitrdge
zur Geschichte des Alltags unterm Nationalsozialismus (Wuppertal, 1981),
pp. 85-106.
10. F. Tonnies, Community and Association (London, 1955).
11. ‘Da gab es auch nix zu verschénern an der Welt friiher. Das wuBten die Leute
ja auch. Die eine Schicht, die Lehrer, die Pfarrer und die grossen Bauern, die
konnten halt leben, aber in der Not damals waren wir doch auch alle aufeinander
angewiesen’.
12. E. P. Thompson, ‘The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eight-
eenth Century’, Past and Present, No. 50 (1971), pp. 76—136.
13. Gerhard Wilke and Kurt Wagner, ‘Family and Household: Social Structures
in a German Village between the Two World Wars’, in R. J. Evans and W. R. Lee
(eds.), The German Family (London, 1981), pp. 120-47.
14. E. P. Thompson, ‘‘‘Rough Music’’: Le charivari anglais’, Annales, No. 2
(1972), p. 308; M. Scharfe, ‘Zum Riigenbrauch’, Hessische Blatter ftir Volkskunde,
Vol. 61, pp. 45—68; Ian Farr, ‘Haberfeldtreiben’, unpublished paper.
15. Peter Farb and Georg Ammelagos, Consuming Passions, The Anthropology
of Eating (New York, 1980); J. Goody, Cooking, Cuisine and Class. A Study in
Comparative Sociology (Cambridge; 1982).
16. Gemeindeprotokoll, Gemeindeverwaltung, Korle.
t7. Ann Oakley, ‘The Family, Marriage and its Relationship to Illness’, in David
Tuckett (ed.), Medical Sociology (London, 1978), pp. 74—99
18. M. Douglas, Purity and Danger (Harmondsworth, 1966).
19. Gustav Jahoda, The Psychology of Superstition (Harmondsworth, 1971).
20. A. Van Gennep, Les Rites de Passage (Paris, 1908); E. R. Leach, Culture and
Communication. The Logic by which Symbols are Connected (Cambridge, 1976),
pp. 29-55.
21. E. R. Leach, Social Anthropology (London, 1982); Joe Loudon, ‘Religious
Order and Mental Disorder, A Study in a South Wales Rural Community’, in
Michael Banton (ed.), The Social Anthropology of Complex Societies (London,
1966).
22. E. R. Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma (London, 1964).
23. Simon Roberts, Order and Dispute (Harmondsworth, 1979).
24. E. Evans-Pritchard, Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic among the Azande
(Oxford, 1937).
25. Susan Sonntag, J//ness as Metaphor (Harmondsworth, 1983).
26. L. Steinbach, Ein Volk, Ein Reich, ein Glaube? (Bonn, 1983).
27. Oral evidence: ‘We didn’t dare to speak up. We knew nothing but fear in the
old days.’
28. Jan Vansina, Oral Traditions (London, 1965); Paul Thompson, The Voice of
the Past (Oxford, 1978).
29. A. P. Cohen (ed.), ‘Belonging, Identity and Social Organisation in British
Rural Cultures’, Anthropological Studies of Britain, No. 1 (Manchester, 1982).
8 PEASANTS, POVERTY AND POPULATION
Economic and Political Factors in the Family
Structure of the Working Village People in the
Magdeburg Region, 1900—39*
Gisela Griepentrog
By the beginning of the twentieth century social differentiation had

become very marked in the Magdeburg ‘black-earth’ region.! The
rich soil and the district’s close proximity to major market centres,
notably Magdeburg itself, had stimulated the middle and larger
farmers to specialise in sugar beet production, while those with too
little land to profit from this development had been gradually
impoverished. In 1900, 70 per cent of the farms had become so
small that they accounted for only 6 per cent of the cultivated land
in the area. By contrast, while the capitalist agricultural enterprises
made up only 7 per cent of the total number of farms, they had
expanded to cover no less than 70 per cent of the district’s
cultivated land. Some of the biggest landowners of the district
could be found among the names listed in the Handbook of
German Millionaires. The average size of landholdings was: the
largest estates, 323 hectares; large peasant-farmers, 40 hectares;
middle peasant-farmers, 10.4 hectares; and small peasant-farmers,
3.4 hectares. Those with land of 0.5 hectares were increasingly
forced to work in the factories in the nearby towns, especially in
Magdeburg, and left the cultivation of the land to their wives.
How was this situation reflected in family life? The Prussian
census-takers did not distinguish between different social groups in
the rural population, so that questionnaires, interviews and par-
ticipant observation had to be used to provide some of the basic
figures. Some 100 inhabitants of the area, selected in proportion to
its former social structure, were interviewed over a period of seven
years, and the data make it clear that the nuclear family was
shrinking, with a decreasing number of children per marriage,
*Translated by Richard J. Evans
205
206 Peasants, Poverty and Population
while average household size, on the other hand, was growing. The
declining family size was most evident among the large and mid-
dling peasants, as a direct reaction to the economic situation.
Agricultural mechanisation and the availability of cheap labour
from seasonal migrant workers, the unemployed and, in 1914-18,
prisoners of war, meant that it was no longer necessary to raise a
large family to work on the farm. Additionally, the costs of their
education and inheritance portion made children expensive.
Between 1900 and 1935 the average number of births per marriage
decreased from 4 to less than 2. Family size was further reduced by
the high infant mortality rate and deaths of sons in the First World
War. At the same time, life expectancy increased and led to a
growing number of grandparents (and to a lesser extent great-
uncles and great-aunts) living on the farm. Although they seldom
lived in the farmhouse itself and generally looked after themselves,
they were still counted as part of the main household by the census-
takers, as were servants, nannies, housekeepers, and the like.
Our interviews revealed above-average numbers of children in
working-class families before the First World War. For the post-
war period, the variable and, on the whole, smaller numbers of
interviewees, do not allow us to make estimates for all the social
groups. But as Table 8.1 suggests, there seems to have been a
levelling-down process at work. The peasant and worker families
had on average between 2 and 3 children. Between 1933 and 1945
the fascist state sought to combat the decline in the birth rate by
propagating the idea of the ‘master race’ and through the glorifica-
tion and mystification of motherhood, in order to win more people
over for the implementation of its expansionist aims. This seems to
have led to a slight increase in the birth rate, but it was not large
enough to bring about an increase in population. Ideological cam-
paigns were doomed to fail without an improvement in the living
standards of families with children. As local officials in the
Wanzleben district (Kreis) in this region were forced to admit, in
responding to an order to report on the ‘achievements of the Third
Reich’ in this field, there were only 779 births in the district in 1933
as compared to 1187 in 1932. Perhaps a few families had hopes of
an improvement in living standards after the fascist seizure of
power, as Nazi demagogy and propaganda about the German
family indeed promised. In 1934 there were more marriages in the
district, and 962 children were born. But as early as 1935 the
number of births had fallen back to 845, and it remained at roughly
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In the early years of the twentieth century, doctors and others

active in the field of social policy were becoming increasingly
concerned with the high infant mortality rate in Germany. They
published a number of demands for the investigation of its causes
and for an improvement of the situation. In one such document,
issued c. 1905, it was pointed out that while Germany’s general
mortality rate was very ‘favourable’ compared with the rest of
Europe, infant mortality was not; 20 per cent of all infants died
before the age of 1 year. Only Austria-Hungary and Russia had
worse figures, whereas in countries such as France, with a lower
neonatal mortality rate, infant mortality was also lower. Roughly
two-thirds of the deaths in Germany, it was claimed, were caused
by nutritional deficiencies: infants who were breast-fed, the
pamphlet argued, had a lower mortality rate than those who were
not.? These and other, similar arguments prompted the Prussian
government to institute a general inquiry into infant mortality in
1908.4 Local registry offices had already been required to distribute
notices giving advice on infant care and feeding since 1905, in order
‘to impress upon the popular mind the high level of infant
mortality, and the need to take appropriate counter-measures.’*
Yet almost the only practical steps to improve the situation were
taken by private initiatives and voluntary associations, such as the
‘Association for Combatting Infant Mortality and Increasing Milk
Consumption’. In the winter of 1908/9 this association reported
that infant mortality among a group of working-class families in
Halle had been reduced to 10 per cent through modest financial
support and supervision by the town’s infant welfare services.® In
combination with improvements in medical science, voluntary
efforts do seem indeed to have succeeded in lowering urban infant
mortality rates to some extent at this time.
But the situation was very different in the countryside. While
there were 192 infant deaths per 1000 live births in Prussian towns
in 1904, compared to 179 in the countryside, by 1909 the figures, at
158 and 167 respectively, had been reversed.’ And on average, in
1904—9, the infant mortality rate in the core district of Wanzleben
in the Magdeburg region, the figure stood at 238. This was the
Peasants, Poverty and Population 209
second highest rate of any district in the whole administrative area

of the Prussian Province of Saxony. (The urban district of Halber-
stadt, had a rate of 242.8) As we can see from Table 8.2, stillbirths
and infant mortality were high for the other districts in the
Magdeburg region as well, and well above average for the adminis-
trative area as a whole. The underlying cause undoubtedly lay in
the increasing social antagonisms in the district, which were con-
nected with the complete domination of the capitalist mode of
production in agriculture and the corresponding worsening in living
standards of the working people. Ruined small peasants forced to
give up their farms, disinherited peasant sons and daughters, were
all compelled to work in factories in the city and took up residence
en masse in the small towns of the region and the suburbs of
Magdeburg itself. Wanzleben was one such suburban district, as
were two of the other districts with the highest infant mortality
rates in the Province of Saxony (the rural districts of Erfurt and
Zeitz). The local doctor in Wanzleben, Dr Burmeister, wrote in
1911:
Here in the suburbs ... a great number of materially badly-

situated people, in part factory workers, in part rural labourers,
live close together, and in unfavourable hygienic circumstances.
They do not yet enjoy such advantages of the big city as mains
water or sewage, and are not catered for by urban welfare
agencies. . . . On the other hand, they do suffer from the draw-
backs of the big city, overcrowding and factory work that is
often scarcely advantageous to their health.’
Here, then, was the same poverty that had existed in the big cities
of Germany half a century before, as the growth of industrial
capitalism sucked in masses of workers and subjected them to
ruthless exploitation. When extreme weather conditions or
epidemics were added to all this, the result could be the decimation
of whole birth cohorts of infants. Dr Burmeister reported, for
example, that in the hot summer of 1 July to 27 September 1911,
deaths exceeded births in the 10,000-strong commune of Gross
Ottersleben, just outside the city gates of Magdeburg, where infant
mortality reached the level of 56.4 per cent.’
Mothers were forced to work in order to feed their families, and
since home and workplace were generally separated and nurseries
and créches non-existent, the children were left unsupervised. Girls
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no longer learned cooking and household management by becom-

ing domestic servants, but went straight into the factory, where
they earned more and were more independent. ‘Although husband
and wife, later on the children too, go out to work and earn
money’, continued Dr Burmeister, ‘such a family seldom makes
any progress. The home is dirty and very sparsely furnished, the
family is undernourished because it mostly lives off coffee and
bread, because the housewife cannot cook or manage the house-
hold.’'! Of course, this poverty has in the first place to be explained
by the inadequate pay for long hours, and by the exhaustion and
apathy that resulted from mind-numbing, physically-debilitating
exploitation — what Burmeister called the ‘emotional dullness and
indifference towards life in general and that of the child in par-
ticular.’!2 But women did lack the experience they might have
gained in domestic service, even in a subordinate position. They
also lacked the model that the petty-bourgeois or peasant house-
hold had once provided them. Without a stimulus, without an aim
in life, many workers simply vegetated. Former peasant families,
torn from their traditional way of life, had to learn how to cope
with their new situation; how to come to terms with only working
in a part of the productive process instead of producing something
complete in itself, on their own responsibility; how to choose from
the confusing variety of foodstuffs on sale instead of growing their
own food themselves. Food was expensive in the town, and there
was no spare time in which to grow it. It took several generations
before women could adapt to their new life-style and develop self-
help and community institutions to cope.
Infant mortality was also high in the villages of Wanzleben dis-
trict at the beginning of the century. But as Dr Burmeister pointed
out, in two villages, Altbrandsleben and Ampfurth, there were no
infant deaths at all. The proportion of infants who were breast-fed
for longer than 3 months were 86 and 93 per cent, respectively in
the two communities. Yet there must have been other contributing
factors, since 31 per cent of infants died in Gross Ottersleben even
though 78 per cent were breast-fed for more than 3 months there,”
while in Eggenstedt only 50 per cent of infants were breast-fed for
more than 3 months, of whom only 9 per cent died.'* Alfred
Grotjahn, a leading propagandist for improved public health and
medical care at this time, noted in 1902 that the growing demand
for food from the cities was encouraging the growth of co-opera-
tive dairies and similar institutions which removed an increasing
proportion of argicultural: produce from the rural markets."

Farmers’ wives were using the proceeds of sales of dairy produce
for investment in the farm, and used coffee or skimmed milk in
their own households.'® While per capita annual consumption of
milk increased from 93 to 115 litres between 1896 and 1903, it
declined in the countryside from 115 to 54 litres over the period
1890 to 1900.17 The wife of one large peasant farmer in Zens
recorded in her account-book that of a daily average of 190 litres of
milk from her cows in January and February 1909, only 3—3.5
litres of milk were consumed by the six people living on the farm.”
The farm did not even make its own butter; some curd was pro-
duced from its daily supply of milk, but one must assume that the
former habit of eating milk soup and bread soaked in sour milk for
breakfast or supper had been abandoned by this time.'® It is not
likely to have been very different in smaller peasant farms, and was
undoubtedly a major contribution to the high infant mortality
rates.
Many small peasant farmers by this period had to supplement
their income by working in the factories, leaving their wives to look
after the farm. But as the local doctor in the Zeitz district wrote in
1912, even when the husband worked the farm, labour shortages
and high wage costs forced his wife to work in the fields as well as
doing the housework.!9
This change in the division of labour places heavy demands on

the women’s physical resources. It is all the more significant
because the nourishment available to many a countrywoman
today does not by any means provide her with the energy neces-
sary to maintain her own strength or that of the child that she
carries in her womb. For country people, out of an excessive
desire for earnings and ready cash, sell any of their produce that
they can dispense with to the towns, and content themselves
instead with the meagre residue and with skimpy substitutes.
Their diet is poor in fat and protein. This is harmful to pregnant
women, to unborn infants and to women in childbed. Debility of
the newborn, a short breast-feeding period and a premature use
of artificial baby foods, with all their disastrous consequences
for the infant, are the result.2
If we substitute for the reference to ‘the excessive desire for earn-

ings and ready cash’ the fact that the mere need for survival forced
these people to strain every nerve to obtain money, then the.

doctor’s opinion can be endorsed without further comment.
Peasant women who took their babies into the fields and fed them
during breaks from work were, as he remarked, a rarity. Most
infants were left behind, to be looked after by older children, other
relatives or neighbours, or were farmed out to baby-minders. The
neglect that often resulted was a further threat to their survival.
Ill
Another consequence of the heavy burden of work placed on

women in small and middle-sized peasant farms’ was the high
proportion of stillbirths (see Table 8.2), which rose as the infant
mortality rate in the corresponding area and/or year fell. Despite
unreliable data collection, it seems reasonable to conclude that still-
births and neonatal deaths (due to ‘general debility of the
newborn’) reflected damage done to the foetus in utero. A 30—40
per cent stillbirth rate, as in the rural districts of Wolmirstedt and
Neuhaldensleben, suggests that the health services were virtually
non-existent, and that a role was also played by what the doctors
frequently referred to as the ‘old-established bad habits, indif-
ference and incomprehension’ of the rural population.*! ‘It is well-
known’, wrote the local doctor for the Zeitz district, ‘that a very
large proportion of infants in rural areas die without having
received medical attention. . . . The family is afraid of the costs of
calling a doctor and visiting a chemist, and would rather pay for a
sick cow to be seen to than a sick child.’”? As the doctor pointed
out, the lack of state welfare measures and effective employment
protection laws for women and children on the land also led to
disastrous consequences as women in the small and middling
peasant farms had to work increasingly hard. Tables 8.3 and 8.4
indicate that country women had higher death rates than men, and
higher death rates than women in the towns too,” and these rates
were increasing among women between the ages of 20 and 40.” E.
Gnauck-Kiihne, in an investigation of the subject, argued that the
higher female death rates were the result of unhealthy factory
work. But, as Tables 8.3 and 8.4 also show, increasing overwork
had an even more serious effect among women in the countryside.
In the following decades the situation grew worse, despite edu-
cative measures by the authorities and individual improvements
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in welfare, such as the appointment of a midwife to every village.

The demands made of women in small and middling peasant farms
were even more severe during the first world war, and the economic
crises and increased agricultural competition of the 1920s and
1930s. The 1939 census showed an untypical excess of men in three
age groups of the population of the Wanzleben district. Among
25—30-year-olds there were 2876 men to 2752 women; among
30—35-year-olds the figures were 3171 and 2661; while in the 35—40
age group the figures were 2995 and 2803, respectively. The
expected excess of women over men still prevailed in the older age
groups.”’ In some individual communes the disproportion was even
more marked. Gross Germersleben, for example, showed an excess
of men in seven age groups from 30 years upwards;in Etgersleben
and Sohlen in six age groups; in Welsleben, Bahrendorf, Hohen-
dodeleben and Klein Oschersleben in five; and in nine other com-
munes in four age groups. In Dodendorf there were 42 men to 30
women aged 25—30, and 43 men to 33 women aged 30-35; in
Domersleben there were 47 men to 36 women aged 20—35, and 62
men to 48 women aged 35—40. Extreme examples can be found in
Ampfurth (45 to 23) and Peseckendorf (23 to 8) in the 25—30 age
group. As Table 8.5 indicates, when one examines the social com-
position of these communes, those with an excess male population
were generally industrial suburbs with a large number of factory
workers, or villages with a high proportion of independent small
farms and unpaid family workers.
IV
In 1928, Dr Robert Engelsmann, at an international congress on

the declining birth rate, declared that Germany offered ‘a striking
example of the rule that the birth rate is restricted by contraception
in the upper classes and abortion in the lower.’*? Another doctor
Dr Vollmann, had told the German medical congress three years
earlier in 1925 to compare the miscarriage statistics with the birth
rate. In this way they would recognise that ‘the major part in
lowering the birth rate in the last decade has been played by
abortion.’2° The Prussian Rural Health Council in its published
estimates of the same year, stated there had been at least 400,000
abortions in 1923,?! while for Magdeburg itself, the proportion of
pregnancies ending in miscarriage almost doubled from 16.8 per
Table 8.6: Unemployment Benefit Recipients in Germany, 1923-27

Month 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927
January 150,220 1,439,780 535,529 1,498,681 1,748,597
February 190,008 1,167,785 593,024 2,030,646 1,827,200
March 222,410 694,559 540,460 2,055,928 1,695,515
April 266,966 571,783 465,761 1,942,011 1,121,150
May 253,529 401,958 319,656 7 Si 52 870,378
June 185,982 426,429 233,463 1,744,126 648,606
July 139,016 526, 188 195,099 1,740,754 540,717
August 249,215 588,485 197,248 1,652,281 452,127
September 533,546 513,496 230,727 1,548, 138 403,845
October 953,769 435,321 266,078 1,394,062 355, 162
November 1,465,670 436,690 363,961 1,308,293 339,982
December 1,533,495 535,654 673,315 1,396,768 604,586
Source: R. Engelsmann, calculations in Denkschrift Uber den Geburtenruckgang,

StA Magdeburg, Rep. C 20 Ib, Oberpras. Magdeburg, 3928, BI. 42.
cent in 1913 to 30 per cent in 1924,>2 the numbers of miscarriages

being 1458 in 1912 and 2068 in 1924.°7 Many doctors considered
‘miscarriage’ a euphemism for abortion in nearly every case. An
investigation carried out in Kiel showed an inverse relationship
between the birth rate and the miscarriage statistics.*4 Its author,
Dr Engelsmann, also reported a significant correlation between the
birth and miscarriage rates and unemployment. The stabilisation of
the Mark after the massive inflation of 1923 created a general
optimism which led to an increased number of conceptions in 1924
and a correspondingly higher birth rate in 1925. However, he
continued,
a large proportion of the pregnancies which began in the months

November and December 1925 and January and February 1926
was interrupted because the economic recession, which made
itself visible in the increased unemployment figures, robbed the
families of all their hope. Hence the renewed decline in births
and a fresh rise in miscarriages.
In the rural district around Kiel, he added, this phenomenon

occurred about a year later.*> Magdeburg was roughly comparable
to Kiel in size, and it seems reasonable to suppose that these
conclusions held for both districts.
Very few unmarried women seem to have suffered miscarriages.
On average in Prussia there were 2.2—2.6 illegitimate births per
1000 population.*%* In Wanzleben, however, these figures were

much higher: 16.4 per cent of births in the district were illegitimate
in 1921, rising to 18.7 per cent in 1922 and 20.3 per cent in 1923,
before falling to 17.5 per cent in 1924 and 14.3 per cent in 1925,
then rising again in 1926 to 17.5 per cent and again in 1927 to 18.5
per cent. The mothers were mostly female farmworkers and domes-
tic servants.*’ At the end of the First World War many people who
had postponed their wedding because of the uncertainties of the
war decided finally to take the plunge. There were only 22 weddings
in the Wanzleben district in 1918, but no fewer than 68 in 1919, 56
in 1920 and 51 in 1921. But the numbers declined slightly to 45 in
1922 and then fell dramatically to 24 in the crisis year of 1923,
remaining low in 1924 (22) and 1925 (25), before rising again in
1926 (32) and 1927 (35). This was more or less comparable to the
pre-war average of around 24 weddings a year.*8
It is likely that these changes reflected improvements in the wages
and working conditions of the rural labourers after the 1918 revolu-
tion. The deteriorating economic situation and the declining
marriage rate from 1921 to 1923 was reflected to some extent in the
rise in illegitimate births over the same period from 16.4 to 20.3 per
cent , aS some expectant couples now postponed their weddings or
cancelled them altogether. But these fluctuations in the illegitimacy
rate were relatively small. Nor can the decline in marriages account
for the very sharp rise in miscarriages over the same period. On the
whole, as Dr Engelsmann concluded, miscarriages (i.e. abortions)
were mostly sustained by married women who already had two or
three children, who, in a time of economic crisis and increasing
unemployment, were unable to support or look after any more.
Although contraceptives were already widely available and pub-
licised in the press in this period, they were either unknown among
rural labourers and small farmers or rejected by them, as Engels-
mann observed.?? However, folk medicine and herbal potions still
provided a well-known and widely-applied means of contraception
in the villages at this time.
The district President (Landrat), the leading local official in the
Wanzleben district, was obliged to confess at the end of 1920, in
answer to a query from his superior, that illegitimate children in his
district were looked after by their grandparents or were in suitable
foster family care. At least his counterpart in the Calbe district
could point to a day-nursery for 20 infants, provided by the
Patriotic Women’s Association in Stassfurt and run by a local
doctor, as well as orphanages and children’s homes in Stassfurt (12

beds) and Gross Salze (26 beds) run by charitable foundations, and
one in Schénebeck (20 beds) run by the town council. Some idea of
the. way such institutions were run can be gained from a report pub-
lished in 1927 on a ‘school for small children’ run by the Protestant
church in Wanzleben and paid for out of charitable funds. Up to
1924 it had only been open in the summer, but from then on it
functioned all year round. A staff of three were in charge of no
fewer than 80 small children. There was also a similar institution
run by the Catholics. Given the high ratio of children to staff,
there could have been no question of anything more elaborate than
mere supervision. Such measures were the merest drop in the ocean
of poverty in which many of the district’s inhabitants lived.
Neither the Royal Prussian authorities nor, under the Weimar
Republic, the Social Democratic provincial governments,
responded to the many warnings about the seriousness of this situa-
tion or the numerous calls for administrative and legislative
improvements, such as the introduction of a comprehensive state
social welfare scheme.*! The Imperial Association of Large
Families’ proposal for a state family welfare scheme to ease the
material poverty of large families, fell on deaf ears.** The insurance
statute introduced in 1924 and the establishment of maternity
benefits in 1927 both explicitly excluded female rural labourers,
and would not in any case have applied to farmers’ wives because
they were self-employed.*? The resentments which accumulated
through the persistent refusal to introduce family welfare measures
for this group can be seen as one reason for the ease with which the
fascist ideology of the ‘preservation of the race’ and the ‘support
and encouragement of hereditarily sound large families’ found a
response in wide circles of the population. It was precisely among
the members of families which had to bring up children in the midst
of an exhausting struggle for the bare necessities of life, that must
have registered with satisfaction and understanding the fascist
ideologues’ declaration that ‘hereditarily sound, large families’
were responsible for the future of the race and that ‘the nation’s
ultimate fate would be decided in the stillness of their home, not
somewhere in the wide world outside’.““ This quotation from a
speech delivered at a meeting of the Imperial Association of Large
Families in 1931 indeed suggests the extent to which representa-
tives of fascist ideology had already found a place in this
organisation.
Vv
Families need suitable conditions in order to fulfil their most

important task, the perpetuation of the human species. These
conditions are decisively influenced by the stage which social pro-
gress has reached. The development of the population is affected
by both natural and social circumstances, but in the area and the
period with which we are concerned, natural circumstances such as
the climate played only a subordinate role. The decisive factors at
this stage of the development of capitalism were the low level of
medical and sanitary provisions and the lack of welfare institutions
for the working masses. The level of infant mortality is one factor
that can help characterise the general level of social progress of a
society as a whole. The average life-expectancy of a particular
generation depends both on the social policies of the ruling class
and the state of scientific knowledge in a society. It can also be
influenced by economic and political circumstances such as wars,
famines and crises of various kinds. In the first half of the present
century the intensified exploitation of working people called forth a
wide range of different influences acting against population
increase and led to a decline in the birth rate of all industrialised
European states. These social factors determined the conditions of
life of the working population. They also influenced the conscious-
ness of these people and led to a reaction on their part. Through
contraception and abortion they sought to find a way out of their
impoverished situation, or at least to prevent its further deteriora-
tion. These attempts at ‘family planning’ cost many women their
life, but they must be regarded in the last analysis as self-help
measures on the part of the working class, and the poor and
propertyless on the land against state power and church dogma.
Notes
1. The present paper is part of a larger collective project, the results of which
have been published in Landwirtschaft und Kapitalismus in der Magdeburger Borde
(1. Halbband, Berlin, 1978: Veroff. zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, Band
66/1); Landwirtschaft und Kapitalismus in der Magdeburger Borde. (2. Halbband,
Berlin, 1979: Ver6ff. zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, Band 66/2); Bauer und
Landarbeiter im Kapitalismus in der Magdeburger Borde (Teil Il. Berlin, 1981:
Veroff. zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte, Band 66/3); Vom Leben der werk-
ttitigen Dorfbevélkerung in der Magdeburger Borde (in press); Die werktatige Dorf-
bevélkerung in der Magdeburger Borde (in press). See also Chapters 4 and 9.
2. ‘Antworten der Standesimter des Kreises Wanzleben auf eine Umfrage von
1938’, Staatsarchiv Magdeburg (StA Mdg) Rep. C 30. Wanzleben A, No. 41, the
figures give officially registered births; they do not tell us how many children
survived in the difficult years of unemployment and depression.
.-StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 15291, Bl. 41-9.
. Ibid., Bl. 122—5 (Ministerial No. 1162538 bzw. 9501/07).
. Ibid., Bl. 122 (Ministerial No. [162538 bzw. 9501/07).
. Ibid., Bl. 182-93.
. Ibid., 15291, Bl. 134.
. Ibid., Bl. 138.
S ibide. bi wls:
WOmaNIHANUNRW
10. Ibid., Bl. 139.
11. Ibid., Bl. 139.
12s Ibid: Bl al355
13. The figures in Hohendodeleben were: 67 per cent breast-fed for over 3
months, 36 per cent infant mortality; in Osterweddingen, 55 and 29 per cent; in
Wolmirsleben, 97 and 27 per cent; and in Bottmersdorf, 61 and 20 per cent (all for
1907). (StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 1529!, Bl. 189.)
14. Ibid., 1529!!, Bl. 140. The same source gives comparable figures for Alten-
weddingen (57 and 8 per cent), Dodendorf (48 and 12 per cent), Hakeborn (48 and
16 per cent), Remkersleben (51 and 11 per cent), Tarthun (58 and 6 per cent) and
Welsleben (39 and 17 per cent).
15. StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 15291, Bl. 136.
16. Ibid., Bl. 138.
17. Ibid.
18. Wirtschaftsbuch fiir die Landwirtin, geftihrt von Olga Diesing, Zens (Kreis
19. StA Mdg. Rep. C 201 b, 15291, BI. 135.

20. Ibid.
21. Ibid., Bl. 140.
22. \bid= BI. 137.
23. Eingabe an die Staatsregierung, StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 1529!, Bl. 141.
24. I. Kaup, Erndhrung und Lebenskraft der léndlichen Bevoélkerung (Berlin,
1910), p. 30. Kaup also noted that the drop in male mortality had been greater in the
towns and cities than in the countryside in the previous decade for the 25—40 age
group. The decline had been the same in older age groups, but urban mortality
among males above the age of 30 remained higher than rural. The urban/rural
differential was much smaller in the case of women. Female mortality was higher in
the countryside than in the town in the 25—30 age group. ‘Precisely these smaller
differentials and in part the higher mortality of the female sex in the countryside
suggest unfavourable influences on the state of health and the condition of life of
rural women’, he remarked. ‘This has a serious effect on newborn babies and the
upbringing of children.’
25. Elisabeth Gnauck-Kihne, Die deutsche Frau um die Jahrhundertwende,
quoted in Kaup, op. cit., p. 10.
26. Ibid.
27. StA Med, Rep. C 30 Wanzleben A, 39, BI. 77.
28. Volkszahlung 1939, Tabelle Bz. 4a II, StA Mdg, Rep. C 30 Wanzleben A, Nr.
39, Bl. 51-2. These latter statistics only divide the population by sex into self-
employed, family workers, civil servants, white-collar workers, factory workers and
people of independent means.
29. StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 3928, Bl. 40.
30. Ibid., Bl. 41.
31. Ibid.
32. E. Réssler, ‘Die Magdeburger Fehlgeburtenstatistik vom Jahre 1924’, Archiv

fiir soziale Hygiene und Demographie, Bd. 1, 1926, in StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b,
3928, Bl. 38-9.
33. Ibid. Miscarriages registered by hospitals rose from 385 to 601 (partly because
non-inhabitants were counted in 1924 but not in 1912); those registered by doctors
rose from 314 to 1203; by midwives they fell from 750 to 264.
34. Ibid., Bl. 41.
35. Ibid., Bl. 42—3 (the printing errors [misdatings] have been corrected).
36. Ibid., Bl. 44.
37. Bericht tiber die Verwaltung und den Stand der Gemeindeangelegenheiten der
Kreisstadt Wanzleben, 1926-1927, p. 14; 1927-1928, p. 15, in StA Mdg, Rep. C
30, Wanzleben A, 93, BI. 26, 66.
38. Bericht tiber die Verwaltung und den Stand der Gemeindeangelegenheiten der
Kreisstadt Wanzleben. 1.4.1927—31.3.1928, p. 17 (StA Mdg, Rep. C30, Wanzleben
A neu, Nr. 93; BI. 27).
39. It is possible to say this even though, according to a listing of 1928, there were
only 33 peasant households and 218 rural workers’ households in Wanzleben, out of
a total of 1069. There were also 304 households of workers, probably employed in
Magdeburg. The picture is somewhat obscured by the large number of households
imprecisely classified as pensioners and ‘other trades’ (262), ‘white-collar workers’
(32) or ‘people living on their own with a separate dwelling and own household’.
Nonetheless, I think one can reasonably call it a rural community. The civil servants
(189) and white-collar workers (162) included not only people employed in
Magdeburg but also in the local administration of Wanzleben and in the sugar
refinery of Klein Wanzleben.
40. Bericht tiber die Verwaltung und den Stand der Gemeindeangelenheiten der
Kreisstadt Wanzleben fiir die Zeit vom 1.4.1926—31.3.1927, pp. 45—6, in StA Mdg,
Rep. C 30 Wanzleben A, 93, BI. 42; also in the Bericht vom 1.4.1927—31.3.1928,
pp. 40-1, in the same file, Bl. 39.
41. ‘Vorschlag zu einem Gesetzentwurf betreffend die Staatliche Familienver-
sicherung von Martha Starost, Halle’, in Wir Kinderreichen. Nachrichtenblatt fiir
alle Kinderreichen, besonders den Séchsisch-Anhaltisch-Thiringischen Landes-
verband (Halle, Vol. 1, No. 8, 1.12.1922), in StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 3928, BI. 13.
42. StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 1529 III, Blatt 197 (pamphlet Wie erhalte ich mein
Kind gesund?, by E. Piper, Greifswald, 1925).
43. StA Mdg, Rep. C 201 b, 1529, I, Bl. 41-2.
44. Rede des Prisidenten der ‘“‘Reichsbundes der Kinderreichen’’, Konrad, auf
der Kundgebung der kinderreichen Familien am 19.7.1931 in Kéln, in StA Mdg,
Rep. C 201 b, 3928, BI. 201.
9 PEASANT CUSTOMS AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Rural Marriage Festivals in the Magdeburg Region in
the 1920s*
Christel Heinrich
This analysis of peasant family festivals is part of the wider

research programme conducted into the socio-economic develop-
ment of the Magdeburger Bérde in the nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries.!Although family festivals are a traditional
theme of ethnographic research, the intention in this paper is to
analyse the complexity of family festivals as an expression of the
social infrastructure of village life in the period between 1918 and
the 1960s with particular emphasis on marriage festivals in the
1920s.?
Economic development during the nineteenth century — in par-
ticular the rapid expansion of sugar beet cultivation and sugar
refining in the Borde — accentuated the existing degree of social
differentiation within peasant society. This inevitably affected the
nature of family festivals, and their broader social function within
individual village communities. On the basis of available literary
and archival evidence, together with material collected through a
written questionnaire and personal interviews, it has been possible
to analyse different aspects of family festivals, including their
preparation, the circle of participants, their duration and cost, and
the appropriate costume and presents. In every case the process of
increasing social differentiation in the long term was very evident.
Specific research was confined to three localities which were repre-
sentative for the region as a whole: a peasant village without a
sugar refining factory (Bottmersdorf); an estate village with a sugar
factory (Klein Wanzleben); and a group of villages close to an
urban centre with a relatively high proportion of industrial workers
(Grossmthlingen, Klein Mihlingen, Zens). The following socio-
economic classification was adopted: workers (under 2 hectares);
cottagers (2—5 hectares); smallholders (5S—20 hectares); and large-
scale peasants (20—100 hectares).
Marriage festivals are representative of the general function
*Translated by W. R. Lee.
224
Peasant Customs and Social Structure 225
which festivals traditionally had in the structuring and management

of daily life. However, it is immediately apparent that the condi-
tions necessary for the holding of a marriage festival varied con-
siderably according to the socio-economic status of the rural popu-
lation. The cramped living quarters of the parents of rural day
labourers often restricted the scope of the wedding celebrations.
Frequently, the accommodation provided for labourers by estate
owners only consisted of one room and a small closet, with the use
of a kitchen shared with another family lodged in the same build-
ing. Under these circumstances, even if 20 guests were invited to the
celebrations, the rooms had to be cleared of all available furniture.3
For workers employed in sugar factories spatial constraints were
not so restrictive. In the case of families accommodated in the
workers’ barrack of ‘Belfort’ in Klein Wanzleben, participants in
the eve-of-wedding party had to sit down on the staircase.’ Signifi-
cantly, working-class celebrations were seldom held in a village inn.
Only in exceptional circumstances was a room hired for this pur-
pose, and even then the food for the meal was provided by relatives
of the bridal couple, and the meal was simply prepared and served
in the inn.° In most cases a local inn was only used if the parental
income was sufficient to meet the additional cost of hiring a room,
or if the innkeeper was a relative. For cottagers therefore, the
family living-room was invariably used for all major family festi-
vals, including wedding celebrations. A marked degree of social
differentiation within rural society was immediately apparent in the
case of medium-sized and large-scale peasants and families who
had become shareholders in sugar beet factories. In many cases this
stratum of rural society had benefited substantially from the
development of capitalist agriculture in the course of the second
half of the nineteenth century and had been able to build so-called
‘sugar beet palaces’. In stark contrast to the day labourers and agri-
cultural smallholders, these families had a separate room where
they could hold wedding celebrations and similar festivities.
Indeed, these festive occasions were deliberately used by wealthy
peasants to display their relative affluence. According to a contem-
porary report, such weddings were regarded as a special event in the
village. The whole farm was redecorated, and all sorts of crafts-
men, particularly painters, found immediate employment.® Increas-
ingly, however, large-scale peasants began to imitate the practice of
the estate holders and arranged for the wedding celebrations to take
place in the city of Magdeburg, thereby emphasising the existing
226 Peasant Customs and Social Structure
degree of social differentiation.

Significant divisions within rural society were also evident in
relation to the expenditure on the wedding celebrations. Although
the-bridegroom traditionally had to provide the rings, working-
class couples frequently had to pool their resources to buy these,
and even then they could only afford the cheapest.’ Indeed, it was
not unusual for a bridal couple from the rural proletariat to pay for
their own wedding celebrations, although the majority of guests
would be expected to contribute, in cash or in kind, as much as they
could. In many cases, however, the young couple had to decide
whether to use these cash gifts for their wedding festivities or for
the purchase of essential household items. Their relatives and
friends, in any case, would contribute what they could in order to
ensure the success of the celebrations. They attempted to supply
enough cheap meat (usually rabbit or poultry), and provided their
own home-made fruit wine. The whole event was characterised by a
high degree of self-help and mutual support. All female family
members helped with the preparation of the meal, and with the
baking, although the wedding cake itself was entrusted to the local
baker. Neighbours and members of the so-called ‘chorus’ (a group
of intimate female friends), invariably helped with cooking, or with
cleaning the dishes.
Arrangements for wedding celebrations within the upper strata of
peasant society were significantly different. The bridegroom was
always responsible for paying for all the drinks, although the total
cost of the celebrations was often reduced by using foodstuffs from
the parental farm. Nevertheless, the total expenditure was fre-
quently considerable, particularly if the number of guests was sub-
stantial.* On such occasions large-scale peasants often employed the
few village women who enjoyed a local reputation as good cooks.
Another aspect of social differentiation within rural society was
evident in the wedding festivities of estate owners, both in terms of
preparation and expenditure. Even before 1914 their celebrations
were frequently held in a good quality restaurant in the city of
Magdeburg, with the guests being accommodated in the more
expensive hotels. The total cost could sometimes be very substan-
tial: in the case of an estate owner from Domersleben in 1913
expenses were: 1790 Marks for the party on the eve of the wedding,
and a further 8,847 Marks for the wedding itself.9
According to the chronicle of the Atzendorf community, pub-
lished in 1928, the eve-of-wedding party was a well-established
custom by the mid-eighteenth century. This was when the bride and
groom usually exchanged presents.'° In working-class families,
however, financial constraints once again restricted the extent of
the party. There were no official invitations, but relatives, friends
and acquaintances from local clubs would turn up in the course of
the evening. The workers’ choral society of Klein Wanzleben would
sometimes sing a serenade on such occasions.!! Children also par-
ticipated in these parties and traditionally in the late afternoon they
smashed to pieces some old dishes which were no longer needed.
On the morning of the wedding the bridal pair, or the groom alone,
had to clear up the débris. The eve-of-wedding party was also the
occasion to display the various presents. Within the working-class
milieu, these would be given to enable the couple to set up their
own home and usually consisted of practical items such as cooking
pots, buckets, crockery, coffee-mills, egg-whisks, washing-lines
and baskets. For a bridal couple from the working class such gifts
were invaluable, particularly as the bride seldom received a formal
dowry from her parents.!?
In the case of peasant families with extensive landholdings, the
nature and form of wedding celebrations reinforced the existing
degree of social differentiation. The eve-of-wedding party was an
impressive occasion, with a large number of guests presenting gifts,
and local clubs or societies providing large quantities of beer.
Moreover, in such families the daughter would have traditionally
received linen for her future household on her confirmation, or as
birthday and Christmas presents. As a result an extensive family
dowry enabled the various wedding guests to choose more valuable
presents, such as expensive tablecloths, porcelain, glassware and
clocks. Furniture dealers in Magdeburg frequently made special
offers for such weddings," and in the case of an estate owner from
Domersleben the furnishing of the newly-weds’ ten-room house led
to an order from the firm of Kniippelholz for 21,217 Marks."
Social differentiation within rural society, however, was most
clearly apparent in terms of the wedding guests at the celebrations.
In the case of rural labourers there was no special form of invita-
tion and guests were only invited from the immediate family circle.
If the bride came from a distant village, even her parents were
unlikely to be able to attend.'* Families engaged in rural industry or
employed on the railways frequently had a slightly larger circle of
guests, which might even include workmates.'® Peasants on small
and medium-sized holdings also invited the godparents of the
bridal couple, friends from the’choral society,!” neighbours and the

local pastor. Large-scale peasants restricted their guests to people
of the same social status.!* Their relatives could also afford to
travel greater distances, and wedding guests often included old regi-
mental comrades, school friends from distant educational institu-
tions, as well as the local pastor.
Broader social and economic considerations influenced the selec-
tion of wedding guests. Estate owners, of course. were always keen
to include as many members of the local nobility among their list of
guests as possible;!? and social superiors were sometimes invited, if
there was the chance of promotion or the favourable settlement of
an outstanding problem. If social inferiors were invited, this was
solely to enable them to proffer their thanks at a suitable oppor-
tunity. The seating arrangements at the wedding celebrations
served to underline the guests’ social rank and reputation.
Family festivals in general also functioned as occasions for
initiating or regulating specific business transactions with invited
guests. In particular it was an opportunity for arranging the
marriages of other sons and daughters. The list of guests was
accordingly structured to include potential marriage partners from
within the existing circle of acquaintances. Wedding celebrations
therefore fulfilled the function of a marriage market, based on an
acute appreciation of the financial circumstances of the families of
prospective marriage partners.
A church ceremony represented the official climax of the mar-
riage celebrations, although if the bride was pregnant a civil
ceremony was frequently preferred, followed by a religious cere-
mony at the family home when the child was baptised. The bride in
this situation was also subject to certain measures of moral and
social censure and was prohibited from carrying the traditional
bridal garland in church. This rule was still strictly observed as late
as 1945, and is symptomatic of the continued effectiveness of
communal influence and control in the sphere of individual
behaviour.
Social differentiation could also be seen in the gradual adoption
in the Borde villages of urban clothing fashions and style. The
large-scale peasants had begun to reject traditional dress as early as
the 1840s, and this change to urban style clothing was copied in due
course by the small and medium-sized peasants. The rural prole-
tariat, however, perhaps because of economic constraints, was
more resistant to change, and in any case could only afford to wear
cheaper, mass-produced clothing.”! The social gap within village

society in relation to accepted apparel appears to have widened in
the 1920s, when many young day-labourers found it difficult to
afford the necessary black suit and top hat which was by then almost
a social requirement for church attendance.” Many rural labourers
had to borrow these items of clothing for their own weddings.
For civil marriage in the 1930s the bride would normally wear a
dress, and the groom a suit. Up until 1914 a bride from the rural
proletariat would normally wear black, although this was gradually
replaced by the white bridal gown (Brutkleed), which ideally should
not have been made by the bride herself. Indeed, by the 1920s, with
many girls finding employment as seamstresses, there was a great
deal of help and assistance in making the bridal dress.
Other aspects of the marriage ceremony in the inter-war period
provide important indications of the nature of village relationships
and the persistence of traditional roles. The sisters and female
friends of a bride, for example, continued to play an important
part in a number of activities connected with the marriage cere-
mony. They festooned the official notice of the marriage banns
with flowers, and prepared garlands to hang on the front door of
the house where the wedding festivities were to take place. In the
church they surrounded the spot where the bride and groom would
stand with flowers arranged in the shape of a heart.
The bridal procession went on foot to the church, and followed a
traditional order. The bridal pair were immediately preceded by the
Streukinder (children scattering flowers), followed in pairs by the
various brothers and sisters and friends of the couple; next came
older married couples; and the procession was completed by the
parents of the bridal pair, who frequently had changed partners.”
The village as a whole was therefore a witness to the festive events,
which also had a wider representational function. On the way back
from the church, the path was traditionally blocked by children
with a rope. Only after the groom had handed over a few coins was
the barrier lifted. By the 1930s this tradition was also being prac-
tised in the case of civil marriages.”° The origins of this custom are
probably to be found in the levying of a charge on all newcomers to
the district for the general benefit of the community.*6 Equally pro-
minent, even up to our own day, was the symbolic eating of bread,
salt and water, which were proffered to the bridal pair when they
entered the house where the wedding celebrations were to take
place. This reflected the customary wish that there should never be
a shortage of food in the new*household.

Working-class families, who generally celebrated wedding festi-
vities within a small circle of relatives and friends, would try to
provide their guests with better food than was normally possible
throughout the rest of the year. Roast meat was followed by tradi-
tional cakes (Topfkuchen, Blechkuchen), and served with beer,
spirits and home-made wine. Sandwiches were provided in the
evening. The wedding breakfast of large-scale peasants, by
contrast, was invariably more extensive and elaborate. An hors
d’oeuvre was followed by a choice of different cuts of meat, a
dessert, and served with wine or beer. The dancing which followed
was interrupted by a break for coffee and cakes, and a full evening
meal was provided.”’
Similar differences existed in the type of entertainment laid on
for wedding celebrations. In the families of day-labourers and
small-scale peasants, neighbours or friends who played a musical
instrument (such as an accordion) provided the music. In Klein
Wanzleben the members of the workers’ choral society performed a
similar function.*® Families who were better-off financially had
already begun to play gramophone records by this date, although
factory managers and large-scale peasants more usually engaged
professional musicians from the city of Magdeburg, and estate
owners hired military bands to provide the musical entertainment
for family wedding celebrations.”
However, there were a few customs that were observed irrespec-
tive of socio-economic status. It was invariably the case that
towards midnight the bridal garland was taken from her in a dance,
and her head-dress and veil exchanged for an ordinary cap. This
practice represented the acceptance of the bride within the
community of married women. The bridal garland was supposed to
show which couple would follow the newly-weds to the altar steps.
The bridal couple were blindfolded and then chose a girl from the
group of young couples dancing around them, who would then
receive the garland. The bridal veil was either ripped to shreds, with
each guest attempting to secure a piece as a lucky token, or was
kept for the baptism of the first born and used to wrap the baby on
the way to church.
In peasant families it was usual practice to invite friends and
acquaintances who had not formally participated in the wedding
celebrations, but had nevertheless bought a present for the bridal
couple, to a post-wedding party (Sustarben).* Workers in Klein
Wanzleben, on the other hand, entertained their workmates in the

factory with beer and spirits on the following morning.?! The finan-
cial constraints which limited the formal hospitality of working-
class families on such occasions were often resented. It was felt that
they were not able to celebrate the wedding in an appropriate
manner. Indeed, according to oral evidence, later generations tried
to make amends for the hardships suffered during the life of their
parents by laying on elaborate celebrations of important wedding
anniversaries for them.
One further point can usefully be noted. Particularly from the
1920s onwards, there is clear evidence of an increasing assimilation
in the Borde of urban influences. This was apparent in a broad cul-
tural sense, and could be observed in a whole variety of ways.
Nevertheless, the actual pace and extent of this process of cultural
assimilation were often limited by financial constraints and by the
material living conditions of the Bérde’s working-class population.
A radical change in the nature of family celebrations did not occur
until the 1960s, when the final implementation of the socialist mode
of production in the primary sector radically affected the economic
condition of the rural population, and occasioned a major break
with many aspects of the ‘traditional’ form of family festivals in
this region.
Irrespective of social class, marriage festivals in the Bérde, par-
ticularly in the 1920s, retained certain common strands. The formal
structure of wedding celebrations, and the eve-of-wedding party
continued to follow a common basic pattern. Similarly the innate
symbolism associated with particular aspects of the wedding cele-
brations, such as the removal of the bridal garland, remained
central on every occasion. However the nature of economic
development in this region from the mid-nineteenth century on
wards had an important impact on the nature of such family
festivals and the types of social and cultural ‘traditions’ that were
adopted on such occasions. In particular the rapid expansion of
sugar beet cultivation and sugar refining exacerbated substantially
the level of rural social differentiation. As a result the nature of
wedding celebrations, specifically in relation to the circle of partici-
pants, the appropriate costume and presents, their scale and cost,
began to differ markedly. The development of commercial agricul-
tural practices, therefore, not only affected the class composition
of rural society, but also its cultural manifestations. Increasing
economic differentiation was accompanied by a similar divergence
in the structuring of family festivals, such as marriage celebrations.

Moreover the increasing assimilation of urban influences,
particularly on the part of large- and medium-sized peasants which
the poorer segments of rural society were unable to emulate only
served to heighten the growing degree of cultural differentiation in
this area.
However it is difficult to evaluate the overall impact of these
changes in the actual form of contemporary marriage festivals, in
terms of the persistence of common cultural strands. A number of
customs associated with marriage celebrations were clearly
followed irrespective of socio-economic status, and the continuing
role of the local community in most marriage festivals during this
period hints at the persistence of traditional role functions well
beyond the inter-war period. This in turn reveals a continuing
symbiosis between the ‘traditional’ cultural elements relating to the
structure and symbolic function of marriage festivals, and the
changing contemporary form of celebration, which was largely
determined by increasing socio-economic differentiation within
rural society and the growing impact of urban cultural influences.
Only on the basis of using all available types of traditional
evidence, both archival and literary, together with material collated
through a rigorous application of the research techniques
associated with oral history, will historians and ethnographers
eventually understand both the complexity and dynamics of this
process of cultural symbiosis within German rural society in the
twentieth century.
Notes
1. Hans-Jiirgen Rach and Bernhard Weissel (eds.), Landwirtschaft und

Kapitalismus. Zur Entwicklung der 6konomischen und sozialen Verhdiltnisse in der
Magdeburger Borde vom Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum Ende des ersten
Weltkrieges (Untersuchungen zur Lebensweise und Kultur der werktatigen Dorfbe-
vélkerung in der Magdeburger Borde. Teil I.1 und Teil 1.2, Berlin, 1978, 1979);
idem., Bauer und Landarbeiter im Kapitalismus in der Magdeburger Borde. Zur
Geschichte des dérflichen Alltags vom Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts bis zum
Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts (Untersuchungen zur Lebensweise und Kultur der
werktatigen Dorfbevélkerung in der Magdeburger Borde, Teil II, Berlin, 1982).
2. Christel Heinrich, ‘Fest- und Feiergestaltung im Familienleben der werktatigen
Dorfbevélkerung in der Magdeburger Borde’ (forthcoming, Vol, 4 of the research
results of the Magdeburger Bérde project).
3. Written evidence from a rural day labourer from Domersleben relating to his
wedding in 1920. Questionnaire enclosure provided by Hans Hermann Merbt,
Domersleben, No. V/15a-e. 7

4. Oral evidence of a worker in the sugar refinery at Klein Wanzleben, whose
marriage took place in 1921.
5. Oral evidence of a craftsman employed in the sugar refinery in Klein
Wanzleben (1928).
6. Questionnaire reply from Walter Finke, Grossmiihlingen, No. V/15.
7. Oral evidence of an agricultural labourer from Klein Wanzleben marrying in
1930.
8. Oral evidence of a peasant with a smallholding from Grossmiihlingen marrying
in 1931. On this occasion, with 30 guests, the cost of purchasing everything for the
wedding feast was 95 Marks.
9. Questionnaire enclosure provided by Hans Hermann Merbt, Domersleben,
No. V/1Sa-e.
10. Samuel Benedikt Carsted, Atzendorfer Chronik (1761) (Eduard Stegmann
(ed.) for the Historische Kommission fiir die Provinz Sachsen und Anhalt,
Magdeburg, 1928). b
11. Oral evidence of a craftsman employed in the sugar refinery Klein
Wanzleben, married in 1928.
12. Oral evidence of a female agricultural labourer from Klein Wanzleben who
married in 1914. If the bride did bring a dowry this was invariably the result of per-
sonal savings often undertaken in very difficult circumstances.
13. Oral evidence of a railway worker from Bottmersdorf.
14. Questionnaire enclosure provided by Hans Hermann Merbt, Domersleben,
No. V/15a-e.
15. Oral evidence of a female agricultural labourer from Klein Wanzleben
marrying in 1923. The additional travelling expenses were simply too great.
16. Questionnaire reply from Walter Finke, Grossmiihlingen, No. V/15.
17. A choir was traditionally composed of married women from the same social
group who visited each other on a regular basis in the winter months during their
limited leisure time. Coffee and cakes were traditionally provided, and the women
made handicraft goods and generally amused themselves. Younger single girls also
formed their own choral societies.
18. Questionnaire reply from Fritz Cube, Rodensleben, No. V/15.
19. Questionnaire reply from Hans Hermann Merbt, Domersleben, No. V/1S.
On the marriage of estate owner L6mpcke (28.5.1921) 32 of the 55 guests were
members of the nobility.
20. Questionnaire reply from Walter Finke, Grossmihlingen, No. V/15.
21. Hans-Jiirgen Rach, ‘Zur Lebensweise und Kultur der Batiern unter den
Bedingungen des Kapitalismus der freien Konkurrenz’, in Rach and Weissel (eds.),
Bauer und Landarbeiter, op. cit., pp. 43—78.
22. According to Pastor Seeger this was one of the main reasons why young
people were no longer attending church on a regular basis (Der Sonntagsfreund,
1.Jg. 1924, No. 29. 19.10.1924, p. 334)).
23. For many female rural labourers, the normal holiday dress also served as their
wedding dress. Oral evidence of a female rural labourer from Klein Wanzleben,
married in 1930.
24. Oral evidence of several persons in Klein Wanzleben and Bottmersdorf.
25. Wilhelm Garke. Geburt und Taufe, Hochzeit und Tod im Volksbrauch und
Volksglauben des Magdeburger Landes (Ver6ffentlichungen der Gesellschaft fir
Vorgeschichte und Heimatkunde des Kreises Calbe, H.3, Schonebeck 1929, p. 70).
26. Siegmund Musiat, ‘Ethnographische Studien zur Familien-Lebensweise der
sorbischen und deutschen Werktatigen in der Oberlausitz. Sozialo6konomische,
rechtliche und ethno-culturelle Aspekte der Eheschliessung und Familiengriindung
vom Beginn des 16. bis Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts’, unpublished dissertation
(Berlin, 1977), pp. 93-5. .

27. A printed invitation to a marriage in Hohendodeleben (1910). The actual
menu consisted of crab soup, a chicken fricassée, perch with Hollandaise sauce,
asparagus tips (with cold and hot garnish), roast fillet, cheese and butter, ice-cream
and cake.
28. Oral evidence of a craftsman in the sugar refinery of Klein Wanzleben,
married in 1918.
29. Questionnaire reply from Erich Berchner, Hamersleben, No. V/15.
30. Questionnaire replies from Karl Miinchneier, Hundisburg, Bo. V/15, and
Ernst Gajewsky, Kleinalsleben. No. V/15.
31. Oral evidence of a craftsman in the sugar refinery at Klein Wanzleben,
married in 1928.
1 O PEASANTS AND OTHERS
The Historical Contours of Village Class Society*
Wolfgang Kaschuba
It is particularly difficult in Germany to deal impartially with

village history or the history of rural society in general. The his-
torian is confronted at the outset with a complex web of stereotypes
and clichés which has been spun over almost 200 years of work on
the village. It is all too easy to become ensnared in academic,
literary and ideological traps of various kinds without really
noticing it. There exist in the literature innumerable and varied
images of village life, rooted in peasant tradition. Above all,
perhaps, there is the contradictory combination of a harsh material
life and the comforting atmosphere of the village community. To
some extent, this carefully stylised ‘image of the peasant’ deserves
acknowledgement as an historical, ideological and cultural achieve-
ment of the highest order. However, the overall effect of this
stubborn tradition in the historical analysis of the homeland and
the village has been unfortunate. It has served in the end to frus-
trate a deeper analysis of peasant society and barred the way to the
historical uncovering of its inner structures. The same can be said
of the argument that rural Germany was the fountainhead of
Nazism, a view encouraged by the Nazi cliché of ‘blood and soil’.
Seen in these global, general terms, the view that places the peasant
at the heart of Nazism is really so undifferentiated and unhistorical
as to negate any possible conclusions. Once again it prevents us
from asking who were the agents and who were the victims of
Nazism in rural Germany, and what was the cause and effect of the
Nazi appeal. I have already discussed these particular problems
elsewhere:! it remains important, however, to look in more detail at
the Nazi image of the village community, the reasons why it was
developed, and above all the extent to which it accorded with
reality.
*Translated by Eric Clare and Richard J. Evans.
235
236 Peasants and Others
On the one hand, the village presented itself to the Nazis as an

ideal setting, one in which the legendary cycle of the German family
and the German race, of blood and soil, of Germanic myth and
rurdl folk culture could be admirably staged. And the village extras
usually played along willingly, because for the first time they
imagined themselves in a leading role in the social drama. They
were probably as flattered, confused and naive as the observer who
reported in a south German provincial paper in 1934 on his village
harvest festival:
At two in the afternoon a magnificent procession set off from the

Three Kings’ Inn. At its head rode two strapping carnival riders
in brown ceremonial dress. They were followed by the musicians
and the band, the young people and the Hitler Youth, and the
Bund deutscher Madchen with a beautifully-arranged fruit cart.
Behind the cart came the sower, who could not scatter enough.
The farmer and his plough were also there of course, simultane-
ously sowing the grain in the soil. Then came the field watcher
with the young mice. Summer was represented by a mowing
machine being driven out and by mowers setting off for work. A
group of male and female reapers represented the harvest.
Autumn and Winter were represented by a cart, on which hemp
and flax was being diligently threshed. The flax-comber saw to
its thorough cleaning and handed over the tow to the hard-
working spinner. A winder wound up the finely-spun thread. At
the square in front of the town hall a large rally took place, at
which the area leader of the NSDAP and the land farmers’ leader
gave an address.”
Yet behind this folkloric scenario lay another. The village, with
its special social framework, was supposed to embody a sort of
microcosmic model of the Nazis’ ‘people’s community’ (Volks-
gemeinschaft), which was in turn supposed to replicate on a larger
scale the idea of the village society as a system of economic, social
and cultural integration. Nazi ideologues held in high esteem the
apparently innate virtues of village society. It could, they thought,
combine non-contemporaneous elements, unite the contradictory,
and stifle the causes and development of social conflict under the
communal blanket of peasant and village life.
The Nazis also sought to propagate these virtues as a vision of
the future national and racial community: a classless society free
Peasants and Others 237
from conflict, which at the same time remained self-contained. A’

study published in 1941 on the ‘Rural Populace and Industrial
Living Space in the Neckar Region’ by the Reichsarbeitsgemein-
schaft fiir Raumforschung referred to the worker-peasant villages
of South Germany as follows:
The most special achievement of the spatial organisation of life

in the Neckar region is the emergence of a completely indigenous
body of industrial workers who are embedded in the life-blood of
healthy kin and families, and bound to the soil of the homeland
by ownership and the use of land: a racially-united group of
peasants and workers. It is therefore important not only to main-
tain this arrangement, but to develop it methodically, to
strengthen it and to safeguard it.3
What was meant by this can easily be deduced: the village was a
preserve of history, in which the workers’ existence still followed
the pattern of ‘peasant’ rather than ‘proletarian’ models of thought
and behaviour. ‘Peasant’ behaviour was held to combine the tradi-
tional producer roles, cultural conservatism and political apathy.
In short, the village was a ‘petrified’ area of experience, in which
learning processes were blocked by a residue of historical encrusta-
tions.
Even if one leaves aside the ideological stage scenery, it is still
difficult to contradict this characterisation convincingly.
Historically speaking, the village would inevitably seem to repre-
sent mental horizons which are socially narrow and locally limited.
In many respects it does indeed appear to be exasperatingly close to
the Nazi image of the rural community. The history of the Third
Reich itself appears to provide essential proof of this proximity,
with the traditional image spreading itself so effortlessly over
village and countryside. But is this adequate? Does it actually
provide confirmation of that all-embracing argument which por-
trays the village as an area devoid of class and social conflicts, as an
association that invariably blocks social experience;* as a com-
munity in which social and cultural integration is systematically
enforced? In short, does it represent the substance of the history of
rural society, which is designed to make one simultaneously blind,
deaf and incapable of learning? These questions, which represent
central historical problems, seem to be worth closer examination.
They pertain not only to the Nazi view of the village, but also more
generally to the supporting pillars on which the entire mythical con-

ception of rural existence and communal village destiny finally
rests. Myths can only be shaken, if at all, through direct confronta-
tioti with reality. So let us speak no more about ‘the village’ in the
collective singular, which means too much and proves too little. Let
us take instead a concrete piece of historical reality, one village
alone and its social history.°
II
Kiebingen, the south German community which is the subject of

this study, and from which the harvest festival report quoted earlier
derives, was in the 1920s a Catholic village of smallholders and
workers with barely 740 inhabitants, situated near the small cathe-
dral town of Rottenburg and only a few kilometres from the
university town of Tiibingen, both of which could easily be reached
by rail and, from 1927, by bus. It therefore could not be included in
what was at the time disparagingly called ‘the flat land’ — not one
of those purely agricultural regions, still cut off from transport,
communications, technology and industry. The inhabitants of that
time would certainly have vigorously defended themselves against
such an assessment. Indeed, there were already several signs of pro-
gress in the village, such as the first private telephones and cars, an
electricity station and after 1925 a domestic electricity supply.
From 1927 there was a modern water supply system, and even a
petrol station, owned by a German-American oil company. Even
the cultural scene appeared lively, particularly in the traditional
form of village clubs and church activities. Kiebingen boasted a
shooting club, a choral society, an ex-servicemen’s association, a
League of Catholic Women, a newly-founded gymnastic club and a
local branch of the Catholic Centre Party, formed in 1922. Equally
‘modern’, there were cultural offerings and leisure activities,
lectures with slides, amateur theatricals, communal radio evenings,
village festivals, even film shows, which had their premiére with the
1927 silent film ‘A Victim of the Secret of the Confessional’ (‘Ein
Opfer des Beicht-Geheimnisses’).
Kiebingen,*® as revealed by contemporary employment statistics,
was without doubt a workers’ village. Almost two-thirds of the 218
gainfully-employed inhabitants were dependent workers in small-
scale trades, in industry and in farming. Fifty-four were employed
in the building trade, 23 were unskilled workers (frequently on the

railways), 19 were factory workers and 14 were farmhands and
labourers. The remainder were made up of seamstresses, serving
maids or temporary workers in village crafts. The other third, the
‘independents’, consisted of farmers with 3—8 hectares of arable
(49 individuals described themselves as ‘farmers’), master crafts-
men, widows and some retailers, who at the same time were
involved in farming as a supplementary source of income. Employ-
ment on the basis of wage labour was therefore predominant. The
majority of adult males in Kiebingen, as well as some of the
women, worked in factories, in workshops or on building-sites out-
side the village. In 1925, during a period of relative prosperity, no
less than 140 individuals commuted daily, either on foot or by
train, to nearby industrial towns.
This, then, is one aspect of Kiebingen that can be drawn on the
basis of local cultural and economic statistics. But one can just as
easily draw up a contrasting picture of this village scene, which
gives it a quite different, yet still markedly rural appearance, and
which apparently corresponds equally well with the contemporary
material and cultural reality of village life. Out of the approxi-
mately 180 families, 168 lived in their own house or part of it. They
all cultivated their own land, and two-thirds still had their own
cattle, particularly dairy cows. In almost every house the men, and
especially the women during the summer months, were principally
employed in farm work. In the elections for professional represen-
tation to the agricultural council (Landwirtschaftskammer) in
1932, 124 farmers and 12 farm workers had the right to vote — that
is, more than three-quarters of the local heads of household. This
picture appears to have an even stronger farming flavour if one
examines the daily village scene. There was a predominance of
farming business. The meetings of the cattle insurance association
and the milk producers’ association were always well attended, and
many villagers came in the evenings to discuss the trend in milk
prices, the problems of the reform programme or the regulation of
the usage rights of the common pasture and common land, which
served all the families as a potato and cabbage field. On the other
hand there was little to be heard on the theme of industry and wage
labour. There was no workers’ inn in the village, no trade union
meetings, and hardly any activities at all on the part of the SPD or
KPD, which only held sporadic meetings with outside speakers in
the period of a Reichstag election.
‘Proletarian life’, in the form that we know from urban working-

class districts, did not therefore appear to exist in Kiebingen. There
was hardly a trace of working-class street politics, of ‘red houses’,
or of after-work discussions among industrial workers. However,
there were of course a number of ‘workers’ problems’, which
affected the situation of most families: low rural wages, job-
hunting for the children, short-time working and constant unem-
ployment. In 1929 alone, 71 inhabitants were officially registered as
unemployed. The real number was in fact considerably higher, pro-
bably representing 50 per cent of those in gainful employment if
one includes those women and youths living on social security, but
who did not appear in the official statistics. Despite the high
unemployment rate, however, the workers’ families of Kiebingen
apparently remained quiescent. The unemployed did not gather in
front of the labour exchanges, town halls and social security offices
to demand from society their right to work, wages and support.
They silently vacated their jobs in the town and held nobody
responsible for their plight save themselves and their families. They
appeared to interpret the Depression and the loss of wage income
and work from a peasant point of view. Their response to the situa-
tion was to withdraw to the village and its opportunities for self-
support through farming. They fell back on the old reproductive
pattern of agrarian survival based on cutting down personal
expenses and relying on the system of family work and support.
The reaction was one of agrarian resistance, not of socio-political
action. Their meeting-places were in the fields surrounding the
village, not the forecourt of the labour exchange; the topics of
discussion were field work and the weather, not politics.
These two faces of the village and the everyday life which they
reveal, with its socially defensive patterns of reaction, illustrate in
perhaps typical fashion the divided nature of village life. Despite
problems and structures typical of an industrial society, village life
was permeated by a network of peasant traditions and mentality,
which on the one hand formed useful channels for the turbulent
flood of social change, but on the other hand could also render the
villagers impotent, even defenceless, in the face of new and
unexpected challenges. Fernand Braudel once described traditions
as ‘props and obstacles’ by which individual bearings and boun-
daries are drawn, ‘which man can scarcely exceed on the basis of
his own experiences’.’ This disposition of experience is clearly true
here as well. It seems furthermore characteristic of the orientation
problems experienced by worker-peasants, who were peripheral to

the agrarian sphere as well as to the industrial. In 1934 a Nazi
economic statistician praised this ‘Kiebingen’ attitude with
admirable frankness:
And so in Wiirttemberg the factory worker is not proleta-

rianised, but has remained as a healthy country-dweller, rooted
to the soil as a smallholder. What one is trying to achieve else-
where with ‘suburban housing estates’, the creation of a stable
worker, who does not become dependent with the onset of
unemployment, is to a large extent already in existence in
Wiirttemberg.®
Yet it is important to ask whether Kiebingen really did represent a

‘peasant village community’ and an ‘integrated village system’,
which corresponded to the National-Socialist picture. Did workers,
who according to their subjective interpretation had remained
agrarian producers, continue to exist in a peasant system of
reference dominated by local horizons of experience, despite wage
income, industrial experience and dependence in an external labour
market? Did they really follow the old, but now ‘false’ social logic
of peasant life?
One answer to this question might be that the predominance of
non-agricultural wage labour outside the village was still in its
infancy at the time of the Weimar Republic and the Third Reich,
and that the new circumstances of existence were still not organised
into the villagers’ own structures of experience and translated into
analogous value-systems. But that was clearly not the case with
Kiebingen. A century earlier in Kiebingen’s history the local
economic profile hardly looked any different in its outline: wage
labour, external place of work; on the one hand the economic liveli-
hood of the sub-strata of peasant families split between craft
employment and subsistence farming, and on the other hand inde-
pendent farming and artisan families living in and from the village.
The basic economic dividing-line in the community was therefore
the same; it ran through village society in the late feudal period as
well as in the industrial age. And the closer one examines their
development and effects, the clearer it finally becomes that this
economic dividing-line also constituted a demarcation between an
upper and a lower class, almost forming a barrier between two
distinct villages within the village. Indeed, the barrier appeared to
be almost impenetrable for five or six generations of social history,

for in 1820 each of these two Kiebingens already contained the
same family names as in 1920. This historical dimension illustrates
the degree to which many of the views of the ‘modern village’ are
encumbered with the economic and social burdens of the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, as a legacy of feudal, rural class history.
The traditional system of partible inheritance has left, perhaps,
the most important traces in terms of village boundaries and in its
general appearance. Originally this was an example of peasant self-
determination and expressed a deeply egalitarian ideology, as des-
cribed in another context by Martine Segalen.? In Kiebingen
peasant land could be transferred within the family to all children
in equal portions, to both male and female heirs. It therefore pro-
vided relatively free use of the family’s means of production, with-
out allowing the feudal authority any possibility of intervention.
This afforded members of each new generation an equal chance of
material existence, and offered them above all the prospect of
marriage and setting up their own family. The considerable growth
in population in the course of the eighteenth century, however,
meant that this principle started having the opposite effect. The
family’s land holdings became fragmented, the former large-scale
peasant farms disintegrated, and instead of ensuring the family’s
existence from one generation to the next, partible inheritance now
seemed to destroy it. The smallholder families thereby affected
were forced to seek a second source of income to supplement what
was left of their subsistence economy. They either turned to
domestic industrial production — particularly weaving, in which
they worked for south German or Swiss distributors — or they tried
to get by as seasonal migrant workers. Both alternatives effectively
meant a dependence on wage labour, with the difference, of course,
that the weaver families could at least still work in the village and in
their own house. Building workers, migrant artisans and day-
labourers, on the other hand, had to search for employment
outside the village. The destination of most of them was Upper
Swabia, about 100 km to the south-east. This was also a Catholic
region, dominated by large-scale peasant farms, with an economy
based on the export of cattle and corn and with a correspondingly
high need for seasonal workers.
In the middle of this first phase of the local process of pauperisa-
tion and proletarianisation, one can observe a striking peasant
counter-movement. When a monastery near the village was
dissolved in 1786, a group of 39 peasant families purchased its agri-

cultural estates. This takeover of the feudal means of production,
which also had a symbolic significance, provided them with an
invaluable supplement to their restricted peasant existence and gua-
ranteed moreover to the following generations the prospect of a
continuation of their rural peasant life. Finally, the dissolution of
the feudal order in the last phase of the process of ‘peasant emanci-
pation’ led to a substantial redistribution of land within the village
after 1849. The poorer families were in many cases forced to sell off
plots of arable and pasture land because of outstanding redemption
payments. This only served to complete the picture. The better-off
peasants followed the feudal path and organised village resources
and their own available means of production in terms of the ‘old
economy’, thereby assuming the social roles of power and domina-
tion. Already at this stage, crucial turning-points were discernible
in Kiebingen’s history. They determined in the long term the nature
and direction of development both for the sub-stratum of ‘prole-
tarians’, and for the established peasantry. Both groups, and
within them each individual family, were assigned their economic
and social positions in the village’s framework. The first group sub-
sequently found it almost impossible to abandon this position,
while the privileged group was for its part quite unwilling to see any
change. Even the later phase of industrialisation did not substan-
tially change this pattern of development. Indeed it prolonged it
even further, without opening up new economic possibilities and
new horizons of experience to compensate, at least within the con-
fines of the village.
These fixed and static snapshots of the village system of socio-
economic reproduction can be developed further within the context
of occupational changes over different generations. Historical
occupation data are usually only of limited reliability. Even in rela-
tion to nineteenth-century village life they merely indicate one
activity out of a broad spectrum of diverse sources of an
individual’s income and ‘occupations’. The importance of these
varied greatly according to the season and the trade cycle. At least a
quarter of those working in Kiebingen were officially engaged in
two or three different occupations — for example, as bricklayer
and peasant, as weaver and day-labourer, or as a field-watcher,
wine-grower and day-labourer. The declared occupational priorities
did not usually accord with economic reality. The nominal artisan
frequently turned out to be a building worker or a casual craftsman
after a more exact examination of the handicraft cadastre and other

sources, but to complicate matters further, his principal source of
income was often actually derived from day-labouring or from
agriculture. Despite these limitations, the main secular trends can
still be distinguished on the basis of data from 1823, 1864 and 1914.
In 1823, 24 per cent of those in gainful employment still described
themselves as farmers: the figures for 1864 and 1914 were 24 and 21
per cent respectively. The group of village crafts, including the
smith, butcher and baker, which catered for the local market and
were practised in addition to farming, remained relatively constant
at just under 20 per cent. These two groups together represented the
position of the independent producers in the village, whose propor-
tion in 1823 was still about 50 per cent, although by 1914 it had
fallen to well below 40 per cent. If one takes into account the actual
wage-earner status of many nominal craftsmen, the proportion was
probably nearer 30 per cent.
Correspondingly there was a strong increase in the dependent
sector relying on wage-labour on a regular or occasional basis. This
sector, however, also witnessed internal regroupings. The quota of
day labourers, who worked predominantly for local farmers or for
the parish, fell from an initial figure of 19 per cent in 1823 to 14 per
cent in 1914. The traditional trade of handloom weaving was a
dying occupation. At the latest, with the rise of the Wiirttemberg
textile industry in the 1840s, its practitioners found themselves in a
hopeless competitive situation. And yet even in 1864 they still
formed 11 per cent of the Kiebingen workers, which illustrated in
particular the delayed nature of the rural response to industrialisa-
tion. This figure represented 20 weaver households, which clung
tenaciously to the recesses of the village economic framework on
the periphery of the regional market, simply because for these
families there was no alternative occupational source of income. In
place of weaving, and to some extent of day-labouring, there was
an increase in occupations connected with the building trade from
the start of the nineteenth century. This was initially the case in
relation to bricklayers, followed by carpenters, stonemasons and
finally plasterers. Their proportion grew between 1823 and 1914
from 11 to 32 per cent and gradually filled the space vacated by
weaving as a wage-earning trade. Not until 1900 did modern wage-
earning occupations emerge. In 1914 there were only 18 factory
workers in the village employed in the metal-working and textile
factories of the nearby towns, and 14 railway workers.
Of course, this occupational profile of the village only represents

half of historical reality, for almost all the figures given only relate
to male occupations in Kiebingen. Women’s work remains largely
invisible in historical occupation statistics, which were only com-
piled for fiscal purposes. The village tax records did not officially
recognise women’s jobs at all until the end of the nineteenth
century. Women did not enjoy equal economic and legal status in
the village and in society as a whole until 1918, in spite of the fact
that their working efficiency and function were often more central
to the family economy than that of the men. In Kiebingen women
in particular carried out the supplementary farming work and
thereby safeguarded that vitally important margin of the family’s
economic survival!® which could never have been achieved through
handicraft income alone. Moreover, the majority of the daughters
of poorer families took up wage-earning jobs as maids, day
labourers or domestic servants, both before their marriage and at
times even afterwards. A form of provisional independence was
only applicable at that time to widows connected with farming and
small-scale craft production, who were able to carry on the family
business until they remarried or handed it over to a son. In excep-
tional cases there were also a few women small-scale retailers in the
village. It was only in the Kiebingen tax registers of the 1880s that
the first legally and fiscally recognised women’s occupation — that
of seamstress — was recorded. A little later the job of domestic
servant was also accepted for tax purposes as a genuine occupation.
And in the 1920s, when the first female factory workers appeared
in Kiebingen, every female wage-earning job was finally registered
separately, and no longer concealed by the shadow of the
husband’s or father’s occupation.
It is also difficult to recognise from a cursory examination of
occupational statistics the high degree of self-recruitment and the
marked inter-generational continuity within the individual occupa-
tion groups which contributed to a family job tradition over three,
four or even more generations. I have already indicated that profes-
sional mobility in Kiebingen, even in the industrial period, took
place within a limited framework and almost horizontally, as it
were. People only changed their occupation when forced to do so,
and only into related jobs which were both economically and
socially similar to their previous one. Moreover, they were in many
cases already familiar with the new occupation through their
former job and work experience in the village. In this way the entire
occupational framework of*cottagers and wage-earners gradually

slid down the steep path leading to proletarianisation, taking
people away from the local agricultural sphere and into the external
sphere of commercial and industrial production. One can no longer
talk of a genuine and free choice of occupation, between different
job alternatives. Typical of this is the well-known transition from
weaver and day-labourer to building worker. Two-thirds of all
building workers’ sons remained in this occupation well into the
twentieth century. A proportion of them finally followed the way
indicated by society into the factories and the railway workshops.
And so the first generations of factory workers in Kiebingen in the
1920s was composed of the great-grandsons of the weavers, day-
labourers and building workers of the mid-nineteenth century not
only in a figurative sense, but also as the result of direct family
descent. In the case of the peasant families, however, the possibility
of earning a living as an independent trader or craftsman became
an accepted status-preserving alternative. In particular, second and
third sons frequently chose this path. While the elder brothers con-
tinued to manage the parental farm, younger brothers became
butchers, innkeepers or joiners. They retained in any case an
economic base as peasants and remained their own masters.
Il
This classification according to status as a wage-earner or an inde-

pendent producer meant not only different social group affilia-
tions, but also areas of experience which were geographically and
socially divided. Those who lived in the ‘proletarian’ area, or
strayed into it, also had their place of work outside the village and
to a certain extent outside the rural world. The statistics of rural
labour migration also show that especially in the years between
1830 and 1870 more than 10 per cent of the inhabitants of
Kiebingen were constantly on the move, some only during the
summer months, but many during the whole year. On average that
meant at least 80 to 90 people, and in many years, such as 1849,
with 129 ‘outsiders’, every sixth Kiebingen inhabitant was either
working or looking for work outside the village. The local council
of Kiebingen complained in 1842 that
The local community numbers 717 inhabitants and the popula-

tion is constantly growing. The largest part of the population is

sustained by farming, day-labouring and the customary crafts,
partly in the village, and partly nearby. Many young people, even
children, have to try to earn a living by working in more distant
regions. The individual families are not at all well-off and the
support of the poor is a heavy burden on the community.
Not until towards the end of the century did the situation change
somewhat, when the railway brought about the new phenomenon
of commuting to work. The growing number of industrial jobs in
the neighbouring region also ensured that absence from the village
was gradually limited to the working week, or even only to the
working day. But that still meant that on a rough calculation, from
families in the poorer half of the village, one or two members of the
family lived and worked mainly outside the village at any given
time. This represented between a quarter and a third of all working
men and women. Their jobs and workplaces have already been
listed: domestic servant, day-labourer, bricklayer, carpenter,
maidservant and at a later date railway worker or plasterer. By the
twentieth century the list also included metal-worker and female
textile operatives, without exception dependent on wage-labour.
Inevitably in these periods of living outside the limits of the
village, they experienced various needs which clashed with the
narrow, traditional framework of family village life. These other
modes of thought and behaviour patterns, which were learned in
different places, working conditions and social groups, the fre-
quent encounters with the police and the authorities during the tire-
some search for work, the experience of begging, petty criminality
and vagrancy, as recorded in hundreds of cases of local criminal
proceedings, and even the freer forms of sexual relationships and
sexual practice — all inevitably brought into question the one-
sided, patriarchal and strict system characteristic of Kiebingen. The
new mode. of thought could not simply be left behind at the village
boundary when migrant workers returned home. In the eyes of the
village peasants, the new modes of thought naturally seemed to
threaten their ideas of work discipline, obedience and morality, and
to constitute an erosion of their hierarchical values and general
social order. Just like every deviation from traditional behavioural
norms, so these new ideas had to be censured and suppressed. Yet
there were signs of them everywhere: in the form of illegitimate
children, ‘whom the young women mainly brought back from
other places’, in the tendency to ‘revels and dances’, in the ‘insults

hurled at the village mayor’, in the tendency to ‘foolish behaviour,
idleness and lavishness’. Everything in village life which exhibited
disagreeable features fitted into these stereotypes. And the accusa-
tions and punishments are continuously listed in the local council
proceedings and parish reports of the nineteenth century. One of
the Kiebingen ministers who consistently shared this vision of a
well-settled and honourable village, summed up such views (or
rather, prejudices) as early as 1830 in a simple formula, which
retained its validity for posterity: ‘Most excesses’, he claimed, ‘are
caused moreover by totally impoverished people, who prefer beg-
ging and its associated dissoluteness, to work, and a quiet,
honourable life.’
Clearly the village establishment of the permanent peasant and
craftsmen families still responded totally in the style of the old
‘peasant society’. Without regard to the important supportive
economic function of outside wage-labour for the general village
system, it preserved for itself its hermetic horizon of perception by
simply blotting out the causes of this existence and the behavioural
patterns alien to the village. Anyone who did not fit in with the
local peasant code, which was legitimised by custom and tradition,
was ostracised and stigmatised. In the marriage certificates issued
by the local council, in sermons and commentaries on the ‘moral
conduct’ of migrant workers, there are numerous indications that
the status of the outsider was already characterised in negative
terms. Taking a job outside the village was equated with personal
failure and carried the taint of slovenliness and inferior social
morality. The social character of the historical proletarianisation
process that had overtaken even Kiebingen was simply ignored. At
the same time the inevitable problems of orientation and socio-
cultural confusion, even the contradictory views of life with which
the affected groups had to grapple, were also ignored. What
perhaps may have been acceptable in the case of outsiders — the
fact that they behaved ‘differently’ and lived ‘strangely’ — could
not be tolerated on the part of fellow villagers, even if they occa-
sionally had to spend half their lives ‘as foreigners’ outside the
village. The villager was expected to be able to live in both worlds,
or better still, to live in only one, the Kiebingen ‘peasant world’,
with its fixed social order and its clearly articulated cultural
grammar.
When one evaluates this conflict, one should doubtless take into
account the fact that the work migration of the Kiebingen lower
classes, both, under pre-industrial and advanced capitalist condi-
tions, clearly followed the trade cycle. However, the highest migra-
tion quotas between 1830 and 1931 were not, as one might have sus-
pected, in crisis years, when economic conditions in the village were
particularly bad and external relief especially necessary. On the
contrary, they occurred in periods of exceptional prosperity. In fact
the majority of workers flooded back into their home village at the
onset of an economic recession and attempted to reintegrate them-
selves into the family subsistence economy, or, if necessary, to
obtain support and help from the parish authorities. Thus the
minutes of the council proceedings in December 1846 noted for
example,
Today the unmarried and impecunious Wendelin Heim returned

home and stated the following: that he could no longer support
himself during the present season, as he could find no more work
either here or elsewhere, and so he was obliged to turn to the
village council for support ... [It resolved] ... to provide
Wendelin Heim with food at the villagers’ expense and according
to the tax. . ., whereby Heim was charged that he was to work
the same day for the citizen who that day provided him with
food...
The explanation for this withdrawal to the village and the rever-
sion to old village survival strategies can be found outside
Kiebingen at the level of society as a whole. In crisis periods, com-
munities which had been centres of in-migration, took care that
they did not have a community of needy, unsettled and unem-
ployed strangers. It was specifically the country workers who were
driven back to their home villages and treated as an ‘industrial
reserve army’ with strict refusals of support and official residence
prohibitions. This policy continued until the economic barometer
rose again. Even in the economic crisis in the years following 1929
this remained a customary and legal practice in Wiirttemberg.
For communities like Kiebingen this pattern of in-migration
during crisis had serious consequences. The two camps in the
village — the farmers and worker-peasants — were constantly
opposed to each other in the same points and on the same fronts at
times of economic depression, when things were tense anyway.
There was always discussion about the common rights of those
returning home, about claims for financial support, about

measures for providing work in the village wood or in road con-
struction, and consequently there was always discussion about the
same demands as before on the parish budget and communal social
policy. The farmers, as controllers of the village purse-strings,
objected to such expenditure as vehemently as they had done pre-
viously. The conflict was as old-as Kiebingen’s class society itself,
because the causes were also the same. In a crisis it was still the
limited resources of the village which provided the only safety net.
Yet one cannot explain the seasonal migratory behaviour of the
Kiebingen workers solely on the basis of economic motives and
constraints. Despite the coming of the railway and the encroach-
ment of industry, the migration pattern preserved its pre-industrial
form right up to the years before the First World War, remaining
characterised by 6 or 12 month periods of absence from the village.
The reasons for this can probably be seen in the special inter-
generational rhythm of succession in cottager and small peasant
families, which followed its own dynamic. It is no coincidence that
the juvenile and young adult members of the family preferred to
seek out distant places of work outside the village, whereas the
older and married inhabitants remained as close as possible to the
village. The younger generation represented to a certain extent the
surplus workforce, whose absence on the one hand contributed a
material relief to the family budget, as weli as helping minimise
inter-generational emotional conflicts and role problems. On the
other hand their earnings were a substantial contribution to the
continued maintenance of the family subsistence economy. Only on
this basis was cash periodically available for taxes, mortgage pay-
ments and for production costs, such as the purchase of tools,
cattle or seed corn, necessary to the cultivation of their own land or
for the family share of the common.
In its basic characteristics this family-based economic system still
fully represented the traditional linear sequence of generational
succession to the family’s hereditary position within the village’s
economic and social framework. One can see the persistence of pat-
riarchal and pre-industrial concepts according to which the indivi-
dual workers were naturally only organs of the communal work
capacity of the family. On this basis, individual views of life were
‘naturally’ subordinate to those of the family. External work was
not considered as a springboard for a gradual weaning away from
the family, or as the foundation for an independent existence
outside Kiebingen. On the contrary, this inter-generational sharing

of roles and division of labour was supposed to facilitate the con-
tinuance of a generative rotation system, in which the material
basis of the children’s existence was not contrasted and parallel to
that of the parents, but conceived of as something additional and
dependent. Not until after the economic withdrawal of the parents
because of age or illness, and frequently only after their death, was
there room for an independent existence and the setting-up of one’s
own family. Without home-ownership, a plot of land and the
family’s share of the village common, this seems to have been
scarcely possible even for young factory workers in the 1920s, and
one can still detect something of the ‘homeostatic equilibrium’ in
the structure of family generations, which the historian David
Levine has described as characteristic of pre-industrial life-styles.!2
This close connection between economic and generative reproduc-
tion was confirmed in the very high age of marriage in Kiebingen.
For men, the average age at marriage only dipped below 30 after
1875. In the years 1920 to 1929 it was still 28.9 years. Building
workers had a marginally higher age at marriage, and factory
workers were somewhat below this figure. On average, women in
the post-war period married at an age of 25.8 years, whereas pre-
viously the average had rarely been below 27 years. Incidentally
these figures also support the supposition that rural proletarianisa-
tion did not automatically lead to a lowering in the age at
marriage.!?
Throughout the nineteenth century and, with certain limitations,
in the early twentieth century as well, the period of continuous
work away from the village corresponded to a special phase in the
life-cycle. This period of migratory work, which often lasted 10 to
20 years, represented a distinctive period of transitional adulthood
for the sons and daughters of small peasant families, when they
were still single and not yet fully independent. Their first escape
from the family and the village to look for work, which most
experienced between the ages of 13 and 15, was like an initiation
rite into this new life-style. It symbolised a farewell to childhood
status and provided confirmation of their recognition by their
family and society as fully-fledged workers. With the step outside
the village, they entered at the same time into a pre-adult status and
into what was literally a ‘strange’ world. This constituted a
completely different socialisation context from that experienced by
the peasant children of the same age who remained within the
village sphere of production; and stayed as ‘children’ for a longer

period under parental control. It was at this point that what had
previously been a largely common horizon of experience with a
gradual assimilation of definite child and age-specific roles and
abilities came to an end. It broke down into separate spheres and
systems of experience. Opportunities for further education, or for
vocational training, became very unequal. The experience of work
and everyday life differed considerably, depending on whether the
young person remained within the village, or sought work in Upper
Swabia, Switzerland or in one of the factory towns of northern
Wiirttemberg. The relatively secure life-chances for a peasant con-
trasted markedly with the absolute insecurity which faced the sub-
peasant stratum. Two separate worlds now emerged, with their
own discrete social and biographical structures of experience. The
one stayed in the village and was ‘the village’. For the other, for the
children from the families of day-labourers and building workers,
probably only the period of childhood and then the later period of
adulthood constituted an individual life-cycle phase which was
experienced during a longer and enclosed period in the village.
IV
Many elements of this worker-peasant world must seem rather

strange, according to present-day standards, revealing a society
dominated by economic forces, social powerlessness, and tradi-
tional, mostly reactive, modes of behaviour. This is certainly
largely true in the sphere of material production. But it is not the
whole picture. We must also enquire into those areas in which the
men and women of this other Kiebingen confront us more clearly as
subjects of their own history, who consciously and actively shaped
their lives differently. Where can one find such elements of self-
determination, of autonomous social and emotional experience,
perhaps even of stances of resistance towards the system of peasant
norms, which can provide some support for the marginal existence
of the other Kiebingen, and reveal evidence of its separate identity?
These elements certainly did exist, although in a locality with such
limited material, social and cultural means of living they could
often only survive in small freedoms and in modest forms of self-
assertion. Moreover many of them inevitably remained unseen, as
the written sources of village history are almost exclusively official
documents which only portray the daily life of the lower strata
as a history of objects — objects of disciplinary measures, of

administrative acts, of punishment, of welfare — or more
accurately, guardianship.
How much stubbornness, and how much conscious experience of
the ‘governed’ is simultaneously contained in a situation can only
be gleaned from a reconstruction of its own social logic, if one
reads between the lines and changes approach. When there is
smoke, there is fire; where there is control and punishment, there
are people and groups who contravene the prevailing rules when
they try to live according to their own conflicting precepts. ‘Foolish
behaviour’, vagrancy, the ‘desecration of the sabbath’ by drinking
in inns, the ‘immorality’ of migrant workers and their families —
all these little norm infringements are simply a photographic
negative torn out of the context of a positive, self-contained system
of everyday attitudes. They provide a breath of fresh air, they
circumvent restrictive norms and satisfy their own social and
emotional needs. In adhering to such ‘illegal’ forms of individual
and group behaviour, there is a definite expression of self-under-
standing and a feeling of self-esteem, which selectively provided a
sub-cultural group commentary on the accepted social attitudes of
the village. One creates and assumes a (limited) ‘freedom of
necessity’.
In the history of Kiebingen, on the basis of the available sources,
this type of freedom only appears episodically. The farm servant
who felt himself unjustly dismissed by his farmer in 1833 (‘...
which I won’t stand for because I had to run around for 10 to 12
days until I found a capable employer again’) and who claimed
compensation and his remaining wages from the viliage council,
provides evidence of its existence. There are other cases, too: A
weaver, who would not let his sons be ordered into school by the
teacher, declared ‘with bold and wild defiance that he would not
allow his sons to go to school because he needed them now for
threshing.’ In 1840 a day labourer and cottager refused to submit
silently when his field was used as access by a rich farmer, who was
also a local councillor and field judge. He protested in exaspera-
tion:
It is particularly bad that a field judge, who should maintain

public order, should ruin and destroy another citizen’s property;
from this one can see that no field judge has any conscience
. . . because they themselves only go onto the fields to place
boundary stones so that they can earn a lot of money.
In 1860 a railway worker refused to perform the customary labour

services required by the village community, because he could not
and would not give up his wages for the lost days. A young family
was ordered by the village council to go to the local poorhouse, but
when they were due to be removed, they objected, and insisted on
their ‘right to poverty’. Finally we must not forget the everyday
events: card-playing and dancing, drinking after hours in the inn,
the rebellious gestures against the authorities, and above all the
numerous thefts from the fields and woodland. In the crisis year of
1929 these thefts were just as common as they had been in 1847,
and were clearly regarded by both men and women as a form of
private self-help, when family survival could not be assured by legal
and practical means.
Certainly, seen individually, these could never be regarded as
great acts of emancipation. The actual infringement of written laws
and unwritten rules was unremarkable. What appears to be much
more critical is the attitude behind the incidents, which revealed a
definite consistency of thought and action. In it were expressed
precise ideas as to when the limits of ‘fair’ economic and social
relations were exceeded, and as to whether people’s social rights,
honour, dignity and feelings had been offended. This attitude
reflected a fixed level of expectation: although certain social
inequalities and bourgeois laws were accepted as realities, under-
neath the surface there lay communal ideas of what was right for
guiding people’s experiences and actions. The villagers may not
always have had the law on their side, but there were situations
where, independently of the law, they felt ‘in the right’ in a deeply
moral way.
Another area of village experience illustrates some of these
points and takes them further.'* Love and marriage were never a
private matter in Kiebingen, but always a matter of complex family
and village decision-making processes. Between 1833 and 1871,
they also posed considerable legal and political implications.
During these years the Wiirttemberg law of civil rights not only
demanded that those wishing to marry must have reached the tradi-
tional age of majority (21 years), but the prospective bridegroom
also had to prove that he had ‘adequate means of subsistence’.
Proof of this, which the village council, as the decision-making
body, officially examined, had to be furnished in the form of
money, property, or through the ‘ability to carry on an indepen-

dent trade’. If this proof was not considered adequate, the parish
council had the right to refuse approval for the marriage. The
council, which was dominated by bourgeois and craft interests,
applied the law rigorously, particularly in all those cases where it
feared that the future family could later become a burden on
council funds. In the case of suitors with negligible property or
dependent entirely on wage-income, such an assumption was
invariably made. The law itself, moreover, expressly declared that,
for example, ‘an ordinary factory worker is not allowed to marry’.
In these 38 years, 20 of the marriage petitioners were turned down,
including 8 building workers, 6 day-labourers, 4 wage-earning
village craftsmen and 2 railway workers, together with their
respective brides. The peasant and artisan couples, on the other
hand, with their larger property holdings, invariably got over this
hurdle with ease. Nevertheless, almost 10 per cent of all planned
marriages in the village were blocked. The additional deterrent
effect of this degrading procedure almost certainly ruined other
wedding plans at an early stage.
Let us examine just one of these cases of refusal, that of a
40-year-old railway worker and former weaver, Josef Heim, and a
39-year-old railway worker, Regina Kunstle, from a village not far
from Kiebingen, who wanted to marry in 1860. To do this, it was
necessary for the bride first to be granted Kiebingen citizenship.
Their total cash savings and personal possessions just sufficed to
fulfil the legal requirements in this case. The village authorities,
however, after examining the application, became convinced that
the alleged available savings, as well as the prospect of his

earnings as a railway worker, did not provide them with a secure
livelihood, and that it should be taken into consideration as to
whether or not Heim would sooner or later become a burden on
the community and this fact makes it all the more necessary to
subject this case to a careful examination, as Heim has already
worked for 14 years as a single man on the railway and has only
saved 115 florins and a single bed out of an allegedly good wage.
The parish council ... further notes, that Josef Heim in
earlier years when he lived here, was not known as a good house-
holder; and even if the reference for Josef Heim and his bride
from the railway engineering office had been favourably written,
this reference could not be accorded any great credence as proof
of a secure livelihood. . .*
The application for citizenship and for permission to marry were

refused. Three years later the two betrothed made another attempt
to marry in Kiebingen and when this was once again refused, they
appealed to a higher authority. But this was also without success,
not least because Josef Heim, enraged at the second refusal, had
loudly declared in local inns ‘in the presence of two village coun-
cillors that he would easily get money as an advance from his
employers, if he needed 300—400 florins to present as cash.’
Even on the basis of this single example, one can at least suspect
how radically the marriage laws and their local application could
affect the courses and plans of people’s lives. The village council’s
line of argument very clearly shows that refusal did not depend on
purely economic factors. As in other cases, a regular pattern
emerged, portraying as it were the prototype of a negative social
character, according to which the applicant was described: already
absent from the village for a long time, ‘insecure livelihood’, ‘an
alleged existence of cash’, ‘an incompetent householder’; in short
neither a solid livelihood nor a trustworthy character. The village
councillors certainly showed no trace of any special personal anti-
pathy or prejudice. They conducted this process of social and
character discrimination purely on the basis of principle. For this
was a systematic procedure, the expression of an economic and
socio-political defence strategy of the village ruling class against
socially marginal village groups, which they automatically tried to
repel. Apparently with success too: the railway worker, with his inn
talk about the money swindle which was not meant to be taken very
seriously, but was only an attempt to vent his anger, impotence and
scorn, was finally his own undoing. He thus confirmed the exis-
tence of a particular and coherent course of action in the village —
not the normative power of the real person, but the real power of
the normative person: one became, in the end, the person one was
alleged to be. There was never any talk about love or feelings in the
attitudes adopted by local authorities, because for them this was no
way to view marriage.
Many of those affected by the ban, however, resisted surround-
ing pressures, warnings and punishments, and carried on their
relationship illicitly. The resulting illegitimate children confirmed,
yet again, their loose morals and seemed to justify the original
refusal. Between 1849 and 1869, 15 cases of ‘concubinage’ or
illegitimate cohabitation were officially recorded. The number of

illegitimate births also clearly increased in this period, and between
1860 and 1864 reached its peak of 18.5 per cent p.a. of all births.
These facts together do not simply indicate excessive sexuality, or
indeed anything beyond the scope of legal relationships. In many
years almost half of the bridal couples went to the altar with a child
conceived out of wedlock. They rather seem to me to indicate the
intensity of the emotional need for union, which was so brutally
declared illegal, or had to remain totally unfulfilled. And many of
these stories of relationships finally take on an almost symbolic
character, as, for example, the day-labourer couple who came to
the minister at the ages of 49 and 53 in 1871, when the restrictive
marriage laws were finally lifted, with their three illegitimate
children. Defiant and proud, so one can assume, they had finally
defeated the law of the village.
There was a tendency during the second half of the nineteenth
century for the lower peasantry in terms of relationships and
marriage to develop a definite counter-model to the rules of
peasant endogamy, which traditionally limited in advance the local
choice of marriage partner on socio-economic grounds. It laid
down that marriage should take place within the village. The
affinity of family property (‘field to field’) was clearly of more
importance than emotional affinity. These rules apparently had
increasingly less validity for the worker-peasant families. Property,
family lineage, and an economically strategic choice of marriage
partner were for them no longer exclusive life co-ordinates which
continued to envelop the peasants’ existence in what Charles and
Richard Tilly have described as ‘an iron chain of reproduction and
inheritance’. They began to enjoy, within specific limits, a certain
freedom of choice of marriage partner, both within Kiebingen and,
more importantly, beyond its boundaries. There was also a general
trend towards a more modern concept of marriage. One should not
speak at once of ‘love’, because this is difficult to prove; but one
may at least assume that marriages in these circles began to possess
more initial emotional capital than in the case of many model
peasant marriages, whose capital could only be measured in the
number of hectares. What of course remained in force almost
unaltered was the traditional rule of social endogamy: poor
married poor, and rich joined with rich. This prop of Kiebingen’s
social structure did not totter nor fall for generations. An investiga-
tion of the village marriage circle carried out by means of family
reconstitution and an analysis‘of the village social structure showed

that property-ownership in the nineteenth century and at the start
of the twentieth century remained the structural determining factor
in the choice of partner, because it decided the present and future
social standing of the family generations.'* The choice of a
marriage partner also impinged on family and kin relationships and
affected social standing. Indeed, this could not be left to chance
especially in peasant families, but had to be arranged through
regulated marriage strategies.
If we divide the local society of Kiebingen into three social
groups, on the basis of definite criteria relating to property-owner-
ship, occupation and income, which do not need to be elucidated at
this juncture, we can distinguish a proletarian lower class, a middle
or intermediary class composed of cottagers and small-scale crafts-
men, and an upper class of peasants and artisans. For once the
available figures provide a very clear message: from 1810 to 1920
three-quarters of the upper-class males married women from the
same class. In the lower class the corresponding figure was about 60
per cent, and only the more open, intermediary class fell marginally
below 50 per cent, with approximately half of all cases revealing
either upward or downward social mobility in the choice of mar-
riage partner. The high level of class consistency in local marriage
practices was in fact a piece of social class reality in Kiebingen. For
the upper class it meant a controlled transfer of their material and
socio-cultural capital,'® and therefore they resolved to make this
practice a line of demarcation between themselves and the
propertyless lower class. However, at the same time, it becomes
clear why this dichotomic (property) class structure!’ constantly
revealed a socially rather blurred profile at its economic core. The
close marriage circles ensured that the village class structure would
remain almost perfectly hidden for generations behind the pattern
of kin relationships. It was, on the surface, not economic and social
differences which divided the village but family ties, affiliation to
one or another kin group, and private animosity between clans.
Conflicts seemed to reflect family relationships and not class
relationships. It was difficult to realise that the structural and
political lines of conflict were analogous to the patrimonially-
divided kin superstructure. Thus kinship networks served to
disguise the exercise of power and domination in the village along
social class lines.
Vv
These power structures can even be exposed at the purely political

level, if we take a closer look at the village council as the central
institutionalised organ of power in village society. Externally this
body, concerned with both decision-making and representation,
initially represented a kinship scenario in which the good ‘peasant-
bourgeois’ family names were dominant, and specific ‘lineage
principles’!® ensured a seat on the council for generations, almost
on the basis of hereditary tenure. Over 87 per cent of all Kiebingen
village councillors who held office between 1820 and 1940 had a
father or a father-in-law who had held a seat either on the council
itself or on its controlling body in the village, the citizens’ com-
mittee. The names of individual relatives occur in the list of coun-
cillors up to 14 times during these 120 years. With an average
period of office of 13 years, this means that, from a statistical point
of view, there were always one or two representatives of these clans
in office. In terms of occupation, the peasants (47 per cent) were
ranked above the building craftsmen (23 per cent) and the village
artisans (15 per cent). To this extent the scene did not seem to be
socially balanced, but that was, after all, ‘normal’ for the village.
The well-organised network and property and power structures
concealed behind them are only revealed if one enlists the aid of the
previously-constructed economic three-class model as a key to the
code. Of the 72 councillors who ‘ruled’ Kiebingen in the 120 years
between 1820 and 1940, a mere two belonged to the lower class (to
the families of day-labourers, weavers, building workers and
factory workers) who nevertheless composed almost two-thirds of
the village population. The upper class, on the other hand, which
represented just 10 per cent of the village, had 31 office holders —
that is, almost every other councillor. In addition, of course, it also
usually provided the mayor.
It is clear that institutionalised politics, in this context, were
carried out in the village according to the everyday structures and
rules of domination. Politics offered no prospect of a democratic,
grassroots political culture, but were a carbon copy of the village
hierarchy, devoid of any special standards. This is of course pro-
bably the case nowadays in many places too. The jurisdiction of the
village council remained comprehensive until 1933 and basically
represented control of all local means of production and resources.
It stretched from the organisation of the field system to the use of
common land, from tax collection to the many small community

services and their associated earnings potential, which the council
could mobilise as it wished. Its greatest significance lay in the field
ofsocial and welfare policy, which in Germany remained predomi-
nantly a local matter until 1927, and in the subsequent possibility of
social and moral control of all private and public aspects of life.
The council could decide who received a marriage licence (at least
until 1871), which forms of unemployment and public relief were to
be granted, who received a tax deferment, and who was publicly
criticised for his life-style and housekeeping. In addition to these
economic and political means of power, this furnished the council
with social and emotional forms of control. As property, tradition
and office provided the basis of legitimation, forms of power which
had a patriarchal stamp continued to operate and the weapons of
‘honour’ and ‘shame’, ‘pride’ and ‘humiliation’ remained impor-
tant. There was probably no villager who could totally escape the
operation of these methods of ‘moral chastisement’ which almost
recalled the medieval pillory. They were a shadow and reflection of
their own particular history, from which it proved very difficult to
escape.
In view of this hermetic system of village politics, it is hardly sur-
prising that there were actually only two occasions in Kiebingen’s
history when social conflict was played out on the open political
stage. Within the context of the receding revolutionary and republi-
can activity of 1918/19, a building worker suddenly came forward
in the mayoral elections of 1921 in opposition to the designated
candidate of the village élite, who was the son of the former mayor.
The building worker stood for election expressly as the man of ‘the
workers and cottagers’, and demanded that from now on ‘there will
be impartial dealings at the town hall’. Although the establishment
was Clearly irritated and adopted publicity tactics in local news-
papers (‘The worker too always got his due’), the village élite won
the election. Not until seven years later, in 1928, did an opposition
group finally succeed in winning two seats in the council elections,
and they achieved this with a slogan taken almost directly from the
class struggle: ‘Elect nobody who is only out for his own interest,
and is not at all concerned with the lower class.’ But these were the
exceptions which could only be interpreted with difficulty as
incipient trends towards politicisation, or even democratisation,
against the general background of the break in political develop-
ment of 1933. Otherwise conflicts and politics in Kiebingen
continued to be settled within a traditional and symbolic frame-

work. Confronted with a perceptible change within society of
conflict awareness, the face-to-face nature of patterns of conflict,
on a personalised and localised basis, remained largely in force.
Displeasure, resistance and social criticism from below did not
express themselves according to the rules of bourgeois public
opinion. They were expressed through the village’s system of
morally-based reprimand and punishment, based on rumours,
abuse, specific damage carried out to fields, and the deliberate
breaking of rules.
A custom which had clearly developed in the context of the 1848
revolution was used time and time again right up to the 1920s as a
symbolic act of protest against unpopular local office-holders.
From the council minutes of the year 1922: ‘Council members
Christian Geiger, Paul Raidt and Bernard Wittel each had two pro-
ductive fruit-trees sawn down as an act of revenge in the night of
22/23 February.’ This bizarre form of social protest had a symbolic
meaning: each Kiebingen citizen formerly had to plant two trees on
the common when he came of age and entered the community, as a
sign of his ‘naturalisation’. The sawing-down symbolised to that
extent a reversal, a kind of expatriation, an excommunication from
the village community of people who had misused their power in
the estimation of the lower class. Social conflict in Kiebingen could
hardly be carried out in anything more than this anonymous, covert
form. The economic and social dependence of the village lower
class was still too strong and the struggle for the distribution of the
village resources was too unequally organised. There was also the
lack of a suitably self-contained, active group-awareness of the
underprivileged, which would have been able to create collective
forms of expression.
And so ‘the other Kiebingen’ must finally remain in parenthesis.
It cannot be described as a village counter-society in the full sense,
because social alliance and social conflict, and the elements binding
it to the peasant village and those separating it from it, were still
too similar to the hotch-potch situation of the village fields. The
life of workers and peasants also remained largely centred on the
axis of the family’s property, on the rhythm of agricultural produc-
tion and also on specific peasant values, which now of course had a
proletarian village meaning. Ownership of their own house and
land was for the rural workers, then as before, the essential
criterion of economic and social independence. This was deeply
rooted in the consciousness of families who had always lived with

the threat of unemployment, and whose grandfathers and grand-
mothers had both known and often carried the little tin sign which
legitimised the begging of poor families in the village up until the
middle of the nineteenth century. And it was hardly any different in
relation to the strong fixation on marriage and the family, which
now represented, in addition to their economic significance, an era
of justice and autonomy after the degrading marriage restrictions
of the nineteenth century. Marriage provided security, which was
perhaps not old-established enough to be automatic, and naturally
also confirmed village standards of respectability and ideas of
status.
Edward Shorter, referring to specific areas of Bavarian village
life in the nineteenth century, has mentioned a gradual ‘dissolution
of traditional cultural models’, which ‘however leave behind no
normative vacuum’.!® One can use this formula quite generally in
relation to Kiebingen’s development process, if by ‘dissolution’ one
does not presuppose any radical split in the peasant village culture
matrix, but a modification and reconstruction within the sphere of
behaviour and significance. The worker-peasants of Kiebingen, in
whom the ‘workers’ soul’ wrestled with the ‘soil soul’, as a
Wiirttemberg economic statistician expressed it very graphically in
1919,° had to master two contradictory elements at this period. On
the one hand they had to develop and implement new methods of
production within an old, self-contained system of reproduction,
and on the other hand, they had to defend considerable elements of
the home-spun logic of their village against the systematic logic of
industrial capitalism.?! Although the dilemma appeared almost
insoluble, those affected by it in history are by no means to be
viewed as losers and victims. They asserted their specific needs in a
determined and unspectacular way, in opposition to the village élite
and society as a whole. Consider again the long-standing caution of
the first Kiebingen wage-earners with regard to factory work. Not
only did this preserve them from the contemporary susceptibility to
crisis and the uncertainty of industrial employment in
Wiirttemberg; it also enabled them to avoid the associated process
of total estrangement and alienation from their family, their village
and their familiar cultural world. For this generation, at least, a
cautious attitude towards factory work contained a quite decisive
element of self-determination. It was not prepared to comply with
every demand of society but organised its work primarily around
home values — farming, day-labouring and building work in the

agricultural context. Industrial work was only accepted when the
social costs of the factory worker’s existence had diminished, and
when commuting offered him the possibility of continuing to live in
his home village without being totally uprooted. The earliest
factory workers in Kiebingen therefore apparently had very clear
ideas about which types of mobility could be married to their
needs, and only accepted mild forms of professional and regional
mobility.
This attitude ultimately casts a special light on their ties to family
and village. Until 1871 the fixed village nexus had been mandatory,
as all social security claims and the rights to citizenship and
marriage were restricted to the home village. Now a rural existence
appeared much more as a possibility than a necessity, as a question
of deciding for or against the home village. The majority of
workers’ families in Kiebingen decided for the village; in the end
they did not move to the towns. It certainly was not because village
life had offered them, for example, security and safety and had
ceased to reflect earlier patterns of social control, discrimination
and suppression. It is more likely that the social alternatives appa-
rently still seemed to them more unattractive and more uneconomic
than life in Kiebingen. Here at least one knew the rules and laws of
everyday life as the whole way of conflict. One had learned to dis-
cover and to uphold one’s place in it, one’s little freedoms and
identity. One was not ‘blind, deaf and incapable of learning’ — to
take up again the introductory catch-words — in the processes of
experience and learning of many generations. I believe that one
should take this decision as a historical plea to take the village, its
history and its forms of cultural life seriously.
Notes
1. Wolfgang Kaschuba and Carola Lipp, ‘Kein Volk steht auf, kein Sturm bricht
los. Stationen dérflichen Lebens auf dem Weg in den Faschismus’, in J. Beck et al.
(eds.), Terror und Hoffnung in Deutschland 1933-1945 (Reinbek, 1980),
pp. 111-55.
2. Rottenburger Zeitung 3 October 1934.
3. Gunther Ipsen, ‘Landvolk und industrieller Lebensraum im Neckarland’,
Raumforschung und Raumordnung, vol. 5 (1941), pp. 243-57, esp. p. 256.
4. Oskar Negt and Alexander Kluge, Offentlichkeit und Erfahrung (Frankfurt,
1973), p. 79.
5. The following anecdotes and data are the result of a village study carried out
some years ago with my colleagué, Carola Lipp. Here we try to link the socio-
historical and folk views of the rural process of history. (Wolfgang Kaschuba and
Carola Lipp, Dérfliches Uberleben. Zur Geschichte materieller und sozialer
Reproduktion landlicher Gesellschaft im 19. und friihen 20. Jahrhundert,
(Tiibingen, 1982).) We have therefore dispensed with citing individual sources in the
following sections.
6. See also the contribution of Utz Jeggle in this volume (Chapter 11) as well as
his investigation in Kiebingen — eine Heimatgeschichte. Zum Prozess der Zivilisa-
tion in einem schwdabischen Dorf (Tiibingen, 1977).
7. Fernand Braudel, ‘Geschichte und Sozialwissenschaften. Die /ongue durée’, in
M. Bloch et al., Schrift und Materie der Geschichte (Frankfurt, 1977), pp. 47—85,
esp. p. 55 et seq.
8. Otto Triidinger, ‘Die Wechselwirkungen von Industrie und Landwirtschaft im
Wirtschaftsaufbau Wiirttembergs’, Wurttembergische Jahrbiicher ftir Statistik und
Landeskunde (1934/35), pp. 111—29, esp. p. 112.
9. Martine Segalen, ‘‘‘Sein Teil haben’’: Geschwisterbeziehungen in einem
egalitaren Vererbungssystem’, in H. Medick and D. Sabean (eds.), Emotionen und
materielle Interessen (Gottingen, 1984), pp. 181—98.
10. Hans Medick, ‘Zur strukturellen Funktion von Haushalt und Familie im
Ubergang von der traditionellen Agrargesellschaft zum industriellen Kapitalismus:
die protoindustrielle Familienwirtschaft’, in W. Conze (ed.), Sozialgeschichte der
Familie in der Neuzeit Europas (Stuttgart, 1976), pp. 254-82.
11. Karl Marx, Das Kapital, Vol. I (Berlin, 1969), p. 92.
12. David Levine, ‘Proletarianisation, Economic Opportunity and Population
Growth’, in W. Conze (ed.), Sozialgeschichte, pp. 247—53, esp. p. 247.
13.,1bid.; p.247.
14. The attitude to marriage, the demographic processes, and their significance in
Kiebingen’s history have been thoroughly investigated and documented by Carola
Lipp in the second part of the joint village study: ‘Dérfliche Formen generativer und
sozialer Reproduktion’, in Kaschuba and Lipp, op. cit., pp. 287—598.
15. Heinz Reif, ‘Theoretischer Kontext, Ziele, Methoden und Hingrenzung der
Untersuchung’, in J. Kocka et al., Familie und soziale Plazierung (Opladen, 1980),
p. 45 et seq.
16. Hans Medick and David Sabean, ‘Emotionen und materielle Interessen in
Familie und Verwandtschaft’ in ibidjm Emotionen, pp. 27—54.
17. Josef Mooser, ‘Gleichheit und Ungleichheit in der landlichen Gemeinde’,
Archiv fiir Sozialgeschichte, Vol. 19 (1976), pp. 231—62.
18. Georges Balandier, Politische Anthropologie (Munich, 1976), p. 64.
19. Edward Shorter, ‘La vie intime’, in C. Ludz (ed.), Soziologie und Sozialge-
schichte (Opladen, 1972), pp. 531—49, esp. p. 538.
20. Hermann Losch, ‘Lohnhdhe und Lebenskosten’, in Wairttembergische
Jahrbiicher fiir Statistik und Landeskunde (1919/20), pp. 246—58, esp. p. 257.
21. Jiirgen Habermas used this category in his Theorie des kommunikativen
Handelns, (Frankfurt, 1982).
1 THE RULES OF THE VILLAGE
On the Cultural History of the Peasant World in the
Last 150 Years*
Utz Jeggle
The traditional village is on the retreat, not simply as an economic

unit but in other respects too. Where it once created order, it is now
confronted with the prospect of upheaval. The situation is ripe with
dangers as well as with opportunities. A choice has to be made
between those traditions worth preserving and practices better
abandoned. But there is little hope that the right decisions will be
made. Small-scale farming now only makes a minimal contribution
to the West German economy. The village no longer functions as a
social and economic sphere that can satisfy most of the needs of its
inhabitants.! As the world has grown bigger, time for the village
has retreated, proximity to nature has become attenuated, and the
community which once necessarily gave the villagers their social
cohesiveness is less compelling. The village as a way of life and
experience has not only changed its external appearance in the last
30 years; within its boundaries, the ordering of society and the
structure of its mental outlook have changed too. Yet during the
course of many centuries the village created traditions which have
not simply disappeared with the new conditions of life. Certain
ways of experiencing the world can continue in a social sub-culture
far longer than a simple stimulus-and-response theory can compre-
hend. Education and socialisation are not merely oriented towards
direct social needs, but also respond to the abilities of parents and
grandparents. The possibility of experiencing happiness, of surviv-
ing partings, of feeling secure, of trusting, the whole spectrum of
ways of feeling and the richness of the emotional qualities that
form the basis of mental outlook, all evolve in a long and crisis-
ridden developmental process, in which the bearers of older tradi-
tions feed in their attitudes and views of the world even before the
*Translated by Richard J. Evans.
265
266 The Rules of the Village
child has learned how to speak, and so become deeply embedded in

the unconscious and subconscious aspects of human existence in
the community. It is possible — as my friend Albert Ilien once put
it — that villagers today still suffer from the hunger and under-
nourishment of their ancestors.3 He meant by this, that it is not
only possible, but to a certain extent it is actually inevitable, that
collective experiences continue to influence the individual even
when these experiences no longer seem necessary for the material
existence of the group. With changing conditions some attitudes do
change, but not all, and it is possible that the continuation of old
world-views in new conditions is sometimes painful to experience.
The history of mentalités* is a subject that has received attention
not only from social historians, but also from those who, like my-
self, work within the conventions of Volkskunde — a discipline
that represents a mixture of folklore studies, cultural anthropology
and ethnology. The point of departure for our work is generally the
daily consciousness of ordinary people, their normal experience of
everyday life; and where this consciousness is incomplete, or where
people have preferred to repress their insights into the real nature
of things because it is painful to maintain a clear view of them at
the forefront of their minds, problems of understanding and
portrayal obviously arise for the researcher. Thus what people
order and control themselves is clearly visible, but what is imposed
on them from above is more obscure. We can get a relatively faith-
ful picture of the internal structures of village life, but the connec-
tions that undoubtedly exist between the village and the outside
world can only be sketched in outline. A microscopically exact
portrayal of the village makes it seem like a world in itself, and it is
not easy to reflect adequately the village’s external determinants
and orientations. The discipline of Volkskunde looks at the world
in a specific way, and from a different vantage point, than that of
social history, sociology and other related disciplines, and it there-
fore requires complementing and extending. The same could be
said, of course, of all academic disciplines — some have simply not
realised it yet.
The history of mentalités, as practised within the discipline of
Volkskunde, seeks to interpret the possibilities and dangers that
arise when the equilibrium of collective ties and individual freedom
is disturbed or enters a period of crisis. This is why I have called
this paper ‘The Rules of the Village’. By this I intend putting for-
ward an ideal-typical model in which security is created at the cost
The Rules of the Village 267
of freedom of choice. We would find such a way of life suffocat-

ingly restrictive today; but for those who experienced it, it made
possible feelings of happiness and unhappiness, joy and sadness,
which we ourselves seek with more urgency but not always with
more success. The peasant village constituted not only a form of
settlement but also a way of life, which characterised society in
south-west Germany alongside urban artisan culture well into the
industrial era. It was the result of a differentiated economy which
was so constructed as to build bridges between small-scale agricul-
ture and hungry bellies that would be acceptable to as many as
possible. The ordering of village life that resulted was not
regionally or even nationally specific. Comparable laws of the
village are observable elsewhere, as far afield, for example, as
Hungary.°
We began our reconstruction of the ordering principles of
peasant life® by attempting a sociography of a village in south-west
Germany. We were interested only in the present. We wanted to
uncover the internal power structures of the village, to find out by a
series of interviews of the local inhabitants how decisions were
made and who took part in them. We chose Kiebingen for practical
reasons. We wanted a Catholic village with a population mostly
engaged in industry, and we wanted a village close to our Institute
in Tiibingen because we began the project with student participa-
tion and so needed to keep the costs and travelling time to a mini-
mum. Beginning in 1970 we asked a representative sample of the
villagers who they thought had power in Kiebingen: ‘Who in your
opinion are the most important people in deciding things in the
community?’ was the question we put to some 70 villagers, along
with a whole battery of other issues. The results were as platitu-
dinous as they were predictable: the mayor was the most important,
then the priest, and after him the local schoolteacher. It seemed as
if the villagers had read the same books on rural sociology as we
had, for in the second round of interviews, when we questioned the
members of the village council, we obtained precisely the same,
standardised answers. The 10 councillors described in long and
open conversations and in great detail how harmonious, rational
and democratic the council proceedings were, and how conscien-
tious they were in following the dictates of reason and in meeting
the demands of the public good. We encountered nothing but
responsible local politicians, who seemingly did the best they could
according to their knowledge and their conscience, within the letter
of the law. It all seemed happy and harmless, an impression

strengthened by our investigation of the village’s clubs and socie-
ties, which were also — it could no longer surprise us — run by co-
operative and responsible functionaries, who painted for us a
picture of the village that no romantic novelist of the nineteenth
century could have bettered.
One day, however, we got to know Albert Ilien, who was not a
native of Kiebingen but lived there and gave Catholic religious
instruction at the grammar school in nearby Rottenburg. His wife
taught in the primary school in Kiebingen, and the village they
knew was another one altogether from the one we had so far
encountered, a darker, less unified community, a place in which the
sun did not always shine, a village in which there were conflicting
power-groups perpetually trying to put their own specific interests
into effect through the local council: for the main work of the
council at this time consisted in the allocation of farming land for
building plots, and every power clique in the village was anxious
that the building plots should be sited on their own fields, in order
to benefit from the consequent rise in land values. At first we
hardly believed this startling revelation. Not only did it show all our
previous investigations to be worthless, but it also made us seem
rather foolish and naive. But as we were introduced to Albert
Ilien’s acquaintances, this time not as investigators from outside
but as ‘friends of Albert’, and went over a number of points with
them again, we were given, as ‘insiders’, a new and more ambiva-
lent picture of the village. At first we were inclined to throw our
initial investigations into the dustbin, but we gradually realised that
in this village, as elsewhere, two separate realities could exist, one
regulating the internal life of the community, the other held in
readiness for representing the community to the outside world. As
ethnologists we are always tempted to treat the inner truth as the
real one, and it was not easy for us to accept that these were not two
competing belief-systems but two sides of the same — the inner and
the outer world of the village of Kiebingen.
Our existing theories of local sociology had sufficed to under-
stand the outer world, but they were inadequate for comprehending
the inner. Again and again we encountered processes and relation-
ships which we were unable to explain on the basis of studying the
present situation of the village and its inhabitants. In its social
structure Kiebingen is fully adapted to the modern world: there is
only one full-time farmer left, who has — with difficulty —
amassed or leased enough land to make it worth while farming as a

going concern within the Common Market norms. Most of the
adult inhabitants work in the surrounding industrial centres.
Altogether there are 500 commuters, more than one in four of the
entire population of the village. Even large numbers of the children
go to school outside; some classes of the middle school have been
moved to the neighbouring village of Biihl, and the more senior
schools are all in Rottenburg. Even the physical appearance of the
village has changed: the centre is mainly inhabited by old people,
foreign workers and students, and anyone who thinks anything of
himself builds a new house on the outskirts, mostly with the help of
relatives, who in their turn demand help with the construction of
their own modern homes. For adult men this means spending every
summer weekend on a building site for eight to ten years of their
life.
This contrast between the physical appearance of the village and
its inner world was for long a source of irritation to us. Everything
in Kiebingen looked just as it did in other villages: the villagers
watched the same television programmes, drove the same cars, and
worked in the same factories. Yet despite all these levelling factors
there evidently existed secret forces which bound the villagers and
did not allow them the untrammelled operation of their free will.
As a striking proof of this, Albert Ilien was able to predict with
astonishing accuracy the result of the mayoral election of 1971.
With the help of a handful of trusted informants we were able to
work out not merely who would vote for whom, but also why.
Mostly this had to do with traditional client relations — blood
relationships, societies or clubs — and with common knowledge or
gossip (X had talked about the candidates in the village inn; Y had
said this or that to Z, and so on). The village suddenly revealed
itself as a manifest protective and offensive association, which
shocked us as outsiders so much that we spoke of a ‘structure of
terror’’ and thought that nobody could do what they wanted in the
village, but that many more situations were programmed in
advance than was the case in the urban life we knew ourselves. We
learned that these binding forces in village life did not draw their
energy from the present but from the past, and that the forces of
the past continued to exist beneath the surface of the present that
was to some extent ‘cryptic’, but was still of the greatest impor-
tance for the architecture of the village’s present social structure.
This was a decisive moment of recognition. From this point
onwards we divided our efforts. I began with one group of

researchers to reconstruct the village’s historical development;
Albert Ilien carried on with the analysis and description of the
structure of communication in the village today.
Il
The village of Kiebingen belonged to the province of Hohenberg,

which fell, through inheritance, under Austrian rule in the fifteenth
century. Its population then was about 300, but during the nine-
teenth century it began to grow, and had doubled by 1900. To the
south of the village lay a monastery of the order of St Paul, which
cared for the souls of the community but added little to its material
wealth. In 1786 the monastery was dissolved and its estates sold off
as a part of the reforms of the Emperor Joseph II. This event forced
Kiebingen into a new world in which it was no longer protected from
above, but was now responsible for its own actions. It was one of the
decisive impulses that pushed the village towards the new era,
which, perhaps, it has still only partially reached. The other impulse
was the ‘taming of the Neckar’, the attempt, lasting almost the
whole of the nineteenth century, to end the damaging and unpre-
dictable spring floods and to confine the river into a regular and
ordered course. Apart from these influences, there were also
important changes in the legal situation of the villagers with the
abolition of feudal dues, and in the economic opportunities open to
them, as the beginning of industrialisation allowed construction
workers from the village to earn money in Switzerland over the
summer, at the price of being away from home and placing a corre-
sponding extra burden on wife and family. Of course, these
developments were gradual and affected different groups and
families at an uneven pace. We were very careful, therefore, to
describe the traditional rural structure as accurately as possible. We
had to bear in mind that this was itself far from static, but it changed
at a snail’s pace compared with the developments of the late nine-
teenth century, and so it seemed permissible to portray the situation
of peasant labour as in a snapshot, so as to find in it clues to the
mental outlook of the villagers, for their mentality is, even today,
not only open to new behavioural expectations, but is also con-
ditioned by the demands of a peasant economy which was dominant
for centuries and so inevitably rooted itself deep in their psyche.
The traditional peasant village is a community of settlement that

organises itself in such a way that the cultivable land within its
boundaries is farmed to the limits of its fertility. This simple fact
conditions the spatial organisation of the village and the subordina-
tion of its inhabitants to the demands of this organisation, of
course in their own best interests. The three-field system, which was
customary in this region, was considerate to the land: it accepted
that it would become exhausted and needed rest and enrichment,
that nothing came from nothing, and that the land, as the basis of
life, needed and deserved care and attention; that, like human
beings, it would remain shrivelled and impotent if it was stinted or
denied food and nourishment. This alliance of people and land
varied according to the form of settlement. In south-west Germany
the people were housed close together and so enjoyed the advantage
of greater security, or at least of diminished fear. But they were
obliged to pay for the advantage of a close and intensive common
life the price of a more restrictive social order. Land was scarce, so
every metre was exploited; there were rules determining who could
enter whose fields for purposes of harvesting, sowing or muck-
spreading, the division of the three fields was rigidly maintained,
the grazing rights to the meadow were pedantically prescribed, even
the right of exploiting the few public footpaths across the fields for
agricultural purposes was given to the village official as a part of
his wages. Space was narrowly defined and precisely distributed. It
was a house of many chambers, each with its own quality, deter-
mined not only by the fertility of the soil but also by the rights of
access that attached to it; even the places where carts could be kept
were fixed and there were farmers who ploughed their furrows with
curves that were not only elegant in themselves but also had the
incidental effect of exploiting the straight lines of the field boun-
daries for their own very practical benefit.
Fences, hedges, gates and boundaries played a dramatic role in
the life of the village. Invisible but by no means imaginary lines
divided the space; just as the way over the fields, which could be
trodden only after the harvest had been gathered in, was visible to
the villagers the whole year round, so too were the unmarked pews
in the church, allotted to the village families according to their
current ranking in the village hierarchy. At funerals the whole
village lined up in a long procession led by the local notables and
the relatives of the deceased and so down through the different
steps of the social ladder to the village paupers, who, on this day,
were provided with bread*from the deceased’s house. As in the

village and its fields, so too in every individual house there was no
free disposition over space. Everything had its place; the garden
was structured and programmed, not only in the use of fruits and
vegetables, but even in the flowers grown there: certain families are
praised in Kiebingen even today for growing simple country
flowers, while others are condemned for their arrogance because
they insist on growing showy roses in front of their houses. The
division of the rooms was preordained, as was the nature of their
furnishings. Even if there was no strict division between the parts
of the sitting-room used on workdays and the parts used on holi-
days (as there was, for example, in the Hungarian village of Atanyi
studied by Edit Fél and Tomas Hofer) still, it was clear which part
of the room was to be used for which task, who sat where at meal-
times, and who gave the command to be seated or to rise at the end
of the meal. In the Hungarian village of Atanyi, for instance, the
table was a particularly revered piece of furniture at which no task
involving dirt or mess could be performed and where, conse-
quently, children were not allowed to sit. Thus a local farmer could
say, ‘We loved our daughter so much that we even let her sit at
table.’® The table did not play this role in Kiebingen, but signals
were given to cease using it, such as putting on the tablecloth or a
crotcheted covering, which announced that this particular piece of
furniture was not suitable for daily use. Thus every piece of furni-
ture had its fixed disposition, and the space within the room was
divided into small zones, distinct and distinguishable in function
and task, which constituted an order in the minds of the inhabi-
tants, and assigned each thing, each beast, each person a particular
place.
In south-west Germany forms of common property and work
had not really emerged: instead whatever had been gathered up and
held together despite all obstacles in one generation had to be
divided up every time among the next. Every child received the
same portion of fixed and moveable property as an inheritance.
Binding together and tearing apart was the perpetual motion that
shook these families to their foundations with a force that was
often hard to bear. If the spatial system was oriented towards hav-
ing and holding, binding and sealing, the generational system was
larded with the bitter compulsion of tearing it all asunder.? Being a
citizen of the village meant having property. Property was inherited
from parents and in-laws, but it went to brother and sisters too,
and, with old age, to the children once more. ‘Have you divided up
your property then?’ was the question that was asked in Kiebingen
of every family whose members appeared to get on with one
another reasonably well. Jealousy and ill-will have not departed
even today; there are still parents who only communicate with their
children through a lawyer, and brothers in the same line of business
who poach each other’s customers by lowering their prices, even at
the risk of their own financial collapse. Nowadays one might be
justified in calling such behaviour neurotic: in rural society it was
far from irrational, however: it was rightly said that ‘a brother is a
brother and a field a field’. Such a sentiment was one of the main
rules of the practical philosophy of social action: generosity was
too expensive to afford, mistrust was better. Boundaries were
drawn between people as sharp as those on the ground, and they
did not stop short of feelings and emotions, but regulated and
ordered them through utilitarian calculation. With 10 hectares, so
goes another saying, you don’t need love; others say, with 10
hectares love will come unasked-for.
The village is strict, it cannot afford to show mercy. It needs
order so that it can regulate the intercourse of its meagre space and
its teeming inhabitants.. The village has devised elaborate systems
for ordering its affairs, taken them into service and maintained
their existence. To the three-field system, which organised the space
within its boundaries, corresponded a code of behaviour in the
village and within the home, a code which, for all its rigidities, none
the less holds for us today a certain dignity, even a seductive degree
of security. Like the village land, so too the life that depended on it
was a whole, knit together by innumerable threads of custom and
order. Everything had its measure and stood in an observable
relation to the measure of other things:!° the size of the table to the
size of the family; the number of milk-churns standing in the yard
to the number of cows standing in the stall; the height of the hay-
rick to the potential number of calves to be raised; the logs in the
woodshed to the cold of the winter; the flour in the sacks to the
number and size of the family’s hungry bellies; the number of
children to the number of fields and to the hopes or fears of the
farmer and his wife at the prospect of a perilous and uncertain old
age.!!
Just as space was divided by boundary lines, so too was time.
The course of the day, of the year, of life itself, was structured by
boundaries. Isolated experiences and perceptions were impossi-
bilities: bad weather in the morning accounted for anger the next
evening, despondency the next month and the danger of hunger the
next year. The rules of the village were thus not — as the discipline
of Volkskunde once maintained — the interplay of customs per-
formed by peasants in traditional costume like picturesque folk-
dances; they were choreographed by poverty and fear, and led by
cold, sickness, hunger and death. The strictness of the rules was a
necessity of life: no one could sit out this particular dance or any
part of it. It was called to the tune of economic circumstances, even
if long practice had given it cultivated forms, which at key
moments of life, such as baptism, marriage and death, found
modalities of emphasis and depth which we observe with admira-
tion today, which bound individual memories into the collective
experience. They gave meaning to a life which was exhausted itself
within the bounds of a simple village existence, but which none the
less was experienced by some as rich and beautiful despite all its
harshness. Whether or not this village life was less complex than
our own less closely-knit, more open world of experience, it was
certainly taken as a matter of course, as self-evident as bicycling is
for us, a skill which, once learned, is automatically exercised by
body and brain, and only surfaces to consciousness when we meet
an obstacle or fall off.
The system of rules which governed life in the peasant village was
thus not separate from life or observable as something discrete, but
was part of life itself, as natural as the air we breathe. The certainty
of appropriate social behaviour was like a sixth sense; the order
imposed by village society was carried out as naturally as smelling
or hearing. For this reason, it was necessary for the people who
moved in this social landscape continually to take stock of their
position and report it to their fellows. The current meaning and
importance of a moment in time or a social space were transparent
to the eyes of the villagers. The almost supernatural significance
possessed by boundary marks even today has its expression in the
condemnation of those who transgress them.!? Such people com-
monly suffered a fate in fairy-tales far worse than that of mothers
who killed their infant children. Similarly, there were marked and
easily-definable boundaries set to the use of time, so that the
working day, the working month and the working year were clearly
structured and set in an observable relationship to periods of rest
and breaks, which were most commonly announced by visible or
audible signs, such as the ringing of a bell, the saying of a prayer,
the position of the sun, or the appearance of children bringing’

supper out to the fields.
The material world was also filled with such signifiers of order.
As in the Schwalm district of Hesse,'? so too in the Tiibingen area
the clothes a person wore presented their own form of social appro-
priateness. A girl’s status and age, but also her possible state of
mind, whether sorrow or joy, would be announced to all by what
she wore. Traditional peasant costume was at its most elaborate in
the form it took when the wearer went to Mass. As late as the 1960s
the ethnographer Martha Bringemeier had difficulties in obtaining
access to these dresses even though it was only for research
purposes, for they had, as the peasant women said, ‘experienced so
much blessing’ that it was impermissible to desacralise them by
profane study. Clothes were inextricably associated with the
occasions on which they were worn. These associations determined
the outward appearance of the village and the physical expression
of its rules in many situations. The honour of the house demanded
that the house wife wear an especially elaborate costume on
Sundays, just as a relatively poor artisan in the Hungarian village
of Atanyi said to his sons: ‘Mark you well, you can save money on
your stomach, but not on your clothing, everyone sees that.’!* Such
an order of priorities is difficult for us to grasp, so closely bound
are we to the idea of ‘eat first, then think about morality’. But one
can easily imagine that in Atanyi and similar places, the hunger of
people’s eyes for the visible world exceeded that of their stomachs
for that which could be eaten.
Martha Bringemeier has described how in the Schaumburg area
wedding dresses and mourning dresses came with the same trim-
mings. How the bridal procession trod the same path as funerals
took; and how the same neighbour whose duty it was to drive the
hearse was also expected to take charge of the bridal cart.'® Life’s
grandest moment, the ceremony that brought the quality of life to
its highest point and property and possessions to their greatest
extent, was placed in a clear and self-evident relationship to the
moment when the amplitude of maturity, and indeed of life itself,
came to an end. Material objects were not only representations of
needs but also guides through life, to a certain extent a catalogue of
collective memories, bringing before people’s eyes the prospect of
how life would proceed and how it would eventually come to an
end. A particularly striking example is the trousseau which girls
made for themselves in preparation for their own life’s destiny. On
276 ~The Rules of the Village
their wedding day it was displayed in an open cupboard or trunk,

and it was not just there as a sign that all was well and ready, for
next to it were also placed the clothes of the as yet unconceived and
unborn child and the fittings for the funeral bier.!’? These objects
were mute appeals for an appropriate attitude to the different
stages and situations of life: the trousseau, for example, was to a
degree the programme for the role which a woman was expected to
perform. The wedding guests inspected these goods not because
they wanted to know how wealthy the farmer’s daughter was —
they knew that already; they inspected them because they wanted to
know whether she had as much as they knew she should have.'* The
peasants saw in this ensemble of bedclothes and table linen,
bonnets and mourning clothes, the whole of their common life’s
course laid out before them, a course, that ran from point to point
without deviation, and could only be changed or frustrated by
accident or disaster. Of course, these signs were planted out in a
bed of obligations that left little room for independent decisions.
Such obligations were exercised not only in the degree and
organisation of labour demanded by the division of the fields, or in
the tasks that were to be done when the weather was good or bad;
they appeared also in the tools used in these tasks, in the clothes
worn for them, even in the hours of leisure, which were also filled
with orders and rules.
Il
All this gave a high degree of similarity to the life-histories of all the
village’s inhabitants. It also gave them security. The predictability
of life was the best insurance against shocks and surprises. Mem-
bership of a particular family was already a prediction of a certain
specific future for a child: knowledge of its parenthood gave every
villager the ability to make prophecies, the accuracy of which
would be the envy of every fortune-teller. They knew how much
land the child would one day own, how rich he or she would be,
into which social group he or she would marry; the occult powers
of the Eve of St Thomas when, standing naked and throwing a log
behind her, allowed a village girl to see the future,!® were seldom
frustrated, for the choice of possible suitors was not large and if the
log could never conjure up a fairy prince, it could at least conjure
up her own subconscious preference for Miiller’s Fritz or Meier’s
Franz. Naming him was to name a known degree of satiety, the

fatness of the body, the number of pearls on the necklace, the pew
in the church, the chances of being elected to the local council and
even, finally, the sentiments to be expressed in the funeral oration.
The certainties of life’s plan affected all in equal degree: every
villager’s life depended on the family he or she was born into, and
that in turn determined the size of the fields and the richness or
poverty of the farm.
The village universe had two dimensions, that of the citizen who
belonged to the village and had equal rights and duties as such, and
that of the property owner, which was not really a single dimension
but rather an extraordinarily fragmented and splintered terrain.
However similar the activities the villagers undertook, however
great the communality of legal practices, it made a decisive
difference in the end whether someone had five cows to milk or
only one, whether he could drive one cow or five onto the common
to graze. While there was a collective Kiebingen mentality, formed
by shared experiences in the struggle with nature, in the sufferings
of war, in the fear of illness and death, there were also sub-cultural
mentalities within it, which did not of course overturn this collec-
tive dimension, but none the less broke it down to fairly small
proportions. There was a peasant way of life, but for the internal
structure of the village it was only of secondary importance:
property was the decisive factor. Just as the nature and division of
the land speaks volumes about the character of the village, so the
extent of landed property gives the essential information about its
village owner. Landed property was the central, determining
feature of life, it laid down how large the house and outbuildings
were to be, so that all the produce of the land could be stored in
them, it controlled whom a man married — a woman with a large
dowry or a small one — it determined if a farmer could hire a horse
to draw his plough and cart or not, if his family was well fed, if the
living-room was warm in winter, if his children could be attended
to or whether they had to be neglected, if meat could be served on
Sundays or whether vegetables or broth had to do. In Kiebingen
there were three main groups: those who owned more than 3
hectares of land, who never had to worry for the basic necessities of
life, and formed a kind of village élite; those who owned between |
and 3 hectares or earned an equivalent living through artisan pro-
duction and domestic industry, who may be described as the
middling group of villagers; and the large number of the village
poor, with less than 1 hectare a piece, who lived in perpetual hard-
ship and uncertainty, and often had no idea where their next meal
was coming from. These three groups to some extent formed
separate social milieux within the village; the barriers between the
lowest level and the rest were very real and even grew harder as the
nineteenth century progressed; while the village élite married
almost exclusively among themselves, at least until the late 1860s.”!
Property relations thus divided the villagers into separate groups
who found it far from easy to integrate one with another.
In south-west Germany, indeed, the poorer peasants so clearly
lived below the poverty line that it would have been surprising that
the villagers kept the peace for so long had they not experienced the
social hierarchy of the village as something preordained. Social dif-
ferences appeared to them as natural as sexual differences: or, to
put it another way, having was a decisive aspect of being, posses-
sion of existence; a villager might perhaps filch a furrow from a
neighbour’s field for a time, but to ask why he had more land was
unthinkable. Questioning the system of land distribution in a
fundamental way was as absurd as questioning the weather. Such a
rigorous ordering of society could only be sustained by strictness. It
seems, at first sight at least, as if the village children had no diffi-
culty in accustoming themselves to the village order, though they
had reason enough to rebel. There were occasional flare-ups, but
they were not regarded as genuine rebellions by the village, rather
as suckers on a rose, or untidy growth on a bush, to be clipped back
into order at the earliest opportunity. Yet to my mind it must have
been far from easy to have been pulled through a needle’s eye of
this kind, and our impression now, after two village studies, is that
the placid surface of everyday life concealed violent eddies and
turbulences of the psyche whose number was far from insignifi-
cant.”
The peasant village found an interesting way of creating distance
from some of its members while keeping them within the commu-
nity in the case of the village idiots. They may have been mocked
and stigmatised — though no villager would admit it — but they
were always supported by the community. They were classified as
nature’s mistakes; they were not regarded as sick, and because of
this they were not carted off to the asylum. A grain of madness had
its place in everyday village life too: village stories indicate how
demoniacal and supernatural forces led an accepted existence
within the community alongside ultilitarian and reasoned, causal
interpretations of the world.”? What Max Weber called the ‘demys-

tification of the world’ enthroned rationality in the place of magic,
but it also necessitated the drawing of sharp boundaries between
the rational and the irrational. In the cosmic universe of the village
these boundaries were vaguer and less severe. Some fears and
tensions at least were allowed, just as religion spun a web of belief
over the world that gave life if not security, then at least an
unquestionable meaning and importance.
Much of what appears nonsensical to us had a function of its
own in the old village life. The obsessional interest and engagement
that appear even today when the question of how land is divided is
a burdensome and continuing bequest of the three-field system. It
has become as problematical today as the traditional relations of
the sexes, which rested on the belief that only one person could
have the say in running a farm, that this person had to be a man,
and that only he could be a citizen with voting rights in the com-
munity. Women had rights to accompany their duties, but these
were subordinate to those of men, a fact reflected in the place they
occupied at table” as it was in the time they got up in the morning.
Villagers interacted with their children — on a level less conscious
and more apparently natural than that of deliberate education, a
level perhaps even more decisive for the development of future
generations — in such a way as to ensure the reproduction of the
ability to master the numerous ambivalences of village life: thus
certain ways of behaving could be experienced as completely dis-
crete and separate from one another, demanding no fully consistent
personal reaction. A peasant child had to learn how to accept a
brother or sister as a working partner and at the same time fear him
or her as a competitor for the inheritance. Such a splitting-up of the
personality was necessary in many situations. In a long term per-
spective this mixture of demands from the social environment and
dependence on it for a particularised character structure appeared
‘normal’; these ambivalences constituted the consistent element in
the peasant character. A life-history in our sense did not need to
form a logical whole; rather, the vicissitudes of the surrounding
environment, of weather and season, provided the mould in which
such a life took on what only we regard as a contradictory, incon-
sistent shape.
Indeed, remarkedly enough, the strict rules of the village could
only be maintained by transgressions. As soon as we begin to look
through village archives, we find an extraordinarily striking
number of offences recorded in the files:?5 quarrels and feuds, and

property and sexual offences are in the great majority. They are not
the outcome of pranks, follies or a free-floating communal
mentality. They are the product of the most bitter poverty and
distress; and sexuality, in these straitened and legally-restricted cir-
cumstances, was sometimes no less hungry for gratification than
the appetite was for food. Destitution of whatever kind called forth
its auxiliary troops, whose transgressions set in motion a whole
process of investigation, prosecution and expiation that continually
reinforced the correctness and validity of the rules they sought to
break. Even those who lived on the margins of village society took
part in this process; they acted as living examples of what could
happen if the rules were disobeyed. Kiebingen’s paupers, for
example, were permitted to go from farm to farm on Fridays, —
‘beggar’s day’ — to kneel at the door and intone the Lord’s Prayer
in return for a bowl of soup or a piece of bread: they were not
merely the bit-players in the social drama of the richer farmers’
charitable deeds, they were also a lesson to children in the home
who were inclined to put a pretty face above a well-manured field
when it came to choosing a marriage partner. The village paupers
also documented the consequences of idleness and depravity. They
were maintained in the community as living witnesses of these
things, as warnings to deter others from becoming like themselves.
Compassion could thus be maintained in the village according to
rules established by custom. On the other hand, so too could the
severity with which a day-labourer’s wife, caught pulling a few
handfuls of grass from the meadow’s edge to feed her hares, was
denounced to the authorities. Charity was one thing, property
another. In its dealings with outsiders the village displayed all the
roughness of its hierarchy of values in a way as far removed as
possible from comradeship, sensitivity or community spirit. This
system of values had developed in such a way that spontaneous,
independent-minded compassion was possible only at an unaccept-
able cost for the individual who chose to exercise it. The villagers
said, ‘I can’t harvest a good heart’,”° and the present-day observer
must learn to understand such a statement in a sense disassociated
from morality, for the armies of beggars that invaded the village,
the numberless thefts that despoiled its fields, made property
owners all the more avaricious in the fear that they would them-
selves sink down into the ranks of those who were forced to glean
food for their animals at the dead of night, or even to wander from
house to house collecting stale bread and leftovers for their own
sustenance. It was the danger of falling into such an abyss that
made the barriers between the different kin-groups — or in our
own parlance, social strata — in the village so watertight. Those
who nevertheless fell through the occasional gaps in them served as
a permanent warning to others not to suffer the same fate. The
propertied inhabitants of the village knew at the bottom of their
hearts that these social failures were basically the same as they
were, they had just made a fatal mistake, and this knowledge
inflated their fear to vast proportions, overcoming every tempta-
tion to break the rules even for a moment, even if they would have
enjoyed doing so.
This function of those who otherwise had no function in village
society was generally accepted and maintained. Village outcasts
and drop-outs were treated harshly, but they were not abandoned.
The village idiot, the village whore, the thief and the beggar were
socially despised and could be badly treated, but they were not
banished from sight, as occurred with the institutionalisation of the
poor, the criminal and the handicapped in the city. The village
accepted them as a kind of counter-image of the proper order of
things. Just as the trousseau cupboard of the farmer’s daughter
confirmed this life as a good one, so too did the face, furrowed
with the effects of drink and worry, of the beggar who was main-
tained in the poorhouse with his wife and children at the expense of
the community. Like holy untouchables, the despised in the village
community were honoured, they were useful for the experience of
their uselessness, their shattered existence enabled the more pros-
perous to contain their own secret desire to break out of the mould
of village life, and to connect this desire in their minds with the
unhappy fate of those outcasts who seemed to have succumbed to
it.
Perhaps this also helps explain why rebellion within the village
was invariably interpreted as the outcome of unhappy fate and
failed ambition, so that rebels were rendered harmless because their
rebellion could never become a model, but always, in this scheme
of interpretation, remained a warning and a deterrent. The
inherited ‘right’ way of doing things did not allow the emergence of
new ‘alternative’ ways; those who refused to tread the known paths
of village life could only be thought of as having lost their way.
This open rebellion could only find satisfaction through emigration
to the city or across the ocean. ‘Inner’ rebellion, the way to self-
destruction through suicide; was so strongly despised within the

village that one might almost suspect that the temptation to take
this way out was very widespread, and had to be countered by
especially strict taboos. We encountered suicides again and again in
the archives and the memories of the villagers. In the end, however,
these radical outsiders, who were serious in their criticism of the
narrowness and violence of the village rules, were themselves
evidence for the strength of village orthodoxy, which continually
demanded new sacrifices in order to prevent the emergence of
heresy.
IV
The fear of deviance from the village norms called forth such
rigorous preventive measures because, in the end, the danger of
deviance was growing steadily greater. The decline of village life
could already be observed in the nineteenth century: today it has
been shaken to its foundations, and little remains of the earlier
order of things in the villages of our own time. The ties that once
bound life and work so tightly together have been broken, and only
fragments remain, often with a significance that bears little relation
to their former meaning. Humanity has changed the environment
more rapidly than it can itself adapt to it. There are different
rhythms in history; the world is not everywhere turned upside down
at the same pace or at the same time. Such irregularities can create
problems of course, but they can also help and protect those whose
lives are subject to such drastic changes by allowing them gradually
to alter the direction of their journey when it threatens to go the
wrong wa’.
The integrity of village life has been broken, and an element of
closeness, familiarity and security of intercourse has been lost. Yet
there has been a corresponding gain in freedom of choice as well.
The old system of village rules was not the product of chance, but
the creation of the village economy — in this case based on the
requirements of the three-field system. The material productive and
reproductive conditions of village life have been revolutionised:
very few of the villagers are engaged in agriculture today, the off-
spring of once-prominent farming families now work in factories
and the few remaining full-time farmers have put their farms on a
business footing and have long since ceased to be the undisputed
leaders of the village community. The spatial divisions of the

village are no longer sacred: every field can now be reached by a
made-up road, and no one is outraged nowadays when one of the
part-time farmers exhausts the soil with a two-crop rotation such as
wheat and maize because it is easy to harvest with a combine and
only needs making up with chemical fertilisers until such time as it
can be sold for a housing development. There is no longer any
village court to prosecute such transgressions — if such they still
are — and disapproving looks glare today only from older eyes.
The new landowners, who have often consolidated their holdings
or even bought them where possible, are in any case beyond this
measure of good and evil. The field-watcher has gone to work in
the factory, and the disruption of the rhythms of the soil is cured by
chemistry, rather as the villagers now treat their own troubles with
pills. The fields have changed their appearance. Land is no longer
an obsession, a god before whom all bend the knee; it is a posses-
sion, cultivated with new, less intense, more diffuse emotions.
At the same time, the principle of profit and loss has not proved
completely victorious. The part-time farms are uneconomic not
only by European Community standards but even by the concrete
measure of the hourly income they generate. Indeed, as business
propositions they are an absurdity. Yet everyone who possesses one
strives to retain it, even, if possible, to extend it. If one has land,
then it cannot simply be left untended. New forms of loan or
mutual aid have evolved to cope with this situation. A seed-drill or
a tractor can be borrowed in exchange for help in building a house
or in harvesting the corn, a cartload of dung is available at the price
of a day’s work in digging up the turnips. The contempt of the
traditional village inhabitants is still visited on anyone who neglects
his land; the general view is that he would do better to rent it out to
someone who would make better use of it. Of course, no one tells
him so to his face, instead, the opinion of the village is expressed in
his absence, in the village inn, where, it is assumed, there are suffi-
cient prying ears and loose tongues to carry it further, until it even-
tually gets back to its object. Yet even village gossip — the neces-
sary instrument by which transgressions of the village rules are
recorded and in this way simultaneously punished — no longer
functions as directly as it used to. It is now possible to live in the
village without belonging to it, though only for outsiders. The
villagers themselves still leave for other parts if they want to be
different and live in another way than the rules prescribe; but the
new immigrants cannot be: harmed by gossip and intrigue; they

never even get to hear of it.
Of course, there are villages that have lost their character by
increasing immigration, but as we later began to study another
village near Tiibingen, we were surprised to find that here too, just
as in Kiebingen, the old mechanisms of inclusion and exclusion, of
belonging and not belonging, were still in working order. We con-
ceived the idea of basing an exhibition on this new project, in co-
operation with the village inhabitants along the lines of other local
history studies.2”7 We deliberately chose not to work with a pre-
selected group. We were deterred from this course by our experi-
ences in Kiebingen, where we had run around in circles for a year
because one kin-group had sent us from one relation to another
without our noticing it, so that we were quickly put down as sup-
porters of this particular family network and only received infor-
mation from other groups in the village in a form directed at and
filtered by the one into whose hands we had inadvertently fallen. At
the beginning of the new project, therefore, we put up informal
green notices and issued an invitation in the parish magazine
announcing an open meeting in the fire station, which everyone was
welcome to attend. About 15 people turned up, but only two of
them obviously belonged to the ‘old’ village: one, a financial civil
servant, who looked after the local archive, regarded our project
with some mistrust as a rival undertaking to his own; while the
other, who had been wounded in the war and retired early from his
job with a war pension, was a kind of janitor who was there to
watch over us, our actions, and the information provided by his
fellow-villagers. The rest were all marginal figures, standing
between the village and the world beyond, who saw in us a chance
to enter the village community through co-operating in our project.
For example, one of our informants was a German refugee who
had fled from Yugoslavia at the end of the war. He would not have
dared come on his own but the war pensioner brought him along
and so he felt able to join us two ‘chiefs’ on the table at the end of
the hall, facing the audience — although he was all too easily
pushed aside from this rather small piece of furniture by our
elbows. He described with pride how, on his arrival from
Yugoslavia, he had learned the names of all the villagers off by
heart, and claimed that he thus knew more than many an old
villager and was therefore indistinguishable from the original
inhabitants in every respect. This declaration occasioned a glance at
me from the war pensioner, Herr Walter, which refuted it com

pletely, though without causing any upset to the refugee, who did
not notice it. The look told me that no one could learn their way
into the village community, it could only be joined through a life-
time’s experience. A village woman who worked with us was appa-
rently able to do so only as an appendage of Herr Walter. When-
ever she gave us some information, it was always with the words
*, . . wasn’t that so, Walter?’ He was the notary who had to seal
her every word with the stamp of approval, and was thus always
able to reject it. When we met one evening in the village inn to
discuss possible new collaborators, every name suggested by the
woman was rejected by the men under the leadership of Herr
Walter: the selection of the informants was clearly the men’s job.
Even as we had begun to arrange this meeting in the inn, there
had been curious confusion. We had chosen the place, and no one
had objected at first, but all of a sudden we were told that Herr
Walter could not come on the evening in question, he had another
appointment. The woman, who knew Herr Walter’s pietistic disin-
clination for evenings in the inn, then added, ‘I don’t much like
going into pubs.’ She could, of course, say this as a woman, but it
was difficult for a man to utter such a sentiment without becoming
known as a ‘Holy Joe’. So Herr Walter immediately denied any
aversion on his part, and declared himself willing to arrange
another time for a meeting. This he did, and turned up at the inn
with two old people from a neighbouring village as companions.
They were both well-regarded figures in the village; one was the son
of an innkeeper. This demonstrated that Herr Walter had nothing
against pubs, but nevertheless he spent the whole evening drinking
fruit juice, thus indicating his inner distance from pub life. While
his right hand was raised to confirm the oath, his left, in other
words, remained with fingers crossed behind his back.
A certain ambivalence was obviously necessary in this business
because we researchers were requesting co-operation on the one
hand, while the village was requiring solidarity on the other, and
had to agree on what to tell us and what not, and why some things
had to be kept secret while others could be revealed. To begin with
only Herr Walter was prepared to accord us an individual inter-
view: otherwise everyone was accompanied by a witness, for
safety’s sake, as the villagers must have seen it. So we experienced
right from the beginning the continued presence and control of the
suspicious village super-ego, watching jealously over the
boundaries between the community’s inner life and the outside

world. Our most spectacular experience of this was with Herr
Werner, a German refugee from the East who had married into a
well-respected village family. In the very first meeting in the fire
station he boasted of 3000 slides he had taken of the village, and we
urged him to show a selection from them in public — we wanted to
use the visual memories they would conjure up as a means of stimu-
lating better and more detailed discussions of the old days than we
had so far managed to evoke. The refugee agreed straight away,
though I imagine the other villagers at the meeting cast all sorts of
warning glances that we were unable at the time to notice or
interpret.
We announced the slide-show in grand style, along the lines of
the first meeting, but when the day came Herr Werner said he could
not come, and so we were unable to do anything; the fire station
was embarrassingly full, and we had little to offer save excuses. As
we promised to show the slides at the next meeting, someone from
the audience said no one had seen them (an assertion which, idioti-
cally, stimulated our ambition to show them still further). We were
also told that if we wanted to have Herr Werner appear on time, we
had to fetch him from his house an hour in advance — a coded
warning which we were also unable to pick up. Instead, I was
foolish enough to take this literally, and sent a student collaborator
to get Herr Werner as suggested, an hour before the meeting —
once more widely advertised, and even better attended than before.
Just before the show was due to begin, the student appeared in dis-
may to inform us that Herr Werner was sitting at home, half-
dressed and as drunk as a lord, surrounded by heaps of slides and
obviously incapable of doing anything with them. We had dis-
regarded the warning signals given to us and demanded of him far
more than he could deliver. I went to his home and made him come
to the meeting.
The evening was a complete fiasco. To begin with the projector
could not be plugged in because there was no extension lead, then
the carousel box for the slides could not be found. Finally, when all
the technical details had been arranged, it became clear that Herr
Werner was no longer capable of working out which way up to put
the slides in. I tried — like a typical town-dwelling academic, I
would say today — to rescue our project by trying to put the blame
on our victim: Werner had let us down, would have kept us waiting
had we not gone to fetch him and so on. But the atmosphere in the
fire station was hostile: we had made one of the villagers appear
ridiculous. In the village people enjoy observing the weaknesses of
others, especially when they come from outside, and they had
indeed come for just such a purpose; but the weak are protected at
the same time from the eyes of strangers, whom such matters, it is
felt, do not in the end concern. The village — even this village,
where there were scarcely any farmers left and people worked
mostly in the surrounding towns — still possesses the strength to
defend itself against inquisitive strangers and pushy newcomers.
The village still exists, now as before, as a communicative structure
with its own domestic and foreign policies, and even if the latter is
more pacifically inclined than was our experience in the second
village we studied, one should still have no illusions about its
effectiveness.
These may not be ‘facts’ as far as historians are concerned, they
are not even the products of the conventional methods of oral
history, but are experiences emerging from the confrontation
between a researcher and his field. They are to a certain extent just
the accidental by-product of a researcher’s misfortune and incom-
prehension. The rules of village life nowadays are no longer con-
fined to the village itself, they are to be found in Common Market
regulations, Education Acts, industrial relations, church policies
and the like, in far more amplitude, detail and consistency. But if
we want to find out how village people live within the rules, and
how they deal with them, then we need to employ, I believe not
only the tools of social history, but also the methods of ethno-
logical research.
Notes
1. Ina Maria Greverus, Der territoriale Mensch (Frankfurt, 1972).

2. Mario Erdheim, Die gesellschaftliche Produktion von Unbewusstheit
(Frankfurt, 1983).
3. Albert Ilien and Utz Jeggle, Leben auf dem Dorf (Wiesbaden, 1978), p. 98.
4. Wolfgang Kaschuba and Carola Lipp, Déorfliches Uberleben (Tiibingen, 1982).
5. Edit Fél and Tamas Hofer, Bauerliche Denkweise in Wirtschaft und Haushalt
(Gottingen, 1972); and idem., Gerdte der Atdanyer Bauern (Copenhagen, 1974).
6. Ilien and Jeggle, op. cit.; see also Utz Jeggle, Kiebingen — eine Heimatge-
- schichte (Tiibingen, 1978); and Albert Ilien, Prestige in dorflicher Lebenswelt
(Tiibingen, 1977).
7. Ilien and Jeggle, op. cit. The concept would not be sufficiently ethnological for
me today, it denies the double character of these ties that not only bind but also
secure, and so possess not so much a terroristic as a protective nature.
8. Fél and Hofer, op. cit., p. 350.

9. It would be very useful to undertake a parallel project to our Kiebingen study
in an area of primogeniture, where there are suggestions that the mental structure of
sibling relations and generational conflicts are difficult. Se Otto Baer, Die bduer-
liche Familie im Realteilungsgebiet und ihre soziale Sicherung, (PhD thesis,
Tiibingen, 1956); and Helmut Rohm, Die Vererbung des landwirtschaftlichen
Grundeigentums in Baden-Wiirttemberg. Forschungen zur deutschen Landeskunde
(Remagen, 1957). The latest and very exact community study by Kurt Wagner on the
north Hessian village of Kérle also deals with an area of partible inheritance and
comes to comparable conclusions (PhD thesis, unpublished Kassel, 1984).
10. Many examples of this are in Fél and Hofer, op. cit.
11. Utz Jeggle, ‘Vom richtigen Wetter’, Kursbuch, 64 (1981), pp. 115—32.
12. E.g. Friedrich H. Schmidt-Ebhausen (ed.), Schwdbische Volssagen
(Struttgart, n.d.), pp. 104-13.
13. Martha Bringemeier, Mode und Tracht (Minster, 1980), pp. 40—72.
14. Ibid., p. 66.
15. Fél and Hofer, op. cit., pp. 332-3.
16. Bringemeier, op. cit., pp. 63, 60. On wedding dresses in general, see Martha
Bringemeier, ‘Die Brautkleidung im 19. Jahrhundert’, in Martha Bringemeier et a/.,
(eds.), Museum und Kulturgeschichte. Festschrift fiir Wilhelm Hansen (Minster,
1978), pp. 299—320.
17. On the trousseau, see Fél and Hofer, op. cit., pp. 328-9.
18. The importance of the measure is made clear by Hofer and Fél, ibid. See also
Max Bartels, ‘Volks-Anthropometrie’, Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde 13, pp. 353—68.
19. Karl Bohnenberger (ed.), Volkstiimliche Uberlieferungen in Wiirttemberg
(Stuttgart, 1961), pp. 300-1.
20. For further, more detailed information, see Kaschuba and Lipp, op. cit.
21. On the general development of agriculture in this period, see H. Haushofer,
Die deutsche Landwirtschaft im technischen Zeitalter (Stuttgart, 1972).
22. Unfortunately we have no statistical information on the number of psycho-
logically-disturbed people in the village, and though we constantly encountered
them in the files, it is not easy to make an historical diagnosis. It is probable all the
same that the strict rules of the village often prevented the emergence of true
psychoses.
23. The theories of folk-tales that interpret ghosts as aspects of persecution mania
must be tested again to discover the extent to which ghosts can be understood as the
incorporation of a moment of insanity into everyday life. This is not without its
dangers, but neither is the sharp division of mortality and immortality as practised
in present-day western cultures. Cf. Friedrich Ranke, ‘Sage’, in John Meier (ed.),
Deutsche Volkskunde (Berlin, 1926), p. 208.
24. For two such seating orders, see Scharfe et al., Heitere Geftihle bei der
Ankunft auf dem Lande (Exhibition catalogue, Tiibingen, 1983), p. 37.
25. There were 370 offences in Kiebingen between 1826 and 1871. The number of
offenders involved was 148. Up to 4 or 5 separate cases involving the same person
are common above all in begging and sexual offences. Comparing this with an esti-
mate of the village population gives a figure of 15 per cent, or on in seven, involved
in conflicts with the law in this period. One might say this was one in every family, if
we did not know that most families contained no offenders, and a minority con-
sisted of nothing but offenders. Cf. Jeggle, op. cit., p. 266.
26. This saying was told us by an older villager; such formulae are very common
in the village. Speech itself is standardised in many respects, because the frequent
recurrence of the same situations allow appropriate verbalisations to be transmitted
from generation to generation.
27. Utz Jeggle, ‘Geheimnisse der Feldforschung’, in Heide Nixdorff and Thomas
Hauschild (eds.), Europdische Ethnologie (Berlin, 1982), pp. 187-204. On recent

problems of ethnological field studies, see Utz Jeggle (ed.), Feldforschung (Unter-
suchungen des Ludwig-Uhland-Instituts, 62, Tiibingen, 1984).
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Cathleen S. Catt was born in 1953 and studied European History at

the University of East Anglia, where she is currently preparing a
doctoral dissertation on ‘Family, Land and Occupation: German
Rural Society in the late Nineteenth Century — the Example of
Maudach in the Lower Palatinate, 1840—1900’. In 1984 she gained
her Diploma of Education. She now teaches History at an Upper
School in Bury St Edmunds.
Ian Farr was born in 1951 and studied Modern History at the
University of Durham. In 1972/73 he was Research Assistant at
University College, Lampeter. Since 1976 he has been Lecturer in
European History at the University of East Anglia. His publica-
tions on Bavarian peasant society and politics in the nineteenth
century have included articles on the Peasant Leagues and on
‘Haberfeldtreiben’, the German charivari.
Gisela Griepentrog was born in 1935 in Fiirstenwalde on the Spree

and took a degree in Enthology at the Humboldt University in
Berlin in 1957. She is the author of Historische Volkssagen aus dem
13.—19. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1975) and of a contribution on family
life in the Magdeburger Borde, written as part of the collaborative
project on the area in progress at the Central Institute for History,
at the Department of Cultural History and Ethnology, in the
Academy of Sciences of the GDR, Berlin, where she has been on
the staff since 1975.
Willian W. Hagen was born in 1942 and studied at Harvard and the
University of Chicago. He is the author of Germans, Poles and
Jews: the Nationality Conflict in the Prussian East 1772—19]14
(Chicago, 1980) and a number of articles on aspects of the rural
social history of early modern Brandenburg. He is currently pre-
paring a book on manor and village in Brandenburg from the six-
teenth to the nineteenth centuries. Since 1970 he has been teaching
at the University of California, Davis, where he is currently
Professor of History.
Hartmut Harnisch was born in 1934 and studied Geography,
290
Notes on Contributors 291
History and Archival Science at the University of Greifswald and

the Humboldt University, Berlin. He gained his doctorates from
the University of Rostock in 1964 and 1978. After working as an
archivist from 1959 to 1973, he moved to the Academy of Sciences
of the GDR, where he is currently on the staff of the Institute for
Economic History. His work, for which he was awarded the René
Kuczynski Prize in 1978, has included Die Herrschaft Boitzenburg
(Weimar, 1968) and other studies of agrarian history in the
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. His most recent book is
Kapitalistische Agrarreformen und _ Industrielle Revolution
(Weimar, 1984).
Christel Heinrich was born in Bernau, near Berlin, in 1931 and has
been on the staff of the Academy of Sciences of the GDR, where
she is currently a member of the Department of Cultural History
and Ethnology in the Central Institute for History. She holds a
degree in Ethnology from the Humboldt University and is the
author of contributions on migrant labourers and on family life
and festivals in the multi-volume study of the Magdeburger Borde
currently in progress at the Institute.
Utz Jeggle was born in 1941 and studied at the Universities of

Tiibingen, Bonn and Vienna. In 1968 he gained his doctorate with a
thesis on Jewish villages in Wiirttemberg, and ten years later was
awarded his second doctorate for Kiebingen — eine Heimatge-
schichte (Tiibingen, 1977). Since 1981 he has been Professor of
Empirical Cultural Studies at the Ludwig Uhland Institute,
University of Tiibingen.
Wolfgang Kaschuba was born in 1950 and studied political science

and empirical cultural studies at the University of Tiibingen, where
he gained his doctorate and is currently a member of the Ludwig
Uhland Institute. His work on community studies has included
collaboration on a book about the ‘red’ village of Méssingen and
its general strike against Hitler, Da ist nirgends nichts gewesen
ausser hier (Berlin, 1982), and two books co-authored with Carola
Lipp, 1848 — Provinz und Revolution (Tiibingen, 1979) and
Dérfliches Uberleben (Tiibingen, 1982).
Hainer Plaul was born in 1937 and studied Philosophy and Eth-
nology at the Humboldt University, Berlin. He gained doctorates in
292 Notes on Contributors
1966 and 1981 and has published studies of trivial literature in

eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Germany, J/lustrierte
Geschichte der Trivialliteratur (Leipzig, 1983) and rural society in
the’ Magdeburg region, Landarbeiterleben im 19. Jahrhundert
(Berlin, 1979). Since 1966 he has been a member of the Central
Institute for History of the Academy of Sciences of the German
Democratic Republic, in the Department for Cultural History and
Ethnology. He has contributed a number of articles to the
collective work in progress on the history of the Magdeburger
Borde.
Regina Schulte was born in 1949 and studied History, German and
Sociology at the Universities of Bonn and Munich. In 1977 she
gained her doctorate with a dissertation on prostitution in nine-
teenth-century Germany, Sperrbezirke: Tugendhaftigkeit und
Prostitution in der biirgerlichen Welt (Syndikat Verlag, 1979).
From 1982 to 1984 she held a Research Fellowship at the German
Historical Institute, London, and she is currently Assistant in the
Institute for History of the Technical University of Berlin. Her
work on peasant society in Bavaria has appeared in a number of
journals and collections.
Gerhard Wilke was born in KGrle, Hesse in 1948, left school in 1962
and served an apprenticeship as a butcher. He went to Ruskin
College, Oxford in 1969 and studied Sociology and Social Anthro-
pology at King’s College, Cambridge from 1971 to 1974. He is at
present Lecturer in Sociology at a College of Further Education in
London. Together with Ernst Parkin he published a study of the
major plays of Samuel Beckett, ‘Schluss mit Warten’, in Das Werk
von Samuel Beckett (Suhrkamp, 1975). His research on the oral
history and historical anthropology of the village in which he grew
up has been presented in a number of articles and contributions,
including radio and television broadcasts for the Open University.
INDEX
Abel, Wilhelm, historian 5—6, 8, 38, Separate entries

48, 95n7 animals, draught 45, 49, 54, 174-5,
abortion 191, 217—9, 221 201
absolutism 43, 48, 53, 57, 61, 72-3 see also horses, oxen, Spanndienst
see also enlightened despotism anthropology xii, 1, 11, 25, 266
Academy of Sciences (GDR) xii, 12, antimodernism 15, 18
290-2 see also tradition
Ackermann, Paul, historian 2 antisemitism 198
age, the aged, 14, 100n59, 122, 139, Anti-Socialist Law 127
145—6, 181, 189, 191, 250-1, Arbeitsleute see casual labour
269, 273 aristocracy ix, xi, 41, 44, 64, 74, 90,
agrarian constitution 93, 95n6
(Agrarverfassung) 4 see also estates, Junkers
agrarian history (Agrargeschichte) army 73—4, 147, 150, 228
3—8, 13, 20, 39 see also conscription
Agrarian League (Bund der Arnim, Count von, landowner 59
Landwirte) 16 arrests 60, 82, 184
agrarian reforms (Bauernbefreiung) see also crime
xii, 4—5, 7, 12, 37—67, 72, 103, arson 122, 126, 150
243, 270 see also fire prevention
provisions of 64—5, 90, 99n54, artisans 98n45, 118, 133, 159, 175,
101n74 207, 241-4, 258-9, 277
in South Germany 59, 243, 270 see also craftsmen
agricultural council (Landwirtschafts- Assling 162
kammer) 239 Association for Combating Infant
agricultural revolution 6, 75 Mortality and Increasing Milk
see also mechanisation Consumption (Verein zur
agricultural surplus 46, 48—9, 59, 80, Bekdmpfung der Sduglingsster-
82, 102, 119 blichkeit und zur Forderung des
allotments 109, 113—4, 118—20, 127, Milchverbrauchs) 208
175 Atanyi 272, 275
Alltagsgeschichte (history of every- Atzendorf 226—7
day life) 11 Aufhiitungsberechtigung see grazing
alms 58—9, 186, 191, 280 rights
see also poor relief Austerlitz, battle of 65
Altbrandsleben 211 Austria-Hungary 208, 270
Altenweddingen 222n14 auto-consumption 23
Altmark 42, 44, 49—50, 62-3, 65, see also subsistence
78 Azande (African tribe) 196
Altsitzer (retired farmers) 100n59
Amberger, Michael, Mayor of Bagemiihl 55
Maudach 147 Bahrendorf 216—7
America, United States of 13, 17, bailiffs 87, 90, 94, 100n59
25n3 bakers 244
Ampfurth 211, 216—7 Baltic 39, 43, 49-50
aniline dyes 157n53 barbers 147
animal inspectors 147 barley 55, 60, 80—2, 87, 98n42,
animals see livestock; see also 100n61, 119, 123
293
294 Index
BASF (Badische Anilin- und Soda-* Buidner see cottagers

fabrik) 132, 143 Biih! 269
Bassewitz, Baron Magus von, builders, building 83, 86, 118, 133,
Prussian official 56, 63, 89 195, 239, 242—4, 246-7, 251-2,
Bauer see peasant 255, 259-60, 263, 268, 270, 283
Bauernbefreiung see agrarian reforms bureaucracy 25, 45—6, 62, 72, 74,
Bauernroman see rural novel 149, 153-4
Bauernschutz see protection of Burmeister, Dr., physician 209, 211
peasants Biisch, Otto, historian 73
Bavaria 12, 19, 130—1, 134, 137, butchers 146, 244, 246
148, 153, 156n21, 158—73, 252 butter 119, 164, 190, 212
beer 60, 87, 119, 123-4, 227, 230-1 see also dairy farming
beetles 141
begging 163, 247-8, 262, 280-1 cabbages 239
Behre, Otto, statistician 98n42 Calbe 219
Bergholz 55 camomile 189
Bergregal see mining tax canals 55
Berlin 39, 44, 46, 49-50, 53-5, cancer 194, 197-8
57-8, 63, 73—4, 80, 84 capitalism x, 7, 9, 21, 23-7, 37, 72,
berries 160 89, 92, 102-3, 106, 113, 117,
Berthold, Rudolf, historian 54, 66, 175, 177, 201—2, 209, 221, 225,
96n19, 101n74 249, 262
Beyme, Cabinet Councillor 63 see also markets
Bible, the 184 carpenters 133, 143, 159, 244, 247
births, birth rate 133, 145, 165, cash crops 106, 131, 140
173n42, 191, 206, 217, 221 see also markets
Blackbourn, David, historian 130 casual labour 174
Black Fens 137 see also labourers, migrant labour,
Blum, Jerome, historian 46, 75 seasonal labour
Boitzenburg 58—9 Catholicism 150—2, 220, 238, 267-8
Bolsheviks 14 see also Church
Borchardt, Knut, historian 95n6 Catt, Cathleen S., historian ix—xi,
Borstler, Jakob IV, field-watcher 150 xiii, 32n64, 129—57, 290
Bossong, Heinrich, teacher 147, 151 cattle, cows 52, 54, 87-8, 158-9,
Bottmersdorf 222n13, 224 163, 174-5, 212-3, 239, 242,
bourgeoisie 8, 41, 64, 66--7, 254-5 250, 273, 277
Brandenburg xi, 39—101 see also dairy farming, oxen
Braudel, Fernand, historian 240 cavalry contribution (Kavalleriegeld)
Braun, Rudolf, historian 29n33 oy/
bread 74, 119-20, 123, 142, 211, cemeteries 107
229, 272, 280-1 census 20, 23, 205
breast-feeding 156, 208, 211-2, Centre Party 130, 152-3, 238
222nn13—14 charivaris 198
Brenner, Robert, historian 75, 95n7 cheese 119, 164
Breslau (WrocYaw) 49—50, 68n28 see also dairy farming
brewers, brewing 60, 87—8 chemical industry 132, 142
bricklayers 133, 143, 159, 243-4, 247 chickens 119, 159, 164, 226
Briest 55, 57-8 chicory 106, 123
Bringemeier, Martha, ethnologist 275 child labour 46, 65, 122, 160, 247,
Britain, Great 25n3, 50, 129, 154 253
see also England children 46, 65, 122, 160, 182, 229,
brothers 79, 87, 170, 193-6, 246, 240, 247, 251, 253, 266, 273,
279 275, 279
Brunschwig, Henri, historian 72—3 choral societies 102, 152, 227, 230
Index 295
Christmas 227 cottagers (Budner, Hdusler,

Church 84, 123-5, 150—2, 174, 181, Kleinbauern, Ziegenbauern) 42,
220 Mey2285.238n2 26238, 271, 47, 91, 98n45, 101n74, 104—S,
QT T2387 159-60, 175—80, 185, 188,
see also religion 200—2, 205—6, 212-3, 224—34,
class 8.123325» 1077117, 126—7 246, 250
150—4, 176-81, 190—4, 198, cottages, tied 47, 105, 117-8
200, 202—3, 209, 236, 241-2, cotton 121
252, 256, 258—61, 268, 277, counter-revolution 127
280-2 courtship 182—4
class conflict 8, 107, 117, 126-7, see also marriage
150—4, 177-81, 200, 209, 236, cow-farmers (Kuhbauern) see
258—61, 268, 280—2 smallholders
clergy 123—4, 267 cowherds 102, 141
see also pastors, priests cowsheds 45, 164, 166, 168, 273
clothes 10, 11, 60, 114, 116, 121—2, craftsmen 118, 143, 145, 159, 175,
166, 189, 228-9, 275-6 225, 239, 246-8, 255, 258-9
clover 52, 112 see also artisans
clubs (Vereine) 152, 177—9, 227, 238, crime 122, 168, 247, 281, 288n25
see also theft
crop rotation 21, 46, 54, 74, 81, 87,
coffee 60, 119, 123, 211—2, 230 91, 112, 156, 283
collectivisation 22 see also three-field system
common land 46, 53, 56, 79, 103, crop yields see yield ratios
105—7, 111, 118, 126, 141, 239, curd 212
260 curses 190—4
see also enclosure custom xi, 4, 42, 82—3, 127, 186-7,
common rights 182, 184—5, 249-51 248, 273, 280
communications 44—5, 50, 54—5, 59,
82-3, 107, 114, 143, 238 Dackelmann, Minister 92
see also canals, railways, road dairy farming 81, 87, 120, 175, 211,
construction 239
Communist Party of Germany see also butter, cattle, cheese,
(Kommunistische Partei milk
Deutschlands, KPD) 177-9, Dambeck 49
239 Dannstadt 142
community xi, 8, 21, 22, 24, 40, Dargard 99nS0, 53
175-7, 180—1, 192, 200, 211, darning 166
223n39, 228-9, 236-7, 241, Darré, Walther, Nazi agrarian
254, 285-6 specialist 19
commutation rent (Dienstgeld) 81—6, day-labourers (Einlieger, Tagelohner,
89, 93 Tagner) 47, 88, 100n59, 102—28,
see also feudalism 133—54, 158, 168, 242, 244-7,
Confirmation 227 2520255 257 58259),203, 280
conscription 125 see also labourers
conservatism 2, 8, 153-4 deaths 133, 145, 191, 274, 277
see also tradition see also mortality
contraception 219 debt 56, 142
cooks 164, 166, 226 demography 5—6, 11—12, 14, 24,
co-operatives 20, 211—2 67n13
corn 40, 43, 77, 108—10, 113, 119, Denmark 21, 24
140, 160, 164, 242, 250, 283 depression, agricultural 131, 249
see also barley, oats, rye, wheat Depression, the (1928—33) 16, 19,
costume (Tracht) 121, 275 240
296 Index
Deputatlandarbeiter see labourers estates 37—128, 140, 225-6

deviance 181—4, 187, 193, 199, 247, number and size 23, 44—5
252-7, 278-82 estate system (Gutsherrschaft) xi,
Dienstgeld see commutation rent 37-101
diet see food see also feudalism
Dipper, Christoph, historian 73 Etgersleben 216—7
diseases ethnology (Volkskunde) xi—xii, 2, 9,
animal 164 12, 20, 30n38, 266, 274
crop 142 European Community 269, 283
human 178, 188—203 eviction (Exmission) 52, 61, 86
see also illness exploitation 5, 9, 74, 107, 117, 178,
distilleries 87 200, 209, 211
district president (Landrat) 62, 73 exports (grain) 74
dockers 132
Dodendorf 216—7, 222n14 factories, factory workers 108, 111,
Domédnendmter see royal demesnes 114, 133—45, 175, 201, 205, 211,
Domersleben 216—7, 226—7 213, 217, 225, 239-40, 245-6,
domestic servants 211, 219, 227 251, 255), 2024 252
see also maidservants see also industrialisation, worker-
dowry 167-8, 171, 227 peasants
Dreihiifner see full peasants Fahrenwalde 55
drink, drunkenness 122—4, 150, fairy-tales 10, 274
157n67, 180, 226, 253—4, 281, fallow 46, 52—4, 81, 91, 112
285-6 family 9, 22—3, 24, 46, 115, 122,
see also beer, schnaps, spirits 125, 132, 139, 147-8, 161, 168,
drivers 87 195—6, 205—6, 211-3, 216—21,
224-34, 240, 242, 245-7,
East Anglia xiii, 26n3, 137 250—1, 254, 257—8, 262, 277,
East Elbia x—xi, 7, 13, 16, 23-4, 284
37-101 see also brothers, grandparents,
East Prussia 37, 42, 49, 56, 63-4, inheritance, sisters
92-3, 98n37 farms
Ebersberg 162 number, in Germany 23
education 25, 103, 146—7, 149, size 23, 44-7, 90, 137, 159,
151—2, 188, 228, 252-3, 268, 174-5, 179, 205, 216, 224,
287 277-8
Eggenstedt 211, 216 see also estates, peasants
eggs 119 Farr, Ian, historian ix, x, xiii, 1—36,
Einlieger see day-labourers 130, 290
Elbe, river 38, 43, 50, 77, 82, 102 fascism 16—18, 133, 220
elections see also National Socialism
local 147—8, 260, 269 fat 120
national 152—3, 177, 239 Federal Republic of Germany xii,
enclosure 90—1, 105-7, 126—7 1-2, 7+8, 11, 15, 18, 25n3,
Engels, Frederick 8 129-30
Engelsmann, Robert, demographer Federsdorf 55
217-8 Fél, Edit, ethnologist 272
engineering 132 fertilisers 52, 54, 111—2, 283
England 21, 37, 48, 52, 105, 114 fertility 145
see also Britain festivals 11, 19, 121, 124, 161, 201,
Enken see servants 236
enlightened desotism 53, 72—3 feudalism, feudal dues and rights
Erbstandsgeld see purchase fee 4-5, 7, 9, 37-101, 103, 109,
ESRC xiii 241-2, 270
Index 297
commutation of dues 61—2, 64, Gebhardt, Philip, farmer 150

75—6, 81, 89, 102 geese 164
see also commutation rent, estate Gerichtsherrschaft see legal feudalism
system, Junkers, labour German Democratic Republic (GDR)
service, legal feudalism, xli, 7-8, 11-12, 23, 25n3
serfdom German Empire (Kaiserreich) 18,
field judges 253—4 129-30
field-watchers 141, 149-50, 236, 243, German nationalists 177
283 German Peasant Federation
fire prevention 58—9, 122, 147 (Deutscher Bauernverband) 2
fish 119, 185 Gerschenkron, Alexander, historian
flax 114-5, 121, 124, 131, 138, 140, 16
166-7, 236 Gesindeordnung see Statute of
floods 136, 270 Labourers
flour 119, 273 Gesindezwangdienst see service
fodder 52, 54, 82, 124 obligation
folklore xii, 2, 10, 11, 20, 236, 266, Gies, Horst, historian 19
274, 288n23 Ginkel, Johann, Mayor of Maudach
see also ethnology 147
folk medicine 188—203, 219 gin threshers 112
folksongs 10, 226—7 gleaning 122
food, meals 10, 74, 108—9, 114, 116, Glovzin 98n39
119-20, 123, 137, 142-3, 146, Gnauck-Kiihne, Elisabeth, social
159, 161, 166, 178, 180, 183, investigator 213
185—90, 193, 199—200, 211-2, goat-farmers (Ziegenbauern) see
223-6, 229-30, 275, 277, 280 cottagers
foremen (Statthdlter) 81, 87 goats 119, 159, 175
forest see woods godparents 176—7, 227-8
foresters 88, 158, 184—5 Goldbeck, Grand Chancellor of
foster-parents 170 Justice von 63
France xi, 11, 22, 37, 129, 131, 154, gooseherds 141, 163
208 gossip 168—9, 178, 181, 195—6, 261,
Frankfurt am Main 46 269 283
Frankfurt an der Oder 49 Goubert, Pierre, historian 11
fraud 122 grain 40, SO—1, 53-5, 74, 81, 98n42,
free peasants (K6/lmer) 41-2 141-2
Friedrich II, King of Prussia 61, 85, see also corn, Markets, prices
90-2, 98n32 Gramzow 55-8
Friedrich Wilhelm II, King of grandparents 169—70, 206, 219, 262
Prussia 62, 71—2, 92 grazing rights (Aufhtitungsberech-
Friedrich Wilhelm, III, King of tigung) 53—4, 88, 103, 271
Prussia 62 Griepentrog, Gisela, ethnologist x,
fruit 55, 120, 159, 164, 272 xii, 12, 205—23, 290
Fulda, river 174 Grimme 55
full peasants, large peasants grooms 117
(Dreihiifner, Hufenbauern, Gross Germersleben 216—7
Pferdebauern, Vollbauern) Grossmiihlingen 224
46-7, 49-50, 77-94, 96n19, Gross Ottersleben 209, 211
98n45, 174-80, 182—4, 187-8, Gross Salze 220
198, 201-3, 205—6, 212, Grotjahn, Alfred, public health
224-34 propagandist 211—2
funerals 271—2 Grundherrschaft (definition of) 40
furniture 10, 118, 211, 225, 227, 272 see also feudalism
furrows, crooked 181, 271, 278 Gruner, Anton, Mayor of
298 Index
Maudach 147 Hobsbawm, E. J., historian 21

Gruner, Johann, Mayor of Maudach Hofdienst see manorial service
147 Hofer, Tomas, ethnologist 272
Gruner, Johann Jakob, innkeeper Hohenberg 270
151 Hohendodeleben 216—7
Gruner, Peter, Mayor of Maudach honey 164, 189
147 hops 166
Gutsherrschaft see estate system horse-farmers (Pferdebauern) see full
Gutsuntertdnigkeit see subjection to peasants
the estate horses 45, 81—3, 87, 89, 141, 174,
Guxenhagen 201 277
gymnastic clubs (Turnvereine) 152, hours of work 114, 124—5, 142, 164
238 house and field tax (Hufen- und
Giebelschoss) 57
Hadmersleben 216 household 21, 167—8, 180—203, 207,
Hagen, William W., historian ix—xi, 214
xiii, 71-101, 290 houses, housing 10—11, 108, 116,
Hakeborn 222n14 118, 142, 146, 174, 181, 225,
Halberstadt 50, 52, 65, 209 283
Halle 208 housework 160, 163
Hamburg 44, 48 Hoym, Prussian Minister 92
hares 185, 280 Hufenbauern see full peasants
Harnisch, Hartmut, historian ix, x, Hufen- und Giebelschoss see house
xii, 7, 37-70, 74-7, 91, 96n19, and field tax
290-1 Hungary 267, 272, 275
harvests, harvesters 20, 53, 56, 75,° hygiene, public 156—7, 209
83, 86, 88, 102, 109, 113, 127,
158, 160, 164—6, 236, 271, 280 idiot, village 281
Haushofer, H., historian 6—7 Ilien, Albert, teacher 266, 268—70
Hausler see cottagers illegitimacy 134, 162, 167, 169—71,
Havel, river 44, 48 173n42, 218-9, 247-8, 256-7
hay 160, 164 illness xi, 162, 178, 180, 188—203,
health xi, 125, 136, 146, 186, 251, 277-8
188—203 see also diseases, health, medicine,
see also illness mental illness
heart failure 194 Imperial Association of Large
heating 122 Families (Reichsbund der
hedges 271 Kinderreichen) 220
Heim, Josef, railway worker 255—6 implements, agricultural 10, 81, 250,
Heim, Wendelin, labourer 249 276
Heinrich, Christel, ethnologist see also mechanisation
ix—xii, 11, 224-34, 291 imprisonment 82
Heitz, Gerhard, historian 39, 48 industrialisation x, 2, 7, 9, 14—15,
Henning, Friedrich Wilhelm, 39, 49, 107, 109, 115, 129—30,
historian 48 132, 154, 160, 174—6, 180,
herbs 189 202-3, 257, 263
herdsmen 87 infanticide 274
Hesse xi, 174—204, 275 infant mortality 145, 208—13
High Court (Kammergericht) 43, 62, inflation (1914—23) 16, 19, 79, 218
82-6, 89, 98n32 Ingersleben, Kammerprdsident von
Hintze, Otto, historian 72 45-6
Hippocrates 199 inheritance 4, 136, 161, 171, 182,
hiring days 161, 166, 187 193, 209, 279
Hitler Youth 184, 236 impartible 102
Index 299
partible 138-9, 144, 242, 272-3 Kriegervereine see veterans’ clubs

innkeepers, inns 133, 143, 157n67, Kuczynski, Jiirgen, historian 66
177, 183, 187, 225, 236, 239, Kuhbauern (cow farmers) see
246, 253—4, 256, 269, 283, 285 smallholders
insurance 122, 146, 162 Kulturkampf (religious conflict)
Italy 18 150-2
Kummermehr, Georg, Mayor of
Jacob, William, writer 46 Maudach 147
Jeggle, Utz, ethnologist x—xiii, 11, Kummermehr, Johann, Mayor of
265-89, 291 Maudach 147
Jena, battle of 65 Kunstle, Regina, railway worker 225
Jews 198 Kurmark 44—5, 52, 56, 64—5
Joachimsthal Grammar School
(Berlin) 49 labourers x, 23, 38, 46, 52-3, 74, 76,
job-changing 127, 161, 245 91, 103-28, 134, 219, 224-34,
joiners 246 238-9, 242
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 270 see also casual labour, day-
Judt, Tony, historian 1, 17-18 labourers, migrant labour,
Junkers (estate owners) xi, 13, 16, seasonal labour
71-101, 112-3, 127 labour service 45—6, 71-101, 103,
Justice Ministry (Prussia) 91 254
with draught animals (Spanndienst)
Kammergericht see High Court 43, 45—6, 49, 53, 58, 75, 77,
Karstadt 98n39 82-3, 89, 94, 101n74
Kaschuba, Wolfgang, ethnologist x, Ladurie, E. Le Roy, historian 11
xii, 11, 156n21, 235-64, 291 landlords, estate owners ix, 16,
Kassel 174-6, 201 37-101, 107
Kavalleriegeld see cavalry see also Junkers
contribution Landréte see district presidents
Kiel 218 Landreiter see sheriff
kinship 190, 201, 206, 229, 258-9, Landstdnde see Provincial Estates
269, 281, 284 land tax (Kontribution) 57
see also family lard 119, 190
Klein Miihlingen 224 large peasants see full peasants
Klein Oschersleben 216—7 Lassiten see usufructory holders
Klein Wanzleben 224—5, 227, 230-1 law, litigation 43, 53, 71-2, 82—94,
Kleist, Colonel Andreas von, 150, 162, 254, 273
landowner 79 League of Catholic Women
Kleist, Major Friedrich von, (Katholischer Frauenbund) 238
landowner 79, 82—9, 97n32, League of German Girls (Bund
98n39, 99n50, 100n57 deutscher Mddchen) 236
Knapp, Georg Friedrich, historian leaseholders (Zeitpachtbauern) 42, 44
4—5, 38, 40, 63, 72-3, 96n11, Lebus 55
101n74 Lee, W. Robert, historian 12
Knecht see servant Leeds, A., sociologist 22
Kocka, Jiirgen, historian 14 legal feudalism (Gerichtsherrschaft)
Kolbach 158 103
Kollmer see free peasants Lehnsschulzen see village mayors
KO6nigsberg (Kaliningrad) 50, 68n28 leisure 107, 274, 276
Kontribution see land tax Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich 7
Koppelwirtschaft see crop rotation lentils 100n61
Korle xi, 174—204, 288n9, 292 Levine, David, historian 251
Kossdten see smallholders liberalism 72, 152
Kosselleck, Reinhardt, historian 73 lighting 122
300 Index
linen 52, 121—2, 124, 166-8 187-203, 213, 221

Lithuania 64 see also folk medicine, health
livestock 52, 54, 108, 115, 117, 119, Medick, Hans, historian 30n38
_ 124, 160, 167 Meichow 55
see also animals Meinecke, Friedrich, historian 72
living standards 106, 114—6, 127, 206 mental illness 194—6, 278,
see also poverty 288nn22—3
loam 137 mercantilism 72—3
see also soil quality metallurgy 74, 111, 118, 244, 247
Lécknitz 55 Metzkorngeld see military levy
Liibbenau 55 mice 141, 236
Liidersdorf 55 middle peasants see smallholders
Ludwigshafen 131—2, 138—40, 143, midwives 170, 217
145 migrant labour 23, 105, 125, 143—4,
Ludwig Uhland Institute xii, 267, 291 206, 242, 246-8, 250-3
Lusatia 55 see also seasonal labour
Liitge, Friedrich, historian 4, 95n3 migration 32n64, 60, 118, 144-5,
Luther, Martin 199 161, 249, 281
Liitzlow 55 military levy (Metzkorngeld) 57
milk 119—20, 138, 142, 163, 212,
Médgde see maidservants 239, 273
Magdeburg xii, 23, 50, 52, 65, 102, mills, millers 169
106—7, 205, 210, 225, 230 mining tax (Bergregal) 41
Magdeburger Bérde xii, 60, 102—28, miscarriages 217—9
205-34 see also abortion
magic 188—94, 199, 279 Mittelmark 78
see also religion, superstition Mittelstand ix, 9, 154
maidservants (Mdgde) 46, 87, 102, modernisation 13, 15, 17—18, 25
108—9, 116—7, 158—73, 239, 245 Mohr, Martin, field-watcher 149—50
Main, river 43 moles 191
maize 283 monasteries 242, 270
malnutrition 189—90, 266, 274 moral economy 178, 181, 185, 200,
Mang, J., economist 137 254
Mannheim 131, 149 morcellisation 139, 242
manorial service (Hofdienst) 77—8 see also inheritance
see also labour service mortality 145, 208-16
manure 52, 54, 83, 183, 271, 283 see also infant mortality
markets 21, 24, 38—67, 102-3, 106, mowers (Schnitter), mowing 104—5,
109, 138-9, 174-6, 212, 244 164, 236
marriage 107, 125, 133, 138, 145, Miller, Hans-Heinrich, historian 54,
153, 158—73, 181—2, 193-4, 66, 75
198, 219, 224—34, 248, 251, Miiller, Michael, thief 150
254—8, 260, 262, 274-8 Mundenheim 143
Martiny, Fritz, historian 95n6 Munich 147
Marxism 7--8, 13, 17 Mutterstadt 143
Maudach x—xi, 129—57
Max Planck Institute, Géttingen Napoleonic Code (Code Civil) 131,
29n38 138-9
Mayor, Georg, thief 150 Napoleonic rule in Germany 59, 89,
meat 119—20, 164, 186, 230, 277 93, 103, 130-1
mechanisation 6, 20, 109, 112-5, nationalism x, 4, 177
123, 176, 179, 206 National Liberal Party 152—3
Mecklenburg 41 National Socialism 10, 15—16, 18—19,
medicine, medical care 146, 130, 198, 202, 206, 235-7, 241
Index 301
peasant resistance to 19 63, 132-3, 235

peasant support for ix, 18-19 > Peasant War (1525) 8
177-9, 184, 198, 235 peat 55, 138-9, 141
see also fascism, Third Reich Peseckendorf 216—7
Neckar, river 237, 270 pests 142, 147
neighbours 168 Petersen, economist 137, 139—40
Netherlands 37 petty-bourgeoisie 14
Netze, river 64 Pferdebauern see full peasants
Neuhaldensleben 210, 213 piecework 107, 113, 115, 120, 123,
Neumark 42, 45, 50, 56, 64 127
Neustadt 149 pigs 45, 54, 119, 164, 172n23, 175,
newspapers 178 186
Niederbarnim 44 Plaul, Hainer, ethnologist x, xii, 8,
nightwatchmen 141-2, 147, 149 11, 32n64, 102—28, 291-2
North, Douglass C., historian 75 ploughing, ploughmen 10, 83, 87-8,
nurseries 209 108, 112, 176, 236
nutrition see food pneumonia 189—90
poaching 185
oats 80—2, 87, 98n42, 100n61 Poland, Poles 40, 43, 56, 113
Ober-Appellations-Gericht see Royal police 84, 122, 147, 149, 151, 184-5,
Court of Appeal 247
Oggersheim 150 politics ix, 1-2, 8—9, 13, 15—16, 18,
old age see age 21, 25, 148, 177-81, 200,
onions 140, 156n21, 189 239—40, 259-61, 267-8
oral culture and tradition 10, 183, see also elections
200, 265-6 Pomerania 37, 41—2, 44—5, 56, 61,
oral history xii, 175—6, 178, 180, 64, 92-3
188, 201, 203, 205, 224, 231, 267 poor relief 142, 147, 162, 186, 191,
orchard (Worde) 54 249, 254, 271-2, 280-1
orphanages 220 see also alms
Osterweddingen 216, 222n13 population 5—6, 38, 50, 52, 91, 109,
overcrowding 118, 125, 142, 146, 209 118, 132—3, 205—23, 242, 246-7
oxen 45, 47 potatoes 52, 54, 100n61, 114—5,
119-20, 123, 127, 137, 142, 150,
Palatinate x, 130-1 156n21, 160, 239
Upper 162 Potsdam 50, 55, 68n28
Paris 22 poverty 5, 115—6, 142, 145-6, 162,
parish registers 20 175, 180, 200—1, 242-3, 254,
pastors 184, 228 274, 278
see also Protestantism see also living standards, poor
pasturage 46, 79, 243 relief
patriarchalism 63, 161, 178, 247, 260 pranks (Streiche) 182—5, 187, 198,
patrimonial courts 42, 82 280
Patriotic Women’s Association pregnancy 162, 165, 170, 190-1,
(Vaterlindischer Frauenverein) 212, 217-8, 228
219 see also illegitimacy
payment in kind 109, 113-—S, Premslin 98n39
118-21, 141-2 prices 5, 50—1, 53, 55, 57-8, 60, 73,
peas 100n61, 166—7, 186, 283 79—80, 87, 98n42, 106, 114, 141,
peasantry 239
definition x, 22, 134 priests 267
large, middle and small see full Prignitz 42, 44, 49, 55, 65, 77, 84,
peasants, smallholders 89-90
supposed characteristics x, 8—9, Pritzwalk 89
302 Index
productivity 21, 73-4 French (1789) 37, 62

profit 52, 56, 75, 79, 87—8, 106—7, German (1848) 24, 126
111-2, 114 German (1918) 16, 219, 260
property 4, 41-4, 116, 181, 255, Russian (1905, 1917) 14
257-9, 272-3, 277-8 Rheinschanze 132
protectionism 16—24 Rhine, river 37, 43, 131
protection of peasants (Bauernschutz) Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich, ethnoligist
43 9
Protestantism 16, 150—2, 174, 197, riots, uprisings 74, 127
199, 220 ritual 10, 178, 181—2, 191-2. 201,
see also religion 251
proto-industrialisation 73—4, 129, road construction 107—8, 147, 160,
175 250
see also secondary income Rochow, F. E. von, landowner
Provincial Estates (Landstdnde) 41, 47-8
57 Rosenberg, Hans, historian 4, 72
Prussia xii, 7, 37-128, 205—33 Rosenkranz, Hieronymus, farmer
Ministry of Agriculture 177 147
Ministry of Justice 91 Rostock 39
‘path’ of agriculture 7, 21 rotation of crops see crop rotation
Rural Health Council 217 Rottenburg 238, 268-9
punishment, corporal 82, 103, 184 Royal Court of Appeal (Ober-
purchase fee (Erbstandsgeld) 64—5 Appellations-Gericht) 83
Ruppin 49, 55, 91
quilting 122 rural novels (Bauernromane) 9
Rusinski, WYadysfaw, historian 43
rabbits 220 Russia 14, 22, 208
racism 10, 220, 236—7 rye 55, 57—8, 77, 80—3, 87, 98n42,
Raidt, Paul, local councillor 261 100n61, 120, 123
railways, railway workers 107-8,
143, 227, 239, 244, 246-7, 250, Saale, river 50
254-6 Sabean, David W., historian 29n38
rapeseed 112 sabotage 127
rats 191 Sack, Joachim, historian 97n20
Redfield, Robert, political scientist salt 119, 229
21 sanitation 146
refugees 284, 286 sausages 182—3, 186—7
register of feudal rights and dues Saxony 41, 50, 55, 209, 215
(Urbarium) 85—6, 91—2 Scharwerk (feudal dues) see
Regulation Law (1811) 90 feudalism
Reith, Konrad, priest 151 Schaumburg 275
religion 8, 24, 107, 147, 150-2, 188, Scheel, Heinrich, historian 66
279 Scheibel, Georg Adam, field-watcher
see also Catholicism, pastors, 150
priests, Protestantism, Schissler, Hanna, historian 56, 73
superstition Schleswig-Holstein 18—19, 49
Remkersleben 216, 222n14 schnaps 87, 123—4, 137-8
rents 5, 40, 49, 58, 76, 81, 88, Schénebeck, 220
105-6, 114—5, 127 schools see education
reputation 170—1, 176, 178, 181, 260 Schormayer, farmer 158
resistance, rebellion xi, 60—7, Schroetter, Baron F. von, Prussian
71-101, 107-8, 110, 126-7, official 63
150—3, 252, 260—1, 278-82 Schulte, Regina, historian x, 23,
Revolution 158—73, 292
Index 303
Schiitz, Kammer prdsident von 61—2 201-2, 205—6, 213, 224—34

Schwalm 275 small peasants see cottagers
Scotland 21 Smith, Adam, philosopher 74
seamstresses 229, 239, 245 smiths 133, 143, 244
seasonal labour 23, 81, 88, 91, 105, social control 163, 181, 193, 228,
108—9, 112—3, 115, 125, 174, 247-8, 253, 260, 263
206, 242, 250 Social Democratic Party of Germany
see also casual labour, migrant (Sozialdemokratische Partei
labour Deutschlands, SPD) 152-4,
secondary employment 48, 52, 177-9, 220, 239
174—5, 180, 200, 212, 239, 242, social history 1—3, 11, 14, 266
248 social imperialism 130
see also worker-peasants social mobility 13-14, 111, 245, 258
seed 56, 81 social welfare 208, 213, 219-20, 240,
Segalen, Martine, historian 242 260
serfdom, serfs ix, xi, 4, 38-97, 103 see also poor relief
legal definition 98n45 sociology 1, 7, 13, 16, 266—8
see also feudalism Sohlen 216-7
servant books (Gesindebticher) 108 soil quality 46, 52, 54-8, 60, 131,
Servant Improvement Societies 136-7, 151, 271
(Dienstbotenverbesserungs- Sonderweg (German ‘path’) 15—16
vereine) 108 Sosser, Johann, field-watcher 149—50
servants, farm (Enken, Knechte) 46, soup 280
75, 81-3, 87, 102, 104, 107, sources 20, 46, 48, 67n14, 176
D4 S116; 1208125, 5127-9134, South Germany x, 24, 59, 129-73,
159, 168, 253 234-87
see also maidservants sowing 46, 54—5, 80, 87, 236, 271
service obligation (Gesindezwang- Spanndienst see labour service
dienst) 98n45 Speyer 134, 147
settlement policy 47, 81 spinning 122, 166, 183, 236
sewage 209 spirits (Branntwein) 119, 157n67,
sewing 166 230-1
sextons 84 see also schnaps
sexual division of labour 113—5, Spittelsberg 169
164—5, 186, 212, 279, 285 sport 179
see also women Spree, river 44
sexual morality 125, 162—3, 169-71, stables, stable-hands 45, 102, 117,
182—4, 193, 197-8, 228, 247, 165—6, 181, 191
254-7, 280—2 Stddtische Kammereien see urban
see also illegitimacy boards
Shanin, Teodor, sociologist 22 Stassfurt 219—20
sheep 40, 52, 54, 87 Statute of Labourers
sheriff (Landreiter) 84 (Gesindeordnung) 53, 98n45,
shoemakers, shoes 159, 166 104, 107-8, 160-1
shopkeepers 114, 143, 145, 153, 245 Stauber, Heinrich, teacher 151
Shorter, Edward, historian 262 Stavenow xi, 76—101
Silesia 42, 45, 47, 50, 52, 60, 64, 74, steam threshers 109—10, 162, 165
84—5, 92-3, 98n37 Stein, Baron vom, Prussian minister
sisters 170, 229, 279 65, 93
slaughtering 164, 172n23, 186 Stettin (Szczecin) 50, 68n28
smallholders, middle peasants stillbirths 209—10, 213
(Kossdten, Kuhbauern) 23, 42, see also abortion
47, 64, 77, 98n45, 103, 105-7, strikes 60, 75, 89, 91
139, 167, 171, 174-8, 180, 198, students 267, 269, 286
304 Index
subculture 177—9, 253, 265 tobacco 131, 138, 140, 156n21

subjection to the estate Toennies, Ferdinand, sociologist 180
(Gutsunterdnigkeit) 64, 98n45 towns 48, 57, 68n28, 160, 166, 179,
subsistence 24, 115, 137, 139, 241 208-9, 211
see also living standards see also urbanisation
sugar-beet x, 23, 60, 106—8, 111—4, Tracht see costume
117, 122-3, 126, 156n21, 205, tradition, traditionalism 2, 9, 17,
224, 231 130, 132—3, 153—4, 178, 197,
sugar refineries 106—7, 111, 118, 202, 231, 236—7, 240, 245, 248,
233n39 252, 260—1, 265—6, 270-1
suicide 282 transport see communications
Sunday observance 124—5, 161, 164, tuberculosis 188—90, 196—7
169-70, 253 Tiibingen 238, 267, 275, 284
superstition 188—94, 276 turnips 283
see also magic
Swabia xi, 242, 253 Uckermark 42, 44, 55, 57, 92-3
Switzerland 242, 252, 270 unemployment 125, 160, 175, 206,
symbols 180—1, 185—203, 257, 261 218, 240, 260, 262
Unseburg 216
taboos 190-2, 282 urban boards (stddtische
see also superstition Kadmmereien) 44
Tageloéhner, Tagner see day- urbanisation ix, 1, 13
labourers see also towns
tailors 133, 143 Urbarium see register of feudal
tariffs 16, 24 rights and dues
Tarthun 216, 222n14 usufructory holders (Lassiten) 41-2,
taxation 46, 48, 57, 59, 73, 90, 103, 52, 96n19
134, 144, 245
tea 189 vagrancy 163
teachers 147, 179, 182, 184, 253, 267 vegetables 115, 119—20, 138, 159,
Teltow 44 164, 272, 277
tenure 4, 38, 40—3, 92 Vereine see clubs
Teutonic Knights 41 veterans’ clubs (Kreigervereine) 152,
textile production 74, 244, 247 238
theft 122, 124, 141-2, 150, 183, 254, Vetter, Klaus, historian 72, 92
278, 280-1 Vienna, Congress of (1815) 103
Theobald, Eduard, teacher 151—2 village council (Gemeinderat) 139,
‘Third Reich’ 10, 206, 237 141, 147—54, 178, 248-9,
see also National Socialism 253—4, 256, 259-61, 267, 277
three-field system (Dreifelderwirt- village mayors (Burgermeister,
schaft) 46, 53—4, 79, 87, 90-1, Lehnsschulzen) 42, 147, 162-3,
LOTP27 ly 27S 19 NOS2 260, 267
see also common land, enclosure, villages, communes (Gemeinden,
fallow Kommunen) xi, 24, 38, 44-7,
threshers (Drescher), threshing 47, 54, 62, 71, 81, 114, 126,
81, 88, 102, 104—5, 109-10, 129—57, 161—3, 174-204, 227,
112-3, 115, 117-9, 160, 165, 235-89
236, 253 see also under separate entries
Thuringia 50 vinegar 191
Tilly, Charles, sociologist 257 Vogler, Giinter, historian 72
Tilly, Richard, historian 257 Volksgemeinschaft (people’s
timber 48, 82—3, 139 community) 236
see also wood Volkskunde see ethnology
tithes 59 Vollbauern see full peasants
Index 305
Vollmann, Robert, physician 217 wine, wine-growing 130—1, 230, 243

Vormietsrecht 103 witchcraft 188, 191
Voss, Baron Otto von, landowner Wittel, Bernhard, local councillor
87—90, 93-4 261
Wolmirsleben 222n13
Wachsstock (wax stick) 166 Wolmirstedt 210, 213
wages 5, 45—6, 58-9, 74, 81-2, 91, women x, 146, 148, 158-73, 175,
103, 107, 109, 113, 115, 118, 188—93, 195, 205, 209—13, 217,
125, 141-2, 149, 166—7, 170, 222n24, 226, 233n17, 240, 251,
240, 244, 247, 253, 255, 271 254, 275—6, 279, 285
see also living standards, payment women workers 113, 115, 125,
in kind 211-3, 219, 236, 239, 245, 247
Waldkirchen, Count von, landowner wood, woodland 60, 79, 82, 184—5,
141 250; 254,261, 273
Wallmow 55 wool 40, 52, 167, 189
Walpurgisnacht (Hallowe’en) 191 Worde see orchard:
Wanzleben 112, 206, 208-9, 211, work 188, 194
216-7, 219-20, 223n39 worker-peasants 109, 111, 118,
War 129—45, 154, 175, 177, 201-3,
First World 19, 179, 217, 219, 250 205; 2122270259, 241, 249,
Napoleonic 72, 89, 92—3 252, 257, 261-2
Second World 202 see also secondary income
Thirty Years’ 91 workers’ choral societies
warehousemen 132 (Arbeitergesangvereine) 152
Warthe, river 42, 49 working class ix, 13, 108, 175, 179,
waste disposal 146 202, 207, 225-32, 238—40, 243
water supply 146 Wiirttemberg 130, 241, 244, 249,
weavers, weaving 52, 135, 140, 252, 254, 262
242-4, 246, 253, 259
Weber, Eugen, historian 21—2
yield ratios (crops) 20, 45, 55, 82, 87,
Weber, Max, sociologist 13, 279 102
weights and measures 147 youth 14, 182—5, 250
Weimar Republic ix, 16, 18-19, Yugoslavia 284
174—203, 220, 238—47, 260-1
Welsleben 216—7, 222n14
Wernicke, Kurt, historian 75—7 Zauche 42
Weser, river 43, 50 Zeitpachtbauern see \easeholders
Westphalia, Kingdom of 103 Zeitz 212
West Prussia 50, 63—4 Zens 212, 224
Westrich 131, 137 Zerrentin 55
wheat 52, 55, 57—8, 60, 140, 283 Ziegenbauern see cottagers
white-collar workers 207 Ziekursch, Johannes, historian 74,
widows 158, 239, 245 92
Wilke, Gerhard, anthropologist ix, Zink, Th., economist 137
xii, 174-204, 292
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(continued from front flap)
2. Peasants and Markets: The Back-
ground to the Agrarian Reforms in
Feudal Prussia East of the Elbe,
1760-1807
Hartmut Harnisch, Academy of
Sciences of the German Democratic
Republic
3. The Junkers’ Faithless Servants:
Peasant Insubordination and the
Breakdown of Serfdom in
Brandenburg-Prussia, #763-1811
William W. Hagen, University of
California, Davis
4. The Rural Proletariat: The Everyday
Life of Rural Labourers in the
Magdeburg Region, 1830-1880
Hainer Plaul, Academy of Sciences of
the Germany Democratic Republic
5. Farmers and Factory Workers: Rural
Society in Imperial Germany: The
Example of Maudach
Cathleen §. Catt, University of
East Anglia
6. Peasants and Farmers’ Maids: Female
Farm Servants in Bavaria at the End of
the Nineteenth Century
Regina Schulte, Technical University,
Berlin
7. The Sins of the Fathers: Village Society
and Social Control in the Weimar
Republic
Gerhard Wilke, London
8. Peasants, Poverty and Population:
Economic and Political Factors in the
Family Structure of the Working
Village People in the Magdeburg
Region, 1900-39
Gisela Griepentrog, Academy of
Sciences of the German Democratic
Republic
9. Peasant Customs and Social Structure:
Rural Marriage Festivals in the
Magdeburg Region in the 1920s
Christel Heinrich, Academy of Sciences
of the German Democratic Republic
10. Peasants and Others: The Historical
Contours of Village Class Society
Wolfgang Kaschuba, University of
Ttibingen
11. ‘The Rules of the Village: On the
Cultural-History of the Peasant World
in the Last 150 Years
Utz Jeggle, Univesity of Tiibingen
Notes on Contributors
Index
Richard J. Evans is Professor of European
History at the University of East Anglia.
W.R. Lee is Senior Lecturer in Economic
History, and Assistant Director of the
Institute for European Population Studies
and of the Max Weber Centre for Applied
German Studies, at the University of
Liverpool.
AWUUIUNNOUOT
3.1543 50132 4316
0
n
Jacket photograph shows women and girls

working the early shift of an asparagus
ISBN O- 3) e-SeatrS harvest at Beilitz, Germany, whilst two
men oversee their labours. The photograph
was taken in The 1920’s and is lent
courtesy of the BBC Hulton Picture
St. Martin’s Press
Library.
175 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10010

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@?

This book surveys the history of rural

(continued on back flap)

ST. MARTIN’S PRESS

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

11. The Rules of the Village: On the Cultural History of

2.1 Grain Prices in Prussia, 1766—1865 51

zrl Proceeds from Sales of 1 Tonne of Grain for the

This book brings together eleven essays, none of which has

farmers and others (notably landless labourers and worker-

ways in which peasants acted themselves in defence of their own

Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic on the

meeting of the SSRC (now ESRC) research seminar on Modern

Norwich RICHARD J. EVANS

oS 29 sug * nae nieteeeeral:

Wile Te Cte on generac

Over the last generation, intellectual and scholarly study of the

to the problematics of rural society in the age of industrialisation.

unable to enter into any meaningful dialogue with agrarian

The most substantial contribution to that body of literature has

climate. It still appears reluctant to conduct a serious examination

impact of different forms of exploitation and domination seems

of peasant life in the pre-industrial era. It is only quite recently that

point to stress is the restricted conception of agrarian history

empirical research within a challenging theoretical framework.” A

and above all, as a person with a particular set of enduring socio-

nationalist ideal which aggrandised the social and cultural

Democratic Republic, meanwhile, Volkskunde was obviously able

history made by this discipline is exemplified in the work of Gisela

One would have anticipated some challenge to these assumptions

The dearth of studies on the peasantry by younger social his-

classes were recruited in the agrarian sector:

Such gaps in our knowledge are particularly serious for historical

Another example of the way in which certain theoretical prefer-

social status could be exploited by other more powerful interests,

in this reinterpretation of modern German history which bear

Some of these limitations stem from an occupational habit of many

be modern is where the historical process intended you to be. (It

backward-looking and the subject of much properly puzzled

Because traditional culture is credited with a capacity for inde-

Nazis gained early and massive support in the areas of pre-

works of questionable validity, are an inadequate replacement for

century Germany are better understood as an integral part of an

years up to 1914, ‘undeveloped France was integrated into the

for any historian of the modern German peasantry must be fo

dissecting the convenient but flawed notion of a unitary or

tions about the place of the ‘community’ in the lives of the

1. The phrase is Teodor Shanin’s in the introduction to his important edition of

debate aroused in the GDR by Harnisch’s interpretation of the agrarian reforms in

P. Zimmermann, Der Bauernroman (Stuttgart, 1975), pp. 70 ff., 180—3; and J.

Klassen und Kultur. Sozialanthropologsiche Dimensionen in der Geschichtsschrei-

1890-1925 (Bonn, 1978); K. Saul, ‘Der Kampf um das Landproletariat. Sozialis-

(Berlin, 1967): H.-H. Herlemann, ‘Vom Ursprung des deutschen Agrarprotektion-

See D. Langewiesche, ‘Wanderungsbewegungen in der Hochindustrialisierungs-

politischen Sektor’, ZAA, 16 (1968), pp. 210-32. More generally, see J.

in the Russian Peasantry before Collectivisation’, Journal of Peasant Studies, A

‘Gleichheit und Ungleichheit in der landlichen Gemeinde’, Archiv fiir Sozial-

In England and the Netherlands the ancient feudal order of the

*Translated by Bernd Feldmann and Richard J. Evans, with assistance from

the domestic market and, not least, to the industrial revolution in