Development of Beam Equations

Learning Objectives
• To review the basic concepts of beam bending
• To derive the stiffness matrix for a beam element
• To demonstrate beam analysis using the direct stiffness
method
• To illustrate the effects of shear deformation in shorter
beams
• To introduce the work-equivalence method for replacing
distributed loading by a set of discrete loads
• To introduce the general formulation for solving beam
problems with distributed loading acting on them
•
To analyze beams with distributed loading acting on
them

Development of Beam Equations

Learning Objectives
• To compare the finite element solution to an exact
solution for a beam
• To derive the stiffness matrix for the beam element with
nodal hinge
• To show how the potential energy method can be used
to derive the beam element equations
• To apply Galerkin’s residual method for deriving the
beam element equations
Development of Beam Equations
In this section, we will develop the stiffness matrix for a beam
element, the most common of all structural elements.

The beam element is considered to be straight and to have

constant cross-sectional area.

Development of Beam Equations

We will derive the beam element stiffness matrix by using the
principles of simple beam theory.

The degrees of freedom associated with a node of a beam

element are a transverse displacement and a rotation.
Development of Beam Equations
We will discuss procedures for handling distributed loading
and concentrated nodal loading.

We will include the nodal shear forces and bending moments

and the resulting shear force and bending moment diagrams
as part of the total solution.

Development of Beam Equations

We will develop the beam bending element equations using
the potential energy approach.

Finally, the Galerkin residual method is applied to derive the

beam element equations
Beam Stiffness
Consider the beam element shown below.

The beam is of length L with axial local coordinate x and

transverse local coordinate y.
The local transverse nodal displacements are given by vi and
the rotations by ϕi. The local nodal forces are given by fiy and
the bending moments by mi.

Beam Stiffness
At all nodes, the following sign conventions are used on the
element level:
1. Moments are positive in the counterclockwise direction.
2. Rotations are positive in the counterclockwise direction.
3. Forces are positive in the positive y direction.
4. Displacements are positive in the positive y direction.
Beam Stiffness
At all nodes, the following sign conventions are used on the
global level:
1. Bending moments m are positive if they cause the beam
to bend concave up.
2. Shear forces V are positive is the cause the beam to
rotate clockwise.

Beam Stiffness

(+) Bending Moment

(-) Bending Moment

Beam Stiffness

(+) Shear Force

(-) Shear Force

Beam Stiffness
The differential equation governing simple linear-elastic beam
behavior can be derived as follows. Consider the beam
shown below.
Beam Stiffness
The differential equation governing simple linear-elastic beam
behavior can be derived as follows. Consider the beam
shown below.
w ( x )dx  dx 
 2 
 

Write the equations of equilibrium for the differential element:

 dx 
  Mright side  0  M   M  dM   Vdx  w ( x )dx  
 2 
0


 F  0  V  (V  dV )  w ( x )dx
y

Beam Stiffness
From force and moment equilibrium of a differential beam
element, we get:
dM
M right side 0   Vdx  dM  0 or V 
dx
dV
F y 0   wdx  dV  0 or w 
dx

d  dM 
w   
dx  dx 
Beam Stiffness
The curvature  of the beam is related to the moment by:
1 M
 
 EI
where  is the radius of the deflected curve, v is the
transverse displacement function in the y direction, E is the
modulus of elasticity, and I is the principle moment of inertia
about y direction, as shown below.

Beam Stiffness
dv
The curvature,  for small slopes   is given as:
dx
d 2v
 2
dx

Therefore: d 2v M d 2v
  M  EI
dx 2 EI dx 2

Substituting the moment expression into the moment-load

equations gives:
d 2  d 2v 
 EI   w  x 
dx 2  dx 2 
For constant values of EI, the above equation reduces to:
 d 4v 
EI  4   w  x 
 dx 
= -w(x)
Beam Stiffness
Step 1 - Select Element Type

We will consider the linear-elastic beam element shown below.

Beam Stiffness
Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

Assume the transverse displacement function v is:

v  a1x 3  a2 x 2  a3 x  a4
The number of coefficients in the displacement function ai is
equal to the total number of degrees of freedom associated
with the element (displacement and rotation at each node).
The boundary conditions are:

v ( x  0)  v1 v ( x  L)  v 2

dv dv
 1  2
dx x 0 dx x L
Beam Stiffness
Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

Applying the boundary conditions and solving for the unknown

coefficients gives:
v (0)  v1  a4 v (L )  v 2  a1L3  a2L2  a3L  a4

dv (0) dv (L )
 1  a3  2  3a1L2  2a2L  a3
dx dx
Solving these equations for a1, a2, a3, and a4 gives:
2 1 
v   3 v1  v 2   2 1  2   x 3
L L 
 3 1 
   2 v1  v 2    21  2   x 2  1x  v1
 L L 

Beam Stiffness
Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function

In matrix form the above equations are: v  [N ] d 

v1 
 
d    1  [N ]  N1 N2 N3 N4 
v 2 
2 
where
1 1 3
N1 
L3

2 x 3  3 x 2L  L3  N2 
L3
x L  2 x 2L2  xL3 
1 1 3
N3 
L3

2 x 3  3 x 2 L  N4 
L3
x L  x 2L2 
Beam Stiffness
Step 2 - Select a Displacement Function
N1, N2, N3, and N4 are called the interpolation functions for a
beam element.
1.000 N1 1.000 N2

0.800 0.800

0.600 0.600

0.400 0.400

0.200 0.200

0.000 0.000
0.00 1.00 0.00 1.00
-0.200 -0.200

1.000 N3 1.000 N4

0.800 0.800

0.600 0.600

0.400 0.400

0.200 0.200

0.000 0.000
0.00 1.00 0.00 1.00
-0.200 -0.200

Beam Stiffness
Step 3 - Define the Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships
du
The stress-displacement relationship is:  x  x, y  
dx
where u is the axial displacement function.

We can relate the axial displacement to the transverse

displacement by considering the beam element shown
below:
Beam Stiffness
Step 3 - Define the Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships

dv
u  y
dx

Beam Stiffness
Step 3 - Define the Strain/Displacement
and Stress/Strain Relationships
One of the basic assumptions in simple beam theory is that
planes remain planar after deformation, therefore:

du  d 2v 
 x  x, y    y  2 
dx  dx 
Moments and shears are related to the transverse
displacement as:

 d 2v   d 3v 
m  x   EI  2  V  x   EI  3 
 dx   dx 
Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Use beam theory sign convention for shear force and bending
moment.

M+
M+

V+ V+

Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Using beam theory sign convention for shear force and
bending moment we obtain the following equations:
d 3v EI
f1y  V  EI  12v1  6L1  12v 2  6L2 
dx 3 x 0
L3
d 3v EI
f2 y  V  EI 3   12v1  6L1  12v 2  6L2 
dx x L
L3
2
d v EI
m1  m  EI
dx 2

L3 
6Lv1  4L21  6Lv 2  2L22 
x 0

d 2v EI
m2  m  EI 2
dx

L3 
6Lv1  2L21  6Lv 2  4L22 
x L
Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
In matrix form the above equations are:

 f1y   12 6L 12 6L  v1   f1y   v1 

m   4L2 6L 2L2   1  m   
 1  EI  6L    1  1
      k  
 f2 y  L  12 6L 6L  v 2 
3
12  f2 y  v 2 
m2   
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  2  m2  2 

where the stiffness matrix is:

 12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2 
EI 6L
k 3  
L  12 6L 12 6L 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 

Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Beam stiffness based on Timoshenko Beam Theory

The total deflection of the beam at a point x consists of two

parts, one caused by bending and one by shear force. The
slope of the deflected curve at a point x is:
dv
  x   x
dx
Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Beam stiffness based on Timoshenko Beam Theory

The relationship between bending moment and bending

deformation is:
d  x 
M  x   EI
dx

Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Beam stiffness based on Timoshenko Beam Theory

The relationship between shear force and shear deformation is:

V  x   ks AG   x 

where ksA is the shear area.

Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Beam stiffness based on Timoshenko Beam Theory

You can review the details in your book, but by including the
effects of shear deformations into the relationship between
forces and nodal displacements a modified elemental
stiffness can be developed.

Beam Stiffness
Step 4 - Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix
and Equations
Beam stiffness based on Timoshenko Beam Theory

 12 6L 12 6L 

EI  6L  4    L2 6L  2    L2  
12EI
k 3
L 1     12 6L 12 6L  ks AGL2

 6L  2    L2 6L  4    L2 
Beam Stiffness
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions
Consider a beam modeled by two beam elements (do not
include shear deformations):

Assume the EI to be constant throughout the beam. A force of

1,000 lb and moment of 1,000 lb-ft are applied to the mid-
point of the beam.

Beam Stiffness
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions
The beam element stiffness matrices are:
v1 1 v2 2

 12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2 
EI  6L 
k (1)  3
L  12 6L 12 6L 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 
v  v 
2 2 3 3

 12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2 
EI 6L
k (2)  3  
L  12 6L 12 6L 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 
Beam Stiffness
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions
In this example, the local coordinates coincide with the global
coordinates of the whole beam (therefore there is no
transformation required for this problem).
The total stiffness matrix can be assembled as:
 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0   v1 
M   6L 4L2  
 1 6L 2L 2
0 0   1 
 
F2 y  EI  12 6L 12  12 6L  6L 12 6L  v 2 
M   3  2  
 2  L  6L 2L 6L  6L 4L  4L 6L 2L  2 
2 2 2

F3 y   0 0 12 6L 12 6L  v 3 

    
M3   0 0 6L 2L 2
6L 4L2  3 
Element 1 Element 2

Beam Stiffness
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are: v1  1  v 3  0

 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0   v01 

M   6L 4L2  
 1 6L 2L2 0 0   01 
 
F2 y  EI  12 6L 12  12 6L  6L 12 6L  v 2 
M   3   
 2  L  6L 2L 6L  6L 4L  4L
2 2 2
6L 2L2  2 
F3 y   0 0 12 6L 12 6L  v03 
    
M3   0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  3 
Beam Stiffness
Step 5 - Assemble the Element Equations
and Introduce Boundary Conditions

By applying the boundary conditions the beam equations

reduce to:
 1,000 lb  24 0 6L  v 2 
  EI  2  
1,000 lb ft   3  0 8L 2L  2 
2

 0  L 6L 2L2 4L2   

    3

Beam Stiffness
Step 6 - Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom

Solving the above equations gives:

875L3  375L2 125L2  625L 125L2  125L

v2  in 2  rad 3  rad
12EI 4EI EI

Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

v1 
 
d v 
2
 d N   
2
m  x   EI  2   EI  2   1 
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 

The second derivative of N is linear; therefore m(x) is linear.

Beam Stiffness
Step 6 - Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom

Solving the above equations gives:

875L3  375L2 125L2  625L 125L2  125L

v2   in 2   rad 3   rad
12EI 4EI EI

Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

v1 
 
d v 
3
 d 3N   1 
V  x   EI  3   EI  2   
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 

The third derivative of N is a constant; therefore V(x) is

constant.

Beam Stiffness
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
Assume L = 120 in, E = 29x106 psi, and I = 100 in4:

v 2  0.0433 in 2  7.758  105 rad 3  5.586  104 rad

Element #1:
v1 
 
d v 2
 d N   1 
2
m  x   EI  2   EI  2   
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 

EI
m1 
L3
 
6Lv1  4L21  6Lv 2  2L22  3,875 lb  ft

EI
 
m2  3 6Lv1  2L21  6Lv 2  4L22  3,562.5 lb  ft
L
Beam Stiffness
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
Assume L = 120 in, E = 29x106 psi, and I = 100 in4:

v 2  0.0433 in 2  7.758  105 rad 3  5.586  104 rad

Element #2:
v1 
 
d v 
2
 d N   
2
m  x   EI  2   EI  2   1 
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 

EI
m2 
L3  
6Lv 2  4L22  6Lv 3  2L23  2,562.5 lb  ft

EI

m3  3 6Lv 2  2L22  6Lv 3  4L23  0
L


Beam Stiffness
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
Assume L = 120 in, E = 29x106 psi, and I = 100 in4:

v 2  0.0433 in 2  7.758  105 rad 3  5.586  104 rad

Element #1:
v1 
 
d v  3
 d N    3
V  x   EI  3   EI  2   1 
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 
EI
f1y  3 12v1  6L1  12v 2  6L2   743.75 lb
L
EI
f2 y   12v1  6L1  12v 2  6L2   743.75 lb
L3
Beam Stiffness
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
Assume L = 120 in, E = 29x106 psi, and I = 100 in4:

v 2  0.0433 in 2  7.758  105 rad 3  5.586  104 rad

Element #2:
v1 
 
 d 3v   d 3N    
V  x   EI  3   EI  2   1 
 dx   dx  v 2 
2 
EI
f2 y  3 12v 2  6L2  12v 3  6L3   256.25 lb
L
EI
f3 y   12v 2  6L2  12v 3  6L3   256.25 lb
L3

Beam Stiffness
Step 7 - Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

256.25 lb

743.75 lb F  1,000 lb

3,562.5 lb  ft
2,562.5 lb  ft

3,875 lb  ft M  1,000 lb  ft
 Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
Consider the beam shown below. Assume that EI is constant
and the length is 2L (no shear deformation).

The beam element stiffness matrices are:

v
1
1 v
2
2 v
2
2 v
3
3

 12 6L 12 6L   12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2   2
6L 2L2 
EI 6L EI 6L 4L
k (1)  3   k (2)  3  
L  12 6L 12 6L  L  12 6L 12 6L 
   
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2   6L 2L2 6L 4L2 

Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
The local coordinates coincide with the global coordinates of
the whole beam (therefore there is no transformation required
for this problem).
The total stiffness matrix can be assembled as:

 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0   v1 
M   6L 4L2 6L 2L2  
 1 0 0   1 
 
F2 y  EI  12 6L 24 0 12 6L  v 2 
M   3   
 2  L  6L 2L
2
0 8L 6L 2L2  2 
2

F3 y   0 0 12 6L 12 6L  v 3 

    
M3   0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  3 
Element 1 Element 2
Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
The boundary conditions are: v 2  v 3  3  0

 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0   v1 
M   6L 4L2 6L 2L2  
 1 0 0   1 
 
F2 y  EI  12 6L 24 0 12 6L  v02 
M   3   
 2  L  6L 2L
2
0 8L2 6L 2L2  2 
F3 y   0 0 12 6L 12 6L  v03 
    
M3   0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  03 

Beam Stiffness

By applying the boundary conditions the beam equations

reduce to:
 P   12 6L 6L  v1 
  EI  2 
 0   3  6L 4L 2L  1 
2

 0  L  6L 2L2 8L2   
    2

 7L 
Solving the above equations gives:  3 
v1  2  
  PL  
1    3 
  4EI  
 2  
 1 
Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
The positive signs for the rotations indicate that both are in the
counterclockwise direction.
The negative sign on the displacement indicates a deformation
in the -y direction.

 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0   7 L 3 
M   6L 4L2 6L 2L2
 1 0 0  3 
  
F2 y  P  12 6L 24 0 12 6L   0 
M     
 2  4L  6L 2L
2
0 8L2 6L 2L2   1 
F3 y   0 0 12 6L 12 6L   0 
    
M3   0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2   0 

Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
The local nodal forces for element 1:
 f1y   12 6L 12 6L    7L 3   P 
   2    
 m1  P  6L 4L 6L 2L   3   0 
2

    
 f2 y  4L  12 6L 12 6L   0   P 
m2   2 
 6L 2L 6L 4L   1  PL 
2

The local nodal forces for element 2:

 f2 y   12 6L 12 6L  0   1.5P 
m   6L 4L2 6L 2L2   1  PL 
 2 P       
  
 f3 y  4L  12 6L 12 6L  0   1.5P 
m3   2 
 6L 2L 6L 4L  0   0.5PL 
2
Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
The free-body diagrams for the each element are shown
below.

Combining the elements gives the forces and moments for the
original beam.

Beam Stiffness
Example 1 - Beam Problem
Therefore, the shear force and bending moment diagrams are:
Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
Consider the beam shown below. Assume E = 30 x 106 psi and
I = 500 in4 are constant throughout the beam. Use four
elements of equal length to model the beam.

The beam element stiffness matrices are:

vi i v ( i 1) ( i 1)

 12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2 
EI  6L 
k( i )  3
L  12 6L 12 6L 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 

Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
Using the direct stiffness method, the four beam element
stiffness matrices are superimposed to produce the global
stiffness matrix.
Element 1 Element 2

Element 3

Element 4
Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
The boundary conditions for this problem are:
v1  1  v 3  v 5  5  0

Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
The boundary conditions for this problem are:
v1  1  v 3  v 5  5  0

After applying the boundary conditions the global beam

equations reduce to:

24 0 6L 00  v 2  10,000 lb 
 0 8L2 2L2 00  2   0 

EI    
3
6L 2L2 8L2 6L 2L2  3    0 
L   v  10,000 lb 
0 0 6L 24 0  4
   
 0 0 2L2
0 8L2  4   0 
Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
Substituting L = 120 in, E = 30 x 106 psi, and I = 500 in4 into
the above equations and solving for the unknowns gives:

v 2  v 4  0.048 in 2  3  4  0

The global forces and moments can be determined as:

F1y  5 kips M1  25 kipsꞏft

F2 y  10 kips M2  0
F3 y  10 kips M3  0
F4 y  10 kips M4  0
F5 y  5 kips M5  25 kipsꞏft

Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
The local nodal forces for element 1:
 f1y   12 6L 12 6L   0   5 kips 
m   4L2 6L 2L2   0   25 kꞏft 
 1  EI  6L 
    
 f2 y  L  12 6L 6L  0.048  5 kips 
3
12
 
m2   6L 2L2 6L 4L2   0   25 kꞏft 

The local nodal forces for element 2:

 f2 y   12 6L 12 6L  0.048   5 kips 

m   2
6L 2L2   0  25 kꞏft 
 2  EI  6L 4L

    
 f3 y  L  12 6L 6L   0   5 kips 
3
12
 
m3   6L 2L2 6L 4L2   0  25 kꞏft 
Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem
The local nodal forces for element 3:
 f3 y   12 6L 12 6L   0   5 kips 
m   2
6L 2L2   0   25 kꞏft 
 3  EI  6L 4L

  3  
 f4 y  L  12 6L 12 6L  0.048  5 kips 
 
m4   6L 2L2 6L 4L2   0   25 kꞏft 

The local nodal forces for element 4:

 f4 y   12 6L 12 6L  0.048   5 kips 

m   4L2 6L 2L2   0  25 kꞏft 
 4  EI  6L 
  3  
 f5 y  L  12 6L 12 6L   0   5 kips 
 
m5   6L 2L2 6L 4L2   0  25 kꞏft 

Beam Stiffness
Example 2 - Beam Problem

Note: Due to symmetry about the vertical plane at node 3, we

could have worked just half the beam, as shown below.

Line of symmetry
Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
Consider the beam shown below. Assume E = 210 GPa and
I = 2 x 10-4 m4 are constant throughout the beam and the
spring constant k = 200 kN/m. Use two beam elements of
equal length and one spring element to model the structure.

Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
The beam element stiffness matrices are:
v1 1 v2 2 v2 2 v3 3

 12 6L 12 6L   12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2   4L2 6L 2L2 
EI 6L EI 6L
k (1)  3   k (2)  3  
L  12 6L 12 6L  L  12 6L 12 6L 
   
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2   6L 2L2 6L 4L2 

The spring element stiffness matrix is:

v3 3 v4
v3 v4
 k 0 k 
 k k 
k (3)
  k (3)
0 0 0
 k k   
 k 0 k 
Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
Using the direct stiffness method and superposition gives the
global beam equations.
Element 2
Element 1
 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0 0   v1 
M 
 1
 6L 4L2 6L 2L2 0 0 0   1 
 
F2 y   12 6L 24 0 12 6L 0  v 2 
  EI    kL3
 M2   3  6L 2L
2
0 8L2 6L 2L2 0  2  k' 
F  L EI
 0 0 12 6L 12  k ' 6L k '  v 3 
 3y    
 M3    3 
2 2
 0 0 6L 2L 6 L 4L 0
F   k ' k '  v 4 
 4y   0 0 0 0 0
Element 3

Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
The boundary conditions for this problem are: v1  1  v 2  v 4  0

 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0 0   v01 

M 
 1
 6L 4L2 6L 2L2 0 0 0   01 
 
F2 y   12 6L 24 0 12 6L 0  v02 
  EI    kL3
 M2   3  6L 2L
2
0 8L2 6L 2L2 0  2  k' 
L EI
F   0 0 12 6L 12  k ' 6L k '  v 3 
 3y    
 M3    3 
2 2
 0 0 6L 2L 6 L 4L 0
F 
 4y  
 0 0 0 0  k ' 0 k '  v04 
Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem

After applying the boundary conditions the global beam

equations reduce to:
M2   8L2 6L 2L2  2   0 
  EI     
F3 y   3  6L 12  k ' 6L  v 3   P 
 M  L  2L2 6L 4L2  3   0 
 3 
Solving the above  3PL2  1 
 
equations gives: EI  12  7k '  

2  
   7PL   
3
1 kL3
v 3       k' 
   EI  12  7k '   EI
 3 
9PL2  1 
  
 EI  12  7k '  

Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
Substituting L = 3 m, E = 210 GPa, I = 2 x 10-4 m4, and
k = 200 kN/m in the above equations gives:
v 3  0.0174 m
2  0.00249 rad
3  0.00747 rad
Substituting the solution back into the global equations gives:
 F1y   12 6L 12 6L 0 0 0  0 
M   6L 4L2 6L 2L2  
  0 0 0 0
1
  
F2 y   12 6L 24 0 12 6L 0  0 
  EI   
 2   3  6L 2L
M 6L 0  0.00249 rad 
2 2 2
0 8L 2L
F  L
 0 0 12 6L 12  k ' 6L k '   0.0174 m 
 3y    
 M3   0 0 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 0  0.00747 rad 
F   0 0 0 0 k ' 0 k '   0 
 4y  
Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem
Substituting L = 3 m, E = 210 GPa, I = 2 x 10-4 m4, and
k = 200 kN/m in the above equations gives:
v 3  0.0174 m
2  0.00249 rad
3  0.00747 rad
Substituting the solution back into the global equations gives:
 F1y   69.9 kN 
M   
 1  69.7 kN  m 
F2 y   116.4 kN 
   
 M2    0 
F   50 kN 
 3y   
 M3   0 
F   3.5 kN 
 4y   

Beam Stiffness
Example 3 - Beam Problem

The variation of shear force and bending moment is:

69.9 kN

46.5 kN

69.7 kNm

139.5 kNm
Beam Stiffness
Distributed Loadings
Beam members can support distributed loading as well as
concentrated nodal loading.
Therefore, we must be able to account for distributed loading.
Consider the fixed-fixed beam subjected to a uniformly
distributed loading w shown the figure below.

The reactions, determined from structural analysis theory, are

called fixed-end reactions.

Beam Stiffness
Distributed Loadings
In general, fixed-end reactions are those reactions at the ends
of an element if the ends of the element are assumed to be
fixed (displacements and rotations are zero).

Therefore, guided by the results from structural analysis for the

case of a uniformly distributed load, we replace the load by
concentrated nodal forces and moments tending to have the
same effect on the beam as the actual distributed load.
Beam Stiffness
Distributed Loadings
The figures below illustrates the idea of equivalent nodal loads
for a general beam. We can replace the effects of a uniform
load by a set of nodal forces and moments.

Beam Stiffness
Work Equivalence Method
This method is based on the concept that the work done by
the distributed load is equal to the work done by the discrete
nodal loads. The work done by the distributed load is:
L

Wdistributed   w  x  v  x  dx
0

where v(x) is the transverse displacement. The work done by

the discrete nodal forces is:

Wnodes  m11  m22  f1y v1  f2 y v 2

The nodal forces can be determined by setting

Wdistributed = Wnodes for arbitrary displacements and rotations.
Beam Stiffness
Example 4 - Load Replacement
Consider the beam, shown below, and determine the
equivalent nodal forces for the given distributed load.

Using the work equivalence method or: Wdistributed  Wnodes

L

 w  x  v  x  dx  m 
0
1 1  m22  f1y v1  f2 y v 2

Beam Stiffness
Example 4 - Load Replacement
Evaluating the left-hand-side of the above expression with:
w  x   w
2 1 
v ( x )   3 v1  v 2   2 1  2   x 3
L L 
 3 1 
   2 v1  v 2    21  2   x 2  1x  v1
 L L 
gives:
L
Lw L2w
 w v  x  dx 
0
2
v1  v 2  
4
1  2   Lw v 2  v1 
L2w L2w
  21  2   1  wLv1
3 2
Beam Stiffness
Example 4 - Load Replacement
Using a set of arbitrary nodal displacements, such as:
v1  v 2  2  0 1  1

The resulting nodal equivalent force or moment is:

L

m11  m22  f1y v1  f2 y v 2   w  x  v  x  dx

0

 wL2 2 2 L2  wL2
m1     Lw  w
 4 3 2  12

Beam Stiffness
Example 4 - Load Replacement
Using a set of arbitrary nodal displacements, such as:
v1  v 2  1  0 2  1

The resulting nodal equivalent force or moment is:

L

m11  m22  f1y v1  f2 y v 2   w  x  v  x  dx

0

 wL2 wL2  wL2

m2     
 4 3  12
Beam Stiffness
Example 4 - Load Replacement
Setting the nodal rotations equal zero except for the nodal
displacements gives:
LW Lw
f1y    Lw  Lw  
2 2
LW Lw
f2 y   Lw  
2 2
Summarizing, the equivalent nodal forces and moments are:

Beam Stiffness
General Formulation
We can account for the distributed loads or concentrated loads
acting on beam elements by considering the following
formulation for a general structure:
F = Kd - F0

where F0 are the equivalent nodal forces, expressed in

terms of the global-coordinate components.
These forces would yield the same displacements as the
original distributed load.
If we assume that the global nodal forces are not present
(F = 0) then:
F0 = Kd
Beam Stiffness
General Formulation
We now solve for the displacements, d, given the nodal
forces F0.
Next, substitute the displacements and the equivalent nodal
forces F0 back into the original expression and solve for the
global nodal forces.
F = Kd - F0
This concept can be applied on a local basis to obtain the local
nodal forces in individual elements of structures as:
f = kd - f0

Beam Stiffness
Example 5 - Load Replacement
Consider the beam shown below; determine the equivalent
nodal forces for the given distributed load.

The work equivalent nodal forces are shown above.

Using the beam stiffness equations:  wL 
  2 
 f1y   12 6L 12 6L  v1   wL2 
m   4L2 6L 2L2   1   12 

 1  EI  6L    
  3 
 f2 y  L  12 6L 12 6L  v 2   wL 

m2   
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  2   2 
 wL2 
 
 12 
Beam Stiffness
Example 5 - Load Replacement
Apply the boundary conditions: v1  1  0

 12 6L 12 6L  v1 

EI  6L 4L 2
6L 2L2   1 
 
L3  12 6L 12 6L  v 2 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  2 

We can solve for the displacements

 wL   wL4 

 2  EI  12 6L  v 2  v 2   8EI 
 2  3      3 
 wL  L  6L 4L2  2  2   wL 

 12   6EI 

Beam Stiffness
Example 5 - Load Replacement
In this case, the method of equivalent nodal forces gives the
exact solution for the displacements and rotations.
To obtain the global nodal forces, we will first define the
product of Kd to be Fe, where Fe is called the effective
global nodal forces. Therefore:
 wL 
 2 
 F 1y 
e
 12 6L 12 6L   0   5wL2 
 e   
 2  
 M 1  EI  6L 4L 6L 2L   0   12 
2

 e  3  wL4    
F 2 y  L  12 6L 12 6L   8EI    wL 
 M e 2   2 
 6L 2L 6L 4L   wL 6EI   2 
2 3

 wL2 
 
 12 
Beam Stiffness
Example 5 - Load Replacement
Using the above expression and the fix-end moments in:
 wL   wL   wL 
 2   2   
     2
 F1y   5wL2   wL2   wL 
M   
 1 12   12   2 
F = Kd - F0     
F
  
2 y wL   wL   0 
 M2   2   2   
 wL2   wL2   
     0 
 12   12   

 F  0  F  wL
y 1y
2
wL L
 M  0 

1  wL 
2 2

Beam Stiffness
Example 6 - Cantilever Beam
Consider the beam, shown below, determine the vertical
displacement and rotation at the free-end and the nodal
forces, including reactions. Assume EI is constant
throughout the beam.

We will use one element and replace the concentrated load

with the appropriate nodal forces.
Beam Stiffness
Example 6 - Cantilever Beam
The beam stiffness equations are:  P
2 
 f1y   12 6L 12 6L  v1   PL 
m   

 1  EI  6L 4L2 6L 2L2   1   8 
  3     
 f2 y  L  12 6L 12 6L  v 2   P 

m2   
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  2   2 
 PL 
 
 8 
Apply the boundary conditions: v1  1  0

 12 6L 12 6L  v1 

EI  6L 4L2 6L 2L2   1 
 
L3  12 6L 12 6L  v 2 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2  2 

Beam Stiffness
Example 6 - Cantilever Beam
The beam stiffness equations become:
 P  5PL3 
 2  EI  12 
6L  v 2  v 2   48EI 
  3      2 
 PL  L  6L 4L2  2  2   PL 

 8   8EI 

To obtain the global nodal forces, we begin by evaluating the

effective nodal forces.  P 
 2 
 F e1y   12 6L 12 6L   0   
 e   2    3PL 
 M 1  EI  6L 4L 6L 2L   0 
2
 8 
 e  3  5 PL3   
F 2 y  L  12 6L 12 6L   48 EI  P 
 2
 M e 2   2 
 6L 2L 6L 4L    8 EI 

2 2
PL  PL 
 
 8 
Beam Stiffness
Example 6 - Cantilever Beam
Using the above expression in the following equation, gives:

 P   P   
 2  2  P 
 F1y       
M   3PL   PL   PL 
 1  8   8   2 
F = Kd - F0        
F2 y  P   P   0 
 M2   2  2   
 PL   PL   
F      0 
 8   8   
Kd = Fe F0 F

Beam Stiffness
Example 6 - Cantilever Beam
In general, for any structure in which an equivalent nodal
force replacement is made, the actual nodal forces acting on
the structure are determined by first evaluating the effective
nodal forces Fe for the structure and then subtracting off the
equivalent nodal forces F0 for the structure.

Similarly, for any element of a structure in which equivalent

nodal force replacement is made, the actual local nodal
forces acting on the element are determined by first
evaluating the effective local nodal forces for the element
and then subtracting off the equivalent local nodal forces
associated only with the element.
f = kd - f0
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
We will now compare the finite element solution to the exact
classical beam theory solution for the cantilever beam
shown below.

Both one- and two-element finite element solutions will be

presented and compared to the exact solution obtained by
the direct double-integration method.

Let E = 30 x 106 psi, I = 100 in4, L = 100 in, and uniform load
w = 20 Ib/in.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
To obtain the solution from classical beam theory, we use the
double-integration method:
 M( x ) 
y    
 EI 
where the double prime superscript indicates differentiation
twice with respect to x and M is expressed as a function of x
by using a section of the beam as shown:


  Fy  0  V ( x )  wL  wx

wx 2 wL2
  M  0  M ( x )    wLx 
2 2
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
To obtain the solution from classical beam theory, we use the
double-integration method:
 M( x ) 
y    
 EI 
w  x2 L2 
EI   2
y    Lx   dx dx
2

w  x 3 Lx 2 xL2 
y  
EI  6

2

2
 C1  dx

Boundary Conditions
y (0)  0 y (0)  0
w x 4
Lx 3
x L  2 2
y      C1x  C2
EI  24 6 4 
w  x 4 Lx 3 x 2L2 
y    
EI  24 6 4 

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
Recall the one-element solution to the cantilever beam is:
 wL4 

v 2   8EI 
  3 
2   wL 

 6EI 
Using the numerical values for this problem we get:
 20 lb in 100 in  
4

 

v 2   8 30 
 10 6

psi 100 in 4
  0.0833 in 
    
2   20 lb in 100 in    0.00111 rad 
3

 4 
 
 6 30  10 psi 100 in 
6
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The slope and displacement from the one-element FE
solution identically match the beam theory values evaluated
at x = L.

The reason why these nodal values from the FE solution are
correct is that the element nodal forces were calculated on
the basis of being energy or work equivalent to the
distributed load based on the assumed cubic displacement
field within each beam element.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
Values of displacement and slope at other locations along the
beam for the FE are obtained by using the assumed cubic
displacement function.
1 1
L
   L

v ( x )  3 2 x 3  3 x 2L v 2  3 x 3L  x 2L2 2

The value of the displacement at the midlength v(x = 50 in) is:

v ( x  50 in )  0.0278 in

Using beam theory, the displacement at v(x = 50 in) is:

v ( x  50 in )  0.0295 in
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
In general, the displacements evaluated by the FE method
using the cubic function for v are lower than by those of
beam theory except at the nodes.

This is always true for beams subjected to some form of

distributed load that are modeled using the cubic
displacement function.

The exception to this result is at the nodes, where the beam

theory and FE results are identical because of the work-
equivalence concept used to replace the distributed load by
work-equivalent discrete loads at the nodes.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The beam theory solution predicts a quartic (fourth-order)
polynomial expression for a beam subjected to uniformly
distributed loading, while the FE solution v(x) assumes a
cubic (third-order) displacement behavior in each beam all
load conditions.

The FE solution predicts a stiffer structure than the actual one.

This is expected, as the FE model forces the beam into

specific modes of displacement and effectively yields a
stiffer model than the actual structure.

However, as more elements are used in the model, the FE

solution converges to the beam theory solution.
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
For the special case of a beam subjected to only nodal
concentrated loads, the beam theory predicts a cubic
displacement behavior.

The FE solution for displacement matches the beam theory

solution for all locations along the beam length, as both v(x)
and y(x) are cubic functions.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
Under uniformly distributed loading, the beam theory solution
predicts a quadratic moment and a linear shear force in the
beam.

However, the FE solution using the cubic displacement

function predicts a linear bending moment and a constant
shear force within each beam element used in the model.
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
We will now determine the bending moment and shear force
in the present problem based on the FE method.

M ( x )  EIy   EI
d 2 Nd 
 EI
 d N d
2

dx 2 dx 2
M ( x )  EI Bd

 12 x   4 6 x   6 12 x   2 6 x  
B    L2 
6
   3     2 
 L3   L L2   L2 L   L L 
 6 12 x   4 6x 
M  EI   2  3  v1     2  1
 L L   L L 
 6 12 x   2 6x  
  2  3  v 2     2  2 
L L   L L  

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
We will now determine the bending moment and shear force
in the present problem based on the FE method.

Position MFE Mexact

X=0 -83,333 lb-in -100,000 lb-in

X = 50 in -33,333 lb-in -25,000 lb-in

X = 100 in 16,667 lb-in 0

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The plots below show the displacement, bending moment ,
and shear force over the beam using beam theory and the
one-element FE solutions.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The FE solution for displacement matches the beam theory
solution at the nodes but predicts smaller displacements
(less deflection) at other locations along the beam length.
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The bending moment is derived by taking two derivatives on
the displacement function. It then takes more elements to
model the second derivative of the displacement function.

Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
The shear force is derived by taking three derivatives on the
displacement function. For the uniformly loaded beam, the
shear force is a constant throughout the singIe-element
model.
Beam Stiffness
Comparison of FE Solution to Exact Solution
To improve the FE solution we need to use more elements in
the model (refine the mesh) or use a higher-order element,
such as a fifth-order approximation for the displacement
function.

Beam Stiffness
Beam Element with Nodal Hinge
Consider the beam, shown below, with an internal hinge. An
internal hinge causes a discontinuity in the slope of the
deflection curve at the hinge and the bending moment is
zero at the hinge.
Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
If the beam element has a constant cross-sectional area A,
then the differential volume of the beam is given as:
dV  dA dx

The differential element where the surface loading acts is

given as: dS = b dx (where b is the width of the beam
element).

Therefore the total potential energy is:

2
 p    21  x  x dA dx   Ty vb dx    Piy v i  mi i 
x A x i 1

Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
d 2v
The strain-displacement relationship is:  x   y
dx 2
We can express the strain in terms of nodal displacements
and rotations as:
 12 x  6L 6 xL  4L2 12 x  6L 6 xL  2L2 
 x  y 
L3 L3 L3 L3  d 
 

 x   y [B]d
12 x  6L 6 xL  4L2 12 x  6L 6 xL  2L2 
[B ]   
 L3 L3 L3 L3 
Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
The stress-strain relationship in one-dimension is:
 x   [E ] x 
where E is the modulus of elasticity. Therefore:

 x    y [E ][B]d   x   y [B]d

The total potential energy can be written in matrix form as:

 p    21  x   x  dA dx   bTy v  dx  d  P
T T T

x A x

Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
If we define, w  bTy as a line load (load per unit length) in the
y direction and the substitute the definitions of x and x the
total potential energy can be written in matrix form as:
L L
E 2
p    y d  [B ]T [B ] d  dA dx   w d  [N ]T dx  d  P 
T T T

0 A
2 0

Use the following definition for moment of inertia: I   y 2dA

A

Then the total potential energy expression becomes:

L L
EI
p   d  [B ]T [B ]d  dx   w d  [N ]T dx  d  P
T T T

0
2 0
Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
Differentiating the total potential energy with respect to the
displacement and rotations (v1, v2, 1 and 2) and equating
each term to zero gives:
L L
EI  [B ]T [B ] dx d    w [N ]T dx  P   0
0 0
L

The nodal forces vector is: f    w [N ]T dx  P

0

L
The elemental stiffness matrix is: k   EI  [B]T [B] dx
0

Beam Stiffness
Potential Energy Approach to Derive
Beam Element Equations
Integrating the previous matrix expression gives:
L

k   EI  [B]T [B] dx
0

 12 6L 12 6L 
 4L2 6L 2L2 
EI  6L
k   L3  12 6L 12

6L 
 
 6L 2L2 6L 4L2 
Beam Stiffness
Galerkin’s Method to Derive Beam Element Equations

The governing differential equation for a one-dimensional

beam is:
 d 4v 
EI  4   w  0
 dx 
We can define the residual R as:
  d 4v 
L

0  EI  dx 4   w  Ni dx  0 i  1, 2, 3, and 4
 
If we apply integration by parts twice to the first term we get:
L L

 EI v xxxx  Ni dx   EI v xx   Ni ,xx  dx  EI Ni v xxx    Ni ,x  v xx 

L

0
0 0

where the subscript x indicates a derivative with respect to x

Beam Stiffness
Galerkin’s Method to Derive Beam Element Equations

Since v  [N ] d  , then the second derivative of v with respect

to x is:
12 x  6L 6 xL  4L2 12 x  6L 6 xL  2L2 
v xx   3
L3 L3 L3  d 
 L 
or
v x x  [B ] d 

Therefore the integration by parts becomes:

L L

  N  EI [B] dx d    N w dx  N V   N  m  d 
L
i , xx i i i ,x 0
0
0 0

i  1, 2, 3, and 4
Beam Stiffness
Galerkin’s Method to Derive Beam Element Equations

The above expression is really four equations (one for each

Ni) and can be written in matrix form as:
L L

 [B] EI [B] dx d     [N ] w dx  [N ]x m  [N ] V
T T T T L

0
0 0

The interpolation function in the last two terms can be

evaluated:
[N ] x  x  0   [0 1 0 0] [N ]x  x  L   [0 0 0 1]

[N ]  x  0   [1 0 0 0] [N ]  x  L   [0 0 1 0]

Beam Stiffness
Galerkin’s Method to Derive Beam Element Equations

Therefore, the last two terms of the matrix form of the Galerkin
formulation become (see the figure below):

i  1  V (0) i 2  m(0)

i 3  V (L ) i 4  m( L )
Beam Stiffness
Galerkin’s Method to Derive Beam Element Equations

When beam elements are assembled, as shown below:

Two shear forces and two moments form adjoining elements

contribute to the concentrated force and the concentrated
moment at the node common to both elements.