Hindawi

Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

Volume 2022, Article ID 3426811, 8 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3426811

Research Article
Secure Data Transmission Using Quantum Cryptography in
Fog Computing

Cherry Mangla ,1 Shalli Rani ,1 and Henry Kwame Atiglah 2

1
Chitkara University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University, Rajpura, Punjab 140401, India
2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Tamale Technical University, Ghana

Correspondence should be addressed to Henry Kwame Atiglah; [email protected]

Received 26 November 2021; Accepted 3 January 2022; Published 22 January 2022

Academic Editor: Muhammad Asghar Khan

Copyright © 2022 Cherry Mangla et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Fog computing’s idea is to bring virtual existence into objects used on a daily basis. The “objects” layer of fog architecture is also
known as the smart object layer (SOL). SOL has provided the fog network with a strong platform to outperform. Although the fog
architecture decentralizes data, uses more data centers, and collects and transmits it to adjacent servers for faster processing in fog
networks, it faces several security challenges. The security problems of fog computing need to be alleviated for the exploitation of
all benefits of fog computing in classical networks. This article has addressed the security challenges in fog computing, potential
solutions via quantum cryptography, a use case portraying the importance of quantum cryptography in fog computing along
future scope, and research directions.

1. Introduction concepts to provide various characteristics like low latency

and location awareness, support for geographic distribution,
In the continuous evolution of the computer age, increased end device mobility, the capacity of processing a high number
demand for Internet of Things (IoT) devices and the cloud of nodes, wireless access, real-time applications, improved
has requested a middleware. To cater to the request, fog quality of service, and heterogeneity [1, 2]. Fog servers act as
computing has emerged to provide fast and secure services. mini data centers for various applications such as smart cities,
Fog computing’s idea is to bring virtual existence into objects big data analysis, and distributed data collections.
used on a daily basis. The “objects” layer of fog architecture is Although all these characteristics are prominent in fog
also known as the smart object layer (SOL). SOL has provided computing, security is rising as one of the most gigantic chal-
the fog network with a strong platform to outperform. lenges for it. Some current solutions in the context of cloud
Although the fog architecture decentralizes data, uses more architecture may address some of the security problems. How-
data centers, and collects and transmits it to adjacent servers ever, security is still one of the main concerns while collecting
for faster processing, it faces several security challenges. The and processing data from various sources, and the most pop-
security problems of fog computing need to be alleviated for ular way to tackle it is data encryption. With the advent of dif-
the exploitation of all benefits of fog computing and IoT in ferently distributed frameworks like cloud computing, IoT,
classical networks. and fog computing, securing ubiquitary computation that
It has extended the cloud-based framework to the edge involves many collaborations is considered an open research
of the structure by increasing data transformation and deci- area that has attracted the attention of researchers to develop
sion making on IoT fog devices and allowing more effective novel protocols. Existing security protocols include Transport
communication with mediator nodes. Fog computing has Layer Security (TLS), Secure Socket Layer (SSL), and Internet
extended the cloud architecture by using fog nodes (FN) Protocol security (IPsec). Recent works primarily focus on the
on the edge of the network. It has integrated IoT and cloud challenges and solutions of fog computing to safeguard data
2 Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

from various threats. Consequently, quantum cryptography multiple numbers of FNs to interact with end-users and to
has begun to replace the traditional methods of encryption process the related information. The FN can be small cell base
for enhanced data security [3, 4]. stations with proper storage, cellular base stations with pro-
Quantum computing (QC) is a way that provides a new cessing capability, and Wi-Fi access points which can be
approach to computation over classical computing. The laws placed on fixed locations (such as high buildings and roadside
of quantum mechanics provide power to QC over classical units) or mobile things (such as buses and trains).
systems. Quantum cryptography is one of the branches of In the given architecture, the core layer of the network has
QC, responsible for the secure transmission of data from one software-defined networking (SDN) nodes that accurately
point to another. Although researchers are working on all supervise the network and has extensive governance. Before
the fields of quantum cryptography to make it work, right transmitting the data of end devices of the bottom layer to
now only Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) is the part that the cloud, fog computing eliminates all potentially bad and
is providing quantum security over classical networks in ambiguous contents to reduce the load of the cloud. This is
securing key exchange. The quantum channel being provided where security challenges arise and can make the transmission
by QKD is safe from all types of attacks (classical adversary vulnerable. The main reason for the vulnerable security attacks
and quantum adversary). In QC, the processing is more fast is the direct interaction of the fog computing layer with
and secure. QC is working on the laws of real parallel comput- heterogeneous devices. A strong and novel mechanism is
ing. Quantum cryptography is difficult to breach because it required to mitigate this challenge. In subsequent sections,
operates on both states (1 and 0) at the same time. In quantum we have summarised all the popular attacks on various layers
cryptography, photons keep on spinning, which means they of fog architecture. In Section IV, solutions to all these attacks
keep on changing the position, making the qubits dynamic in QKD are mentioned after discussing, in brief, the impor-
in nature. Consequently, the problem of intrusion is avoided tance of quantum cryptography over classical cryptography
on a large scale with quantum cryptography. It can be used in the future.
to secure the fog architecture where data of heterogeneous
devices is gathered and processed, while increasing the trans- 3. Attacks on Network Communication
mission speed of data by having data centers in various parts Layers of Fog Computing
of the city. In this paper, we are proposing the use of QKD
for secure key exchange in fog computing architecture. Various attacks on three layers (mentioned in Figure 1) are
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: in the sec- as follows.
ond section, we discuss fog computing architecture; next, in
the third section, security attacks on the fog architecture’s 3.1. Cloud Layer. It is the uppermost layer of fog architecture. It
different communication layers (as discussed in Figure 1) is comprised of the workings of both the physical layer and the
are discussed. In the next section, solutions for fog comput- data link layer. It consists of many sensing technologies, for
ing security issues in quantum cryptography are discussed instance, radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags, wireless
along with the importance of using quantum cryptography sensor networks (WSNs), and near-field communications
over classical cryptography, followed by a use case in Section (NFCs), which all contribute towards building IoT infrastruc-
V, illustrating the importance of secure and fast data trans- ture [5, 6]. The cloud layer has the following security challenges:
mission in the case of healthcare along with open research
challenges in Section VI. Lastly, the article is concluded with (a) Node capturing: node capturing changes or destroys
the future scope. the identification of physical objects which are part
of IoT.
2. A Brief Introduction to Fog (b) Spoofing: hackers change the sensed data which ulti-
Computing Architecture mately changes the digital signals.
Fog computing is a highly virtualized platform, and it is not a (c) Denial of service (DoS): transmission of data to the
substitute for cloud computing. It provides storage, computa- upper layer for network transmission and processing
tion, and networking services between conventional cloud is denied.
data centers and end devices. Fog computing architecture is
a distributed computational framework that expands the 3.2. Edge Layer. It consists of the workings of network and
cloud computing model by shifting data processing closer to transport layers. It receives the data from the cloud layer
end devices. It results in low system response, by reducing and transfers it to the fog server to process it further. A mas-
the time taken by the huge data transmission traveling from sive amount of data is generated by day-to-day objects, in
devices to cloud and vice versa in IoT. Fog architecture as which data is processed using various network technologies,
shown in Figure 1 is a three-layer architecture. The first layer such as LANs, WANs, and transmission mediums like Wi-
is composed of end devices of IoT (known as end-users), the Fi, Bluetooth, and Zigbee. The security challenges faced by
second layer of fog architecture consists of FN and fog services the edge layer are as follows:
known as the fog layer, and the third layer is comprised of
cloud data centers. The core layer of fog architecture works (a) Selective forwarding: in selective forwarding, data
as a gateway between FN and the cloud. It has dedicated inter- packets are selectively dropped or blocked by mali-
faces to communicate with the fog layer. Fog layers can have cious nodes.
Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 3

Cloud
Core layer
layer
network

Edge services Edge services

Edge
layer

6g node 6g node 6g node

End
devices
Laptops Car House Office building Mobile devices

Figure 1: Fog computing architecture.

(b) Blackhole: false routing information is created, and in terms of security and reliability of transmitted data due to
all the data packets are forwarded to that address. direct transmission with end devices. Here, we are proposing
the use of quantum cryptography’s QKD as a solution to
(c) Wormhole: false storage information is given to bits secure it from classical as well as quantum adversaries. In
of data during relocation. subsection A, we are illustrating the importance of QKD
3.3. End Layer. The end layer consists of two parts: (a) user over classical security schemes, and the B subsection is
and (b) business layer aspects. Various applications are showing various QKD protocols that can be used to mitigate
being differentiated using various IoT application deploy- various above-mentioned attacks.
ment platforms [7, 8]. Security attacks faced by the end layer
are as follows: 4.1. Importance of QKD Over Classical Cryptography. A few
major differences between the classical and the quantum cryp-
(a) Sniffers/loggers: personal information (like pass- tography are illustrated in this subsection. Fog computing is
words and credit/debit card details) is extracted by an emerging technology that plays a major role in future appli-
attackers using sniffing. cations. So it is necessary to secure it from classical as well as
quantum adversaries. Public key cryptography schemes are
(b) Phishing attack: credentials are accessed using the easily breakable using quantum computers as shown by Shor
email address of the main authority, through which in 1994 [9]. Also, all the classical algorithms are venerable to
data can be damaged. quantum cryptography [10]. In [11], the authors have
(c) Node identification: every phase of the application proposed the use of blind quantum computing in fog architec-
has a different set of users; attackers gain illegal ture, making it feasible to merge quantum with fog computing.
access by harming the application. In this article, we have proposed the use of the QKD scheme in
fog architectures to secure it against attacks in the near future.
(d) Distributed DoS: single system is attacked using mul- Table 1 illustrates the major differences between classical
tiple infected systems. cryptography and quantum cryptography.

4. Mitigation of Fog Computing Security (a) Fundamental dimension: in classical cryptography,

Issues in Quantum Cryptography there is no such principle by which it can be defined
whether the network is eavesdropped or not, whereas
Fog computing is used as an extra layer to provide an advan- in quantum cryptography, two devices share corre-
tage between the IoT devices and the cloud layer. It helps to lated states; if an intruder tries to eavesdrop at any
reduce the load on the cloud because processed data is trans- point, the state of the photon instantly changes
mitted to the FN. There are many challenges at the fog layer providing more security.
4 Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

Table 1: Comparison of classical cryptography and quantum cryptography.

Classical cryptography Quantum cryptography

In classical cryptography, an eavesdropping attack cannot In quantum cryptography, it is easy to detect
Fundamental
be detected as the number of keys keeps increasing every eavesdropping due to principles of quantum mechanics;
dimension
18 months on average. minimum changes are required, i.e., it incurs less cost.
Commercial Classical cryptography can be implemented on small Quantum cryptography is in the infant stage and requires
dimension hardware. a lot of work to shrink on small hardware.
Shor’s algorithm has proven that factors of any large
Application Security is provided through factors of large numbers in
numbers can be easily found, leaving classical
dimension classical cryptography.
cryptography insecure.
Technological Quantum cryptography has only achieved a maximum of
Can transmit data to any length
dimension 4600 km.

(b) Commercial dimension: although classical cryptogra- ics principles. QKD is the only cryptographic scheme of quan-
phy is more scalable than quantum in recent times as tum cryptography that can be performed on classical systems
not all the channels are made of optic wires when to provide a more secure key exchange. Other cryptographic
quantum computers will be on the market, it will schemes are mentioned by many researchers [14], but only
be necessary to secure classical networks instead of QKD feasibly works over classical networks.
changing the whole. Security threats of authentication in the fog layer can be
mitigated with the help of QKD. In the various critical applica-
(c) Application dimension: most of the classical cryptog- tions of IoT such as smart health, smart grid and smart indus-
raphy schemes are based on the factorization of the tries, etc. authentication and privacy are the major challenging
two highest prime numbers, which can be easily cal- issues. End Layer works as a front face in the fog hierarchy.
culated with parallel computing of quantum princi- Where the main security issue is authentication. Due to the
ples. Shor has proven it in 1994. So all the classical user interface its security issues and solutions are a bit different
cryptography schemes are vulnerable to the future from other layers. For data transmission, it is very crucial to
of computing. secure the Edge layer, as the whole data is stored and processed
(d) Technological dimension: in this field, recently, quan- on the edge layer. It is necessary to secure the data, keeping in
tum cryptography is lacking as classical cryptogra- mind the CIA model (confidentiality, availability, and integ-
phy can provide security to any length, whereas rity). Major attacks on this layer are DoS and eavesdropping.
quantum cryptography has achieved the maximum The cloud layer of the fog hierarchy is also known as end
of 4600 km distance [12]. devices. Various technologies are used to collect data from var-
ious devices like WSN, RFID tags, and NFC. Because of the
In article [13], the authors have compared the performance heterogeneous data of IoT devices gathered in the fog layer,
of various block ciphers (DES (Classical and Quantum), TDES security becomes a crucial aspect even in fog computing.
(Classical and Quantum), Blowfish (Classical and Quantum), In Figure 3, at the different layers of fog hierarchy, we
AES (Classical and Quantum)) and the Avalanche Effect based have shown the potential threats and their solutions in the
on encryption time, decryption time, and throughput for var- form of quantum cryptography protocols. The properties
ious file sizes from 100 kb to 600 kb. Their experiments are on which the protocols are working are also discussed adja-
clearly showing the better performance of quantum cryptogra- cent to the solutions.
phy. They have used the BB84 protocol of QKD for compari- The following is the description of various attacks on dif-
son. Figure 2 shows the results of the throughput with various ferent layers of fog architecture (Figure 1).
file sizes of all four schemes in both classical and quantum key
exchanges. 4.2.1. Security Solutions in Cloud Layer. The security issues
in the cloud layer of fog architecture can be resolved via
4.2. Quantum Key Distribution: A Solution to the Fog quantum computing’s property “Superposition.” Using the
Computing Security Threats. Machines that are based on quan- superposition property of quantum computing, data can be
tum mechanical principles (superposition and entanglement) kept safe. It changes the position of qubits when intruders
are known as quantum computers. The quantum computer try to read the data. This property is used in following
can process numerous combinations of ones and zeros at the QKD protocols to mitigate security threats in the cloud layer
same time at a very high speed, which is termed parallel of fog computing.
processing, making its working more complex than traditional
systems and helping to easily compute the security algorithms (a) BB84: a secure channel is established between sender
based on mathematical computations. Therefore, it is hard to and receiver, using polarized photons to mitigate
breach the key distribution performed using quantum mechan- authentication issues in fog computing [15].
Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 5

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 Avg
TDESC AESQ
DESC TDESQ
AESC DESQ

Figure 2: Throughput with different file sizes [13].

Cloud Layer
Security issues
• Node capturing QC properties
• Device tampering and solutions
• Malicious data Superposition
• Sybil attack • BB84
Core layer • No cloning
• Replay attack network • Quantum Secure Imaging
• Denial of service (DoS)

Edge Layer
Edge Services
• Blackhole
• Warmhole Entanglement
• Selective forwarding • COW
• BB92
6g 6g
• KM809
node node

End Devices

• Sniffer/Loggers Superposition & Entanglement

Laptops Car • SARG04
• Phishing attack
• DDoS • E91
Office building • Six state
• Decoy state
House Mobile devices

FOG Architecture

Figure 3: The security threats and solutions using quantum cryptography classification in fog computing.
6 Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

(b) No-cloning theorem: in QC, no-cloning theorem history and patient’s data to save patients. In this use case,
never let copy data, copying data is one of the main the whole scenario is divided into two subsystems.
issues of fog networks, i.e., adding fake nodes by
copying data. As photons travel from one place to 5.1. Healthcare Subsystem for Limited Area. The healthcare
another, they keep on changing their positions. subsystem for the limited area is subdivided into handling
and monitoring patient data in a limited area, for instance,
(c) Quantum secure imaging: this is used to secure the in region 1 of Figure 4. For sending and receiving signals
layer from signal jamming. for a region’s fog node, a patient should be in the vicinity
of it to communicate with that specific node. A patient wear-
4.2.2. Security Solutions in Edge Layer. To secure the edge layer, ing smart equipment can send numerous pieces of informa-
protocols based on quantum entanglement can be helpful. tion about its location and everything when it comes to the
Secoqc QKD network, KMB09, photon spinning, COW proto- coverage area of a specific fog node. The communication
col, and BB84 are these properties. No one can access the data between the fog node and the patient’s smart device makes
when entanglement-based protocols are used on the edge layer sure the nearest specialist is based on the saved information
of fog computing. Quantum annealing is a way to find the best of the patient. Patient health data is the most sensitive data,
solution for problems having multiple variables. Current quan- which needs strong encryption. Therefore, that data is
tum computers can only implement quantum annealing [16, encrypted using QKD’s BB84 encryption to safeguard it
17], a subset of a quantum computer. Although only quantum from intruders. The healthcare system working in a limited
annealing can be implemented, it embeds the properties of area can receive the patent’s file through that smart device
both quantum superposition and quantum entanglement. and follow the following steps:
The following protocols are based on these properties:
(a) Step 1: the fog node monitors and controls the health
(a) In Secoqc, QKD’s maximum number of keys is gen- data of the patient. If the patient needs any help,
erated and stored. These are used according to the then this system can provide the patient’s data and
traffic on the network. In this, it will help in the it will be mapped with the medical history of the
selective forwarding issue [6] patient. Hospitals just need to authenticate the data
by putting the patient’s medical id on the server.
(b) COW (coherent one-way) protocol works on the On the fog node, an intelligent secure heath care
principle of quantum entanglement. It transmits control algorithm (limited area) is implemented. By
the data at the speed of light using real-time patient data, it calculates the health
(c) The KMB09 protocol works on the Heisenberg condition of the patient. For instance, if any patient’s
uncertainty principle. It is impossible to know simul- pacemaker is not working (medical equipment),
taneously the exact position and momentum of a then doctors receive real-time data of the patient.
particle This step should be implemented in real-time. Due
to traveling, the response time can get impacted as
4.2.3. Solutions in End Layer. QKD’s protocols used to alle- the fog nodes change when the region changes and
viate security issues in the end layer are using both proper- the smart device has to cope with frequently chang-
ties of QC: superposition and entanglement. The following ing nodes, so the traveling time shows some impact.
are the protocols against the security threats of the end layer (b) Step 2: the fog node performs some crucial steps such
in the fog hierarchy. as it encrypts the data, preprocesses it, and changes it
to statistical information useful to medical personnel
(a) The E91 protocol works on the property of entangle- before storing it to cloud servers.
ment, where both the sender and the receiver could
have one photon each. Therefore, sniffers will not 5.2. Healthcare Subsystem for Large Area. The healthcare sub-
be able to log in to the system system for a large area is responsible for handling the medical
data from a large area perspective, for instance, combined
(b) The six-state uses a six-state polarization scheme on
regions 1 to 4 in Figure 4. Figure 4 depicts the distant cloud
three orthogonal bases
server which collects information from all the four fog nodes
present in all four regions. Data mining is performed to mine
5. A Potential Use Case: Integrated Fog-Assisted the medical information. There are two algorithms used to
and Quantum Secure Health Care System process the data in a large area: one is an intelligent health care
algorithm (for a large area) and the other one is a dynamic
We used an integrated fog-assisted and quantum secure health transmission algorithm. In the large area healthcare subsystem
care system as an example use case to elaborate the importance (on the cloud), a more difficult intelligent healthcare algorithm
of quantum cryptography protocol encryption in fog comput- is used as compared to the one used in the fog nodes of the
ing architecture and networks. An integrated fog-assisted and different regions. The reason for the different levels of compli-
quantum secure health care system is illustrated to give bene- cation is that the one present on the cloud is responsible for
fits like anytime availability of patient’s information for sub- predicting the medical issues based on historical data as well
scribing proper medication and treatment depending upon as the real-time data fog nodes are sending. It takes more time
Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 7

Internet

Region 1 Region 2
Patients Patients

Region 3 Region 4

Patients Patients

Healthcare subsystem Healthcare subsystem for large area (cloud servers)

for limited area
Encryption using Statistical medical data of patients Historical data of patients
BB84 on
Application Layer
Intelligent health care algorithm (large area)
Real time remote
Patient 1 patient health Match
monitoring
Medical global database
Intelligent health
care algorithm Optimal
Dynamic transmission algorithm
(limited area) medical services
Patient n
Medicine & Suggestion of
Current location Destination
treatment specialist
& medicine
subscription

Output Input Fog nodes Cloud Server

Figure 4: A fog-assisted health care system: an overview.

in processing on cloud servers than on fog nodes. Here, fog against the malicious data being uploaded on FN.
computing provides an advantage as the processing and cap- This requires the development of new techniques
turing of data is done in two steps now. The mining results of security.
of this algorithm subscribe best medical treatment and medi-
cines based on large area data comparison. After taking deci- (ii) Virtualization: it is the act of creating virtual
sions, the results are sent to all the fog nodes in the city. The network nodes when end users are being assigned dif-
main aim is to save personal medical information by QKD ferent nodes continuously, as per the dynamic nature
protocol and process of authentication to avoid the manipula- of fog nodes, it surges the problems of the virtual
tions of data of patients. machine (VM) lifecycle, container, and context
awareness. Quantum key distribution protocols are
implemented by researchers as per the requirements
6. Open Research Challenges of Fog Computing of hardware for random key generation. However, if
the nodes will also keep on changing, it will accelerate
The network of the fog layer is dynamic in nature due to the the problem which is again a major security threat.
mobility of end devices. It poses the following research chal-
lenges of quantum cryptography in fog computing: (iii) Resources and tasks: tasks and resources are sched-
uled as per the time and availability correspondingly
(i) Infrastructure: most infrastructure problems occur between end-users and fog nodes. The management
when fog nodes are not communicating, then quan- can be better handled by QKD which will also safe-
tum cryptography requires an extra layer of security guard the data. Due to the dynamic requirements of
8 Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing

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