Enroll.

no:211100107039

Practical-01
Date:14/08/20223

AIM: Study of different network devices in detail

1. Repeater:
A repeater is a powerful network hardware device that regenerates an incoming
signal from the sender before retransmitting it to the receiver. It is also known as a signal
booster, and it helps in extending the coverage area of networks. The Incoming data can be
in optical, wireless or electrical signals. It works at the physical layer of the OSI model.

It is used for longer-distance data transmission without compromising data security

or quality. Repeaters are two-port devices.Repeaters are manufactured by TP-Link,
Mercusys, Netgear, Cellexxa, ASUS, etc.

(img: Repeater)

Types of the Repeaters:

1. On the Basis of the Types of Signals Generated

a. Digital Repeater

b. Analog Repeater

2. On the Basis of the Types of Signals Generated

a. Optical communications Repeater

b. Wireless Repeaters:

c. Wireless Repeaters

d. Radio Repeater

3. On the Basis of the Domain of LANs Connected

a. Local Repeaters

b. Remote Repeaters

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2. Hub:

The main purpose of a hub is to connect all present network devices together on a
predefined internal network. Hub is a device consisting of multiple ports that accept
Ethernet connections from network devices. Hub is not considered to be an intelligent one
because it doesn't filter any data present or has no intelligence to assume as to where the
data is actually supposed to be sent, and that’s the reason because the only thing a hub
knows is that when a device is actually connected to one of its ports. So whenever a data
packet arrives at one of the ports, it is copied to all the other ports. So all the devices
present on that hub see that data packet. So again, when a data packet comes into one port,
the hub will just rebroadcast that data to every port that has a device connected to it.

(img: Hub)

Types of the Hubs:

1. Passive hub

2. Active hub

3. Intelligent hubs

A hub works at the physical layer of the OSI model. Hubs are manufactured by Vishal
Industries, Jashan Auto Industries, Jay Shakti Enterprise, Progressive Gear Industries (P) Ltd,
etc.

3. Gateway:

A gateway is a network node used in telecommunications that connects two

networks with different transmission protocols together. Gateways serve as an entry and
exit point for a network as all data must pass through or communicate with the gateway
prior to being routed. In most IP-based networks, the only traffic that does not go through
at least one gateway is traffic flowing among nodes on the same local area network (LAN)
segment. The term default gateway or network gateway may also be used to describe the
same concept.

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Types of the Gateway:

1. Web Application Firewall

2. Cloud Storage Gateway

3. API, SOA or XML Gateway

4. IOT Gateway

5. Media Gateway

6. Email Security Gateway

7. VoIP trunk Gateway

Gateway work as network layer. Gateways are also called protocol converters and
can operate at any network layer.

4. Switch:

The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very
efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only.

(img: switch)

A switch is a data link layer device. Switches are manufactured by ADTRAN,

Aerohive, Alaxala Networks, Alcatel-Lucent Enterprise, Allied Telesis, Arista Networks. Avaya
- acquired Nortel, Buffalo Technology.

Types of Switch:

1. Layer 2 switches
2. Layer 3 switches
3. PoE switches
4. Gigabit switches
5. Rack-mounted switches
6. Desktop switches
5. Router:

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A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.

(img: Router)

The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and
WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions
on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected
through it. Cisco Enterprise Routers and Switching can change your network to become
more protected with the high-security protocol. The router is Rs.2000 in India.

6. Bridge:

The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect

multiple LANs to a larger LAN In computer networks.

(img: Bridge)

The bridge is data link layer. A bridge in a computer network is a device used to
connect multiple LANs together with a larger Local Area Network (LAN). Digi key I the
manufacture company of bridge devices. The bridge devices prices is $45.

Types of bridge:

1. Transparent bridge
2. Source routing bridge
3. Translational bridge
4. Transparent Bridge
5. Source Routing Bridge
6. Translational Bridge

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7. Server:

A Server is a program or a device that provides functionality for called clients which
are other programs or devices. This architecture is called the client-server model.

(Img: Server)

The server is session layer. 3Uheatsink is manufacturing the server model.

Server price starting at ₹ 98,454.34.

Types of servers:

1. Application Server
2. Catalog Server
3. Communication Server
4. Computing server
5. Fax server
6. File server
7. Game server
8. Mail server
9. Print server
10. Proxy server
11. Web server

8. NIC:

NIC stands for Network Interface Card NIC is additionally called Ethernet or physical
or network card. NIC is one of the major and imperative components to associate a gadget
to the network.

It is shown on layer 2 of the OSI show which is an information interface layer that
employs MAC address.

Common manufacture of NIC is intel, Realtek. NIC Ethernet Card price ₹ 16,650.00.

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(img: Network Interface Card)

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Practical-02
Date:

Aim: Study of different types of network cables and practically implement the cross-wired
cable and straight through cable using crimping tool.
Materials and Tools Needed:

1. Ethernet cable (Cat5e or Cat6)

2. RJ-45 connectors (8P8C)
3. Crimping tool
4. Wire stripper or cutter
5. Cable tester (optional but recommended)
Procedure:
Step 1 – Spool out your length of cable
Pull out enough cable to run the length required for your installation. Be sure to allow enough to
trim several inches off each end. It’s always better to go a little longer than to not have enough
cable!

Step 2 – Strip off the outer jacket

Insert the cable into your wire stripper. In this demonstration we are using a round Cat 5 cable.
If you use a flat cable then you need to use a stripper for flat cable. Most strippers designed for
creating network cables can do either cable type. Rotate the stripper around the cable until the
entire circumference of the jacket has been cut. Inspect the inner wires to make sure none of
them have been nicked. If any are showing exposed copper wire then you need adjust your
blade depth and try again.

Step 3 – Separate your wire pairs

Untwist all 4 pairs of wires and straighten them out the best you can. If there are any white
fibres or a plastic divider in the center you can now trim it off.

Step 4 – Arrange wires according to diagram

Line up the individual wires in the order shown on your diagram. In our example we used the
common Wiring Diagram B layout. Use your thumb and index finger to straighten out all the
individual wires, while keeping a good grip to keep them in order.

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Step 5 – Cut the wires

Cut the wires flush about 1/2″ from where the jacket was stripped off the cable. Make sure to
leave enough that the ends of the wires are able to reach the pins of the connectors. The cable
needs to go inside the connector housing enough for the crimp tab to come down on top of the
jacket and hold it in place.

Step 6 – Insert wires into connector

Insert the wires into the connector. Make sure the connector is oriented properly, the release
tab should be facing down toward the ground. Ensure all wires are still in the correct order after
they are pushed all the way to the pins.

Step 7 – Crimp the connector

Insert your connector with the wire inside the 8P8C slot of your crimp tool. Give the crimp tool a
good squeeze to ensure it goes through the full range of motion and creates a proper crimp. Pull
your connector out of the crimp tool to show your finished connector. Repeat all of these steps
to crimp a connector on the other end of your cable.

Different types of network (Media) cables:

1. Coaxial cable:

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This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath covers the
braiding, the braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.

Sheath
This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield
This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the
same metal that is used to build the core.

Insulation
Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided shield. Since
both the core and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch
each other and create a short-circuit in the wire.

Conductor
The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core coaxial cable.

A single-core coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper) conductor, while
a multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires. The following image
shows both types of cable.

2. Twisted Pair Cable:

Twisted pair is a copper wire cable in which two insulated copper wires are twisted around
each other to reduce interference or crosstalk. It uses 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and some
other newer ethernet variants. It uses RJ-45 connectors.

A twisted pair cable usually contains two or more conducting wires either shielded by an
insulator or not and, further these twisted pairs of wires are coated for protection from any
damage.

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(Img: Twisted Pair Cable)

Types of twisted pair cable:

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable: In STP the wires are covered by a copper braid
covering or a foil shield, this foil shield adds a layer that protects it against
interference leaking into and out of the cable. Hence, they are used for longer
distances and higher transmission rates.

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable: Unshielded twisted pair cable is one of the
most commonly used cables in computer networks at present time. UTP consists of
two insulated copper wires twisted around one another, the twisting of wires helps
in controlling interference.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

Fiber optic cables use optical fibers which are made of glass cores surrounded by several
layers of cladding material usually made of PVC or Teflon, it transmits data in the form of
light signals due to which there are no interference issues in fiber optics. Fiber optics can
transmit signals over a very long distance as compared to twisted pairs or coaxial cables. It
uses 10BaseF, 100BaseFX, 100BaseBX, 100BaseSX, 1000BaseFx, 1000BaseSX, and
1000BaseBx ethernet variants. Hence, it is capable of carrying information at a great speed.

An optical fiber consists of a core and a cladding, chosen for their total internal reflection
due to the difference in refractive index between the two. In real optical fibers, the cladding
is usually covered with a layer of acrylate or polyimide polymer. The coating protects the
fiber from damage and several layers of protective sheathing, depending on the application,
are added to form the cable.

(img: Fiber Optic Cable)

Types of Fiber Optics:

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 SMF (Single-mode fiber)- it uses one single ray of light to transmit data, it is used for
long-distance transmission.

 MMF (Multi-mode Fiber)- it uses multiple light rays to transmit data, it is

comparatively less expensive.

Types of Connectors Used: Mainly these four connectors are used with fiber optic cable:

 ST (Straight-tip) Connector

 FC (Fiber Channel) Connector

 SC (Subscriber) Connector

 LC (Lucent) Connector

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Practical-03

Date:

AIM: Study of basic Network & Network configuration commands.

1. PING:

The "ping" command is a network utility tool used to test the reachability of a host on an
Internet Protocol (IP) network and measure the round-trip time for packets sent from your
computer to the target host and back. It is available on most operating systems, including
Windows, macOS, and various Linux distributions.

Example of ping command:

2. NETSTAT:

The netstat (network statistics) command is a command-line network utility available on

various operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and Unix-like systems. It provides
information about network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, masquerade
connections, and more. netstat can be a valuable tool for diagnosing network-related issues
and monitoring network activity.
Example of netstat command:

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3. TRACERT:

The tracert command, also known as traceroute on Unix-like systems (Linux, macOS), is a
network diagnostic tool used to trace the route that packets take from your computer to a
destination host or IP address. It shows a list of all the intermediate routers (hops) that the
packets pass through to reach the destination, along with the round-trip times for each hop.
This information is useful for diagnosing network connectivity issues and understanding the
path packets take through the Internet.

Example of tracert command:

4. NSLOOKUP:

The nslookup (short for Name Server Lookup) command is a network tool available on most
operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and macOS. It is used to query Domain Name
System (DNS) servers to obtain information about domain names, IP addresses, and DNS
records. nslookup is a valuable utility for troubleshooting DNS-related issues and performing
various DNS-related tasks.

Example of nslookup command:

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5. Ipconfig:

The ipconfig (IP Configuration) command is a Windows command-line utility that provides
information about the network configuration on a Windows computer. It displays
information such as the IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and more for all network
interfaces on the computer. This command is often used for diagnosing network issues and
configuring network settings.

Example of ipconfig command:

6. NETSH:

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Netsh is a command-line scripting utility that allows you to display or modify the
network configuration of a computer that is currently running. oNetsh commands
can be run by typing commands at the netsh prompt and they can be used in batch
files or scripts.
To run a netsh command, you must start netsh from the command prompt by typing
netsh and then pressing ENTER.
Next, you can change to the context that contains the command you want to use.
The contexts that are available depend on the networking components that you
have installed.
For example, if you type dhcp at the netsh prompt and press ENTER, netsh changes
to the DHCP server context.
If you do not have DHCP installed, however, the following message appears:

The following command was not found: dhcp.

Netsh is a command-line scripting utility that allows you to, either locally or
remotely, display or modify the network configuration of a currently running
computer.
Used without parameters, netsh opens the Netsh.exe command prompt (that is,
netsh>).

7. GETMAC:

The getmac command is a Windows command-line utility used to retrieve the Media Access
Control (MAC) address for one or more network interfaces on a Windows computer. The
MAC address is a unique hardware address assigned to network interfaces, such as Ethernet
or Wi-Fi adapters, and it's used for identifying devices on a local network.

Example of ipconfig command:

8. HOSTNAME:

The hostname command is a command-line utility used to display or set the hostname of a
computer. The hostname is the name assigned to a computer or device on a network, and it
is used to identify that device on the network. The hostname is often a human-readable

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name and is used for various purposes, such as network identification, remote access, and
more.

Example of ipconfig command:

9. ARP:

The arp (Address Resolution Protocol) command is a network utility available on various
operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and macOS. It is used to view and manipulate
the ARP cache, which is a table that maps IP addresses to their corresponding MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses on a local network. ARP is essential for network communication
within a local subnet.

Example of ipconfig command:

10. SYSTEMINFO:

The systeminfo command is a Windows command-line utility that provides detailed

information about the computer's hardware and software configuration. It is a useful tool
for retrieving system-related information, including the operating system version, hardware
components, system updates, and more.

 Host Name: The name of the computer.

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 OS Name: The name of the operating system.

 OS Version: The version of the operating system.

 OS Manufacturer: The manufacturer of the operating system.

 OS Configuration: Indicates whether the operating system is a standalone

workstation, a domain controller, or a server.

 Build Type: Specifies whether the operating system is 32-bit or 64-bit.

 Registered Owner: The registered owner of the operating system.

 Registered Organization: The registered organization associated with the operating

system.

 Product ID: The product ID or serial number of the operating system.

 Original Install Date: The date when the operating system was originally installed.

 System Boot Time: The date and time when the system was last booted.

 System Manufacturer: The manufacturer of the computer's hardware.

 System Model: The model of the computer.

 System Type: Indicates whether the computer is a physical machine or a virtual

machine.

 Processor(s): Information about the CPU(s) in the system, including name,

manufacturer, and speed.

 BIOS Version: The version of the computer's BIOS firmware.

 Windows Directory: The directory where the Windows operating system files are
located.

 System Directory: The directory where critical Windows system files are located.

 Locale: The system's locale setting.

 User Name: The name of the currently logged-in user.

 Time Zone: The time zone configured on the system.

 Total Physical Memory: The amount of installed RAM.

 Available Physical Memory: The amount of available RAM.

 Virtual Memory: Information about the virtual memory configuration.

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 Page File Space: Information about the page file (virtual memory) usage.

 Domain: The name of the Windows domain (if the computer is part of a domain).

 Logon Server: The name of the server that authenticated the user's logon session.

 Hotfix(es): A list of installed hotfixes (Windows updates) with their names and
installation dates.

 Network Card(s): Information about the installed network adapters.

Example of ipconfig command:

Practical-04

Date:

AIM: Implement different LAN topologies using Network Simulator.

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1. Bus Topology:

Bus topology is a network design in which all devices are connected to a single central
cable or bus. Data is transmitted as electrical signals along the bus, and all devices on the
network can access and listen to these signals. While it's simple and cost-effective, a
single point of failure in the bus can disrupt the entire network. Bus topologies are less
common in modern networking, with star and ring topologies being more prevalent.

2. Star Topology

A star topology is a network configuration where each device is connected directly to a

central hub or switch. This hub acts as a traffic controller, facilitating communication
between devices. It offers high reliability and scalability but can be vulnerable if the
central hub fails. It is commonly used in Ethernet networks and home Wi-Fi setups.

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3. Ring Topology:

Ring topology is a network configuration where devices are connected in a circular

fashion. Each device is linked to exactly two others, forming a continuous loop. Data
travels in one direction around the ring, making it a reliable but slower network design.
If one device fails, it can disrupt the entire network.

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4. Mesh Topology:

Mesh topology is a network design where each device is directly connected to every
other device, forming a redundant and highly reliable network. It offers robust fault
tolerance, as data can still flow even if a connection fails. However, it's costly and
complex to implement due to the numerous connections required. Mesh topologies are
commonly used in critical applications like military and financial systems.

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5. Tree Topology:

A tree topology is a network architecture where nodes are connected in a hierarchical

structure with a root node at the top. Information flows from the root to the leaf nodes,
making it efficient for broadcasting data to multiple nodes. Each node has a single
parent, ensuring a clear and organized network structure, commonly used in WANs and
corporate networks.

6. Hybrid Topology:

A hybrid network topology combines two or more traditional topologies, such as star,
bus, ring, or mesh, within a single network. This approach offers increased flexibility and
robustness, allowing for the customization of network segments based on specific
requirements. Hybrid topologies are often used in larger, complex networks to optimize
performance, scalability, and fault tolerance.

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Practical-05

Date:

AIM: Implement the concept of VLAN using Network Simulator.

Virtual LAN (VLAN) is a concept in which we can divide the devices logically on layer 2 (data
link layer). Generally, layer 3 devices divide the broadcast domain but the broadcast domain
can be divided by switches using the concept VLAN.

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Configuration of router:

Switch>enable

Switch#config terminal

Switch(config)#int fa0/1

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 10

Switch(config-if)#int fa0/2

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 10

Switch(config-if)#int fa0/3

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 20

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Switch(config-if)#int fa0/4

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode access

Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 20

Switch(config-if)#int range fa0/1-4

Switch(config-if-range)#switchport mode access

Switch(config)#int fa 0/5

Switch(config-if)#switchport mode trunk

Router>enable

Router#config terminal

Router(config)#int fa0/0

Router(config-if)#no shutdown

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Practical-06

Date:

AIM: Implement the concept of static routing.

Static routing is a simple network routing method where network administrators

manually configure and maintain a fixed route for data packets to travel between
devices. Static routes are defined by specific destination IP addresses and the
corresponding next-hop routers, ensuring a predetermined path for data
transmission.

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