2.

PROPULSION SYSTEM

2.1. Main requirements of the propulsion system

2.2. Aspects preceding the selection of a certain propulsion system
2.2.1 Estimating the required power;
2.2.2 Endurance.
2.3. Factors involved on propulsion system selection
2.3.1 Main engine selection;
2.3.2 Propulsive devices;
2.3.3 Main steps on propulsion system selection.

Ribeiro e Silva – Main Machinery and Auxiliary Marine Systems

 2.1. Main requirements of the propulsion system

Basic operating requirement

o The basic operating requirement for a main propulsion system is to propel
the vessel at the required sustained sea speed for the range (or
endurance) required.
o This propulsive action is obtained from the torque generated at the
prime mover (main engine), which is then eventually converted into low-
speed drive for the propeller shaft-line by means of a gearbox, and finally
reaches the propeller itself. At the propeller shaft-line, the thrust from the
propeller is also transferred to the hull of the ship.
Secondary operating requirement
o In complement, the propulsion system should also provide the vessel:
o Stopping;
o Backing;
o Manoeuvring capabilities.
 2.2. Aspects preceding the selection of a certain propulsion system

Introduction

o Before a main propulsion plant can be designated, the power required for
sustained operation and endurance must be tentatively determined.
o However, there is an interdependent relationship involved: the space and
weight requirements for the propulsion plant vary with power rating and
can have a significant effect on the ship configuration, while the
dimensional and form characteristics of the hull and its approximate
displacement are required to establish an estimate of the propulsive power
required;
o It is apparent that marine engineers must coordinate their activities with
those of naval architects from the earliest conceptual design stage to solve
this “chicken-egg” type problem.
 2.2. Aspects preceding the selection of a certain propulsion system

The following aspects should be primarily identified and determined by

the agent responsible for selection of the propulsion system:

a) Determination of ship resistance (power curve):

b) Selection of the propulsor type, since this selection will have a strong
influence on the selection process of the main propulsion plant;
c) Choice of the number of propulsors (directly related to maximum
draught of the vessel, loading or power density* applied to the propulsor
resulting from rating power and rotative velocity conditions, occurrence of
cavitation and erosion, manoeuvring capability, maintainability and
installation reliability, etc.).

* Limit value of power density on a propeller is a ratio of 800 [kW/m2], where the numerator corresponds to
the shaft power PS, and the denominator corresponds to the propeller diameter squared.
a) 1st Admiralty Equation
Gross approximation to shaft horsepower (PS) from known ships of similar size
and speed by Admiralty constant (NA):

2
∆ 3V 3
PS = (1)
NA
Where:
 90 
k=
L
+ 14
N A = k L +  and
 V  30

V = Ship’s speed, in [kts];

L = Ship’s length, in [m];
PS = Shaft horsepower, in [HP];
Δ = Ship’s displacement, in [ton].
b) Taylor-Gertler’s Series: Effective power prediction
Estimation of effective power from Taylor-Gertler’s Series, with:
1 1 1 1
PS = PEA × × × × (2)
η H ηO η R η S
Where:
PEA ≈ 1.1PE = RT .V = effective power with appendages
RT .V 1 − t = hull efficiency (at design point approx. 0.90-1.10)
ηH = =
T .V A 1 − wT
Where: V A = V (1 − wT )= velocity of advance of the propeller ;

t = thrust deduction factor; RT = (1 − t )T = augmented resistance;

wT = (Taylor’s) wake fraction.

η O = open water propeller efficiency (at design point approx. 0.60-0.75)

η R = relative rotative efficiency (at design point approx. 0.95-1.02)
PD
ηS = = shaft transmission efficiency (at design point the following
PS approximations can be used: 0.99 no gearbox, 0.98 non reversible
gearbox with and without intermediate gear, 0.97 reversible gearbox)
 2.1.1 Estimation the required power

Delivered power
o Delivered power (PD) or propeller power, this power can be measured at propeller flange, see figure below
on the left).
Propulsive coefficient and Quasi-propulsive coefficient
o Propulsive coefficient = PC = η S .QPC ; QPC is designated the quasi-propulsive coefficient (at design point
approx. 0.60).

Power thrust of the propeller

o Power thrust of the propeller (PT) , this power can be measured at thrust block bearing, see figure above on
the right.
Shaft power
o Shaft power (PS) is therefore simply given by:

PEA
PS = (3)
PC
 b) Estimation of thrust deduction factor and wake fraction
Estimation of t and wT can be obtained from model tests, systematic series, and
empirical formulations, as described below:
wT = −0.05 + 0.50.C B ⇐ 1 single propeller
 (4) by Taylor
wT = −0.20 + 0.55.C B ⇐ 2 propellers
Where: ∇
CB = = block coefficient
LBT

t C
= a −b B (5) by Bragg
wT CW
Where: AW
CW = = waterplane area coefficient
LB
Empirical thrust deduction factor coefficients a and b.
CB 0.64 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.82

a 2.82 2.72 2.65 2.71 2.80

b 2.54 2.43 2.29 2.28 2.30

Note: These empirical values are valid for one single propeller; for vessels with two shaft lines the
ratio t/wT should be increased 10%.
b) Empirical formulation of QPC

Values of QPC can be also obtained from empirical formulation, as follows:

(6)
n L
QPC = k −
10000

Where:
k = 0.84

n = shaft line [rpm]

b) Taylor-Gertler’s Series: Total resistance coefficient
Taylor-Gertler series power prediction considers the total resistance coefficient,
given by :
(6)
CT = C R + C F + C A
Where:
C R = residuary resistance coefficient, which can be extracted from the series charts
0.075
CF = = frictional resistance coefficient, given by ITTC 1957
(log10 Rn − 2)2
VL
Where: Rn =
ν = Reynolds number (low value corresponds to laminar
flow and high values corresponds to turbulent flow
C A = 0.0004 = model-ship correlation allowance in resistance coefficient, given by Schoenherr
The value of the total resistance coefficient can now be evaluated, and the
clean effective power for each speed can be obtained, using :
1
PE = ρ .V 3 .S .CT (7)
2
Where: S = C S ∇L = wetted surface area of the hull [m2]
CS = wetted surface coefficient, which can be estimated or
Where: graphically obtained, as a function of the midship coefficient
and the beam to draught ratio.
c) Estimation of effective horsepower from methodical series
with correction from a known basis ship
Estimation of effective horsepower from Taylor-Gertler’s Series (TGS) or
Series 60, with correction needed to predict the power of the new ship from a
known ship (basis ship) of similar size and speed, given by :
PEA _ new (9)
PS _ new = PS _ basis ×
PEA _ basis
d) Estimation of effective horsepower from methodical series
with correction from a known basis ship plus additional
appendages, propeller and vessel’s LCB corrections
Same as above but with further corrections for:
d.1) bilge keels;
d.2) addition of bulbous bow;
d.3) effect of change in propeller rpm, diameter, blade thickness or advance
speed coefficient, etc.;
d.4) change in LCB or any form distortion;
d.5) loss due to bow thruster opening interference;
d.6) change in drag of standard appendages (rudders, struts, bossings, shafting).
e) Estimation of effective horsepower from small model
Same as above except that the PEA_new test results from a small model of the
new ship substitute the PEA_new derived from TGS.

f) Estimation of effective horsepower from self-propelled large

model and stock-propeller

PS from self-propelled large model tests with appendages and stock propeller.

g) Estimation of effective horsepower from self-propelled large

model and final designed propeller
PS from self-propelled large model tests with appendages and and final
designed propeller.
 2.2.2 Endurance

Empiricial formulation
o There is an empirical formula related to the k factor of the 1st Admiralty equation (1)
to determine the fuel consumption in 24 hour expressed in tonnes, given by :
2
∆ 3V 3
k= (4)
q24 hr

o With the provided information of the shaft power and diesel engine speed from the
engine manufacturer, the fuel consumption can be calculated (assuming a 5%
margin). Then given a certain operation profile of the vessel and information about
the available fuel volume (about 95% of the total capacity of the tanks), the
endurance time is easily determined.
 2.3. Factors involved on propulsion system selection

General

o Like many other general design projects, the design of a machinery plant
largely consists of the integration of a number of units and elements
into a functioning system;
o The process entails selecting components, adjusting each to the constraints
imposed by all the others, and arranging them to achieve the required
system performance, a satisfactory configuration, and an acceptable life
cycle cost;
o Fundamental to the design of a main propulsion plant is the coordination
of the prime mover with a transmission system and a propulsor;
o A number of possible machinery combinations may be considered by the
marine engineer in making the selection. As illustrated in the following
slides, even with the range of considerations confined to those most
commonly considered, a large number of alternatives is feasible.
 2.3. Factors involved on propulsion system selection

Gas turbine power plant (left) and Steam turbine power plant (right).
 2.3. Factors involved on propulsion system selection

Low-speed diesel power plant (left) and medium-speed diesel power plant (right).
 2.3. Factors involved on propulsion system selection
Therefore, major considerations used by the designer in the early design stage
of the design spiral are:
a) Power range;
b) Specific fuel consumption, [kg/kW.hr];
c) Specific weight, [kg/kW];
Other performance factors often considered simultaneously with the above
are:
d) Initial and life-cycle costs;
e) Installation reliability;
f) Maintenance and repair requirements;
g) Type of fuel (lower caloric value);
h) Shaft line reversing capability;
i) Level of manning required for running the plant;
j) Volume requirements in the machinery space and adaptability to ship’s
configuration.
 2.3.1 Main engine selection

o Considering all of these factors is in itself a difficult design trade-off

problem subjected to optimization procedures.
o The power range requirements are the most straightforward and for very
high power the selection is very simple as can be seen from the table
below (where 1 [kW] = 0.746 [HP]):

Typical power ranges of main engines.

Main engine Power range [HP]

Steam turbine 8 000 – 100 000 +

Gas turbine 500 – 45 000

Diesel 15 – 45 000

Gasoline 10 – 500
 2.3.1 Main engine selection
Slow speed two stroke Diesel engine
 2.3.1 Main engine selection
Slow speed two stroke Diesel engine
 2.3.1 Main engine selection
Slow speed two stroke Diesel engine
 2.3.1 Main engine selection

Gas Turbines
 2.3.1 Main engine selection

Gas Turbines
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

a) Propellers selection: Propeller geometry

o To understand the hydrodynamic action of a propeller it is essential to
understand basic propeller geometry and definitions.

o Figure above shows what is meant by rake and skew of a propeller.

o Skew has been shown to be effective in reducing vibratory forces, pressure
hull induced vibrations and retarding cavitation development;
o Rake, allows the stress in the blade to be controlled and slightly thinner blade
sections can be used, which can be advantageous from the hydrodynamic
considerations.
o Moreover, during the last years other type of propulsors have been made
available by the manufacturers to specific applications, as shown in the
figures below.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

a) Propellers selection: Propeller geometry (cont.)

o Every propeller needs a hub to fix blades and, in case of a CPP, to place
the control mechanism for the blades. This results in different hub sizes for
a FPP and a CPP and is a characteristic difference between these two
types;
o Blade Area Ratio (BAR = A/A0), defined as the blade area of the outline
projection of the blades divided by the propeller disc area;
o The hub size of a CPP is 10-15% larger (related to diameter). Hence, BAR
of a CPP are smaller than BAR of a FPP. Moreover, as a CPP is usually
fully reversible in the sense that its blades can pass through zero pitch
condition, care has to be taken that the blades do not interfere with each
other. Therefore, with equal number of blades, a CPP will have a
somewhat smaller BAR than a FPP.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection
a) Propellers selection: Propeller geometry (cont.)

o Figure above shows a propeller blade cut at a propeller ratio x = r/R = 0.7.
There are several pitch (P) definitions and the distinction between them is
of considerable importance to avoid analytical mistakes, namely:
o nose-tail pitch (most commonly used and referenced line);
o face pitch (tangent to the section of the pressure side surface and was used on
older model test series, e.g. Wageningen B Series).
o The expression P/D is the commonly used pitch ratio (p). Alternatively,
the pitch angle Θ can be given to relate axial distance to circumferential
distance after one propeller rotation, as follows:
P 
θ = arctan D  (11)
 xπ 
 
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection
a) Propellers selection: Propeller type selection
o Selection of a propeller for a particular application is a result of different
factors in pursuit of maximum efficiency with respect to:
o noise limitation; ease of manoeuverability; cost of installation, and so on.
o Each vessel has to be considered with regard to its own special
application. As indicated by figure below, some types of propellers are
inherently more efficient than others for particular applications
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection
a) Propellers selection: Propeller size
o To determine the propeller diameter (D) for certain delivered power (PD)
at shaft speed (n) and a design ship’s speed (V) is a complex routine.
o The size of a propeller cannot only be calculated theoretically, but must
also be adapted to the ship.
o The ship must provide the necessary space for the propeller including a sufficient
clearance between propeller and hull (see figure below).
o Due to hydrodynamic effects and/or cavitation the hull and the rudder can be
mechanically excited, which can cause heavy vibrations at the stern or rudder with the
possibility of mechanical failures.
o The values shown in this figure are only a design proposal. For more detailed
information, see the recommendations of a Classification Society or responsible yard.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection
a) Propellers selection: Cavitation and thrust breakdown
o The majority of the vessels of approximately 100 [ton] displacement or
more can control, not eliminate, the effects of cavitation:
o This means to reduce the erosive effect on material and to improve its hydrodynamic
performance as well as its behavior as a source of vibration excitation.
o However, it must be recalled that there are very few propellers that are free from
cavitation. Most of them experience cavitation at some position of the propeller disc.
o The power density of a propeller can only be increased to a certain limit,
which depends on the propeller parameters and especially on the blade
area ratio:
o The cavitation occurs first at the tip section of a suction side of the blade and extends
downwards with higher power consumption.
o It is a matter of definition when these effects are called “thrust breakdown”, e.g. if the
cavitation exceeds below the 0.5 radius. Subsequently, the propeller efficiency will
decrease rapidly.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection
a) Propellers selection: Direction of propeller rotation
o For vessels with a single propeller the influence on maneuvering is
entirely determined by the “paddle wheel effect”.
o Therefore, assuming that starboard is the main docking side and there is an advantage
to push off from the quay with astern thrust, FPP should have clockwise direction of
rotation and CPP should have counter-clockwise (see figure below on the left).
o For vessels with twin propellers the influence on propeller efficiency is determined by
the “wake field contra-rotation effect”. Therefore, in addition to the “paddle wheel
effect”, for conventional hull forms a supra-diverging rotation will be preferable for
FPP, while for CPP a supra-converging rotation is preferable, see figure below.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

a) Propellers selection: Selection of propeller blade number

o Blade numbers generally range from three to seven.
o For merchants ships four, five or six are favored, although many tugs and fishing
vessels frequently use three bladed designs.
o In naval applications where the generated noise become important blade number of five
and above predominate. In addition, a odd number of blades is always favored in
contrast with an even number of blades for reasons associated with propeller induced
noise and vibration.

a) Propellers selection: Propeller for high speed vessels

o For high speed vessels where both the advance and
rotational speeds are high and the propeller immersion low,
a point may be reached where it this not possible to
acceptably control the effects of cavitation. Such propellers
are called supercavitating propellers and are frequently
used in applications on high-speed naval vessels and
pleasure crafts.
o For small high-speed crafts the concepts of a surface
piercing propeller has been successful. This propeller
operates partially in and partially out of water.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

a) Propellers selection: Ducted propeller or propeller in nozzles

o The duct or nozzle can be used to accelerate the flow. This will (in an
ideal flow) lead to a gain in efficiency. In real fluids this gain only occurs at
high thrust loading.
o It may be advantageous to the design as a whole to use a small diameter
propeller and accept a lower propeller efficiency. This will lead to a high thrust
loading and a possible reason for using a ducted propeller.
o It is also possible to decrease the flow through the duct. By Bernoulli, the
pressure will increase and the combination of high pressure and low velocities
will delay the onset of cavitation.
o Finally, the duct can be used to straighten out a non-uniform inflow. This
will reduce the vibration which might otherwise be generated by the
propeller.
a) Propellers selection: Contra-rotating propeller
o This propeller utilizes rotational kinetic energy in the
slipstream of the first propeller and, in so doing, ejects
essentially axial flow in the final slipstream. Efficiency is
high and, for a given diameter, blade loading is low at the
expense of mechanical complexity.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

b) Selection of other types of propulsors

o Furthermore, attaining the maximum propulsive efficiency does not
necessarily constitute the main operational requirement. Special service
vessels may require some specific kind of propulsors.

o Moreover, during the last years other type of propulsors have been made
available by the manufacturers to specific applications, as shown in the
figures below.
 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

Different types and arrangements of modern propulsors.

 2.3.2 Propulsor selection

Different types and arrangements of modern propulsors.

 2.3.3 Main steps on propulsion system selection
Main steps on propulsion system selection are as follows:
a) Owner requirements;
b) Ship preliminary general arrangement and other possible solutions;
c) Ship preliminary structural design;
d) Hull form definition;
e) Calculation of hydrodynamic resistance;
f) Propulsor design (e.g. hydrodynamic characteristics of the propeller);
g) Prime mover selection (manufacturer, model, shaft power and rotation);
h) Gearbox selection – only if necessary (manufacturer, model and type,
reduction relation selection);
i) Project optimization and equipment selection, following the design spiral
procedure or a more recent multi-dimensional optimization technique.