2.

PROPULSION SYSTEM

2.6. Description of the most significant types of propulsion systems and

their components:
2.6.2. Gearboxes;

Ribeiro e Silva – Main Machinery and Auxiliary Marine Systems

 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Introduction
o Steam turbines operate at speeds up to 6000 [rpm]. Medium-speed diesel engines
operate up to about 750 [rpm]. The best propeller speed for efficient operation is in
the region of 80 to 100 [rpm]. The turbine or engine shaft speed is reduced to that
of the propeller by the use of a system of gearing. Their use also permits more than
one prime mover to be coupled to the same propeller.
o Gearboxes are basically constituted by pinions and gear wheels connected by
transmission shafts, which are supported by bearings fixed to the gear case. The
bearing may be of the type journal or roller bearing.
o In order to reduce friction onto the moving parts of a gearbox there is a clear need for
lubrication. The lubricating oil usually is pressurized by a pump and circulates along
the bearings, is sprayed over the pinion and gear teeth and then is drained to the oil
sump on a closed circuit fitted with a cleaning filter.
o A secondary function of the circulating lubricant is to carry away the heat losses of
the gearing and its bearings and also prevent rusting of the interior surfaces of the
gear. Therefore, a cooling circuit provided with a heat exchanger (cooler) is
installed onboard, where hot lubricating oil is cooled by sea water.
o The reverse mode on reverse/reduction gearbox can be attained by various
arrangements depending on the required location of the engine input or drive shaft
and the driven or output shaft. Figure A shows a simplified, flat arrangement for ease
explanation, and Figures B, C and D show different sectional views of a typical
reverse/reduction gearbox.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Introduction (cont.)

Fig. A – Typical reverse/reduction gearbox

arrangement.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Introduction (cont.)

Fig. B – Typical
reverse/reduction gearbox
arrangement.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Introduction (cont.)

Fig. C – Typical
reverse/reduction gearbox
arrangement.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Introduction (cont.)

Fig. C – Typical reverse/reduction gearbox arrangement.

 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Selection of Gearbox
o Exception for particular applications, gearboxes are available from manufacturers in
standard sizes. Main selection parameters to be considered are:
- power to be transmitted;
- maximum rotational speed of the input shaft;
- reduction ratio;
- number of input shafts;
- number of power-take-offs and required power and speed;
- orientation and sense of rotation of input and output shafts;
- reverse rotation requirements;
- built-in thrust bearing requirements.

o Other selection elements to be considered during ship design are:

- weight and dimensions;
- position of input and output flanges relatively to gearbox seats;
- location of oil lubricating drain and level indicator;
- depth of the bottom casing relatively to gearbox seats level;
- cooling requirements;
- supply of external electrical power requirements.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Nomenclature of Gear Teeth
o The terminology of gear teeth is illustrated in figure below. The following basic
definitions and equations should be considered :
- The pitch circle is a theoretical circle upon which all the calculations are based;
- A pinion is the smaller of two mating gears. The larger is often called the gear;
- The circular pitch (p) is equal to the sum of the tooth thickness and the width
of space;
- The addendum (a) is the radial distance between the top land and the pitch circle;
- The dedendum (b) is the radial distance between the bottom land and the pitch circle;
- The whole depth (ht) is the sum of the addendum and dedendum.
.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Nomenclature of Gear Teeth (cont.)

-The clearance circle is a circle that is tangent to the addendum circle of the matching
gear.
-The clearance (c) is the amount by which the dedendum in a given gear exceeds the
addendum of its mating gear;
-The backlash is the amount by which the width of a tooth space exceeds the thickness
of the engaging tooth measured on the pitch circle;
- The module (m) is the ratio of the pitch diameter to the number of teeth (N), given
by:

d
m= (49)
N

πd
p= = πm (50)
N
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involute_gear
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Force Analysis on Gear Teeth
o The notation to be used for force analysis on gear teeth is as follows: beginning with numeral 1
for the frame of the machine, we shall designate the input gear as gear 2, and then number
of gears successively 3, 4, etc., until we arrive at the last gear in the train. Next, there may be
several shafts involved, and usually one or two gears are mounted on each shaft as well as other
elements. We shall designate the shafts, using lowercase letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc.
o Figure below (a) shows a pinion mounted on a shaft a rotating clockwise at n2 speed and driving
a gear on shaft b at n3. The reactions between the mating teeth occur along the pressure line.
In figure below (b) the pinion has been separated from the gear and from the shaft, and their
effects replaced by forces. Fa2 and Ta2 are the force and torque, respectively, exerted by gear 3
against the shaft a pinion 2. F32 is the force exerted by gear 3 against the pinion. Using a similar
approach, we obtain the free-body diagram of the gear shown in figure below (c).
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Force Analysis on Gear Teeth (cont.)

- In figure before the free-body diagram of the pinion has been redrawn and the forces
resolved into tangential and radial components. We now define the transmitted load
(Wt) as:
Wt = F32t (51)

- The transmitted load is really the useful component because the radial component
serves no useful purpose. The applied torque (T) and the transmitted load are seen to
be related by the following equation:
d
T= Wt (52)
2
- The pitch line velocity (V) is given by:
πdn
V= (53)
60
- With these equations, the power transmitted (H) in watts:
H = WtV (54)
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Tooth Stresses
The following considerations must be treated as important limiting design factors in
specifying the capacity of any gear drive:
- the heat generated during operation;
- failure of the teeth by breakage;
- fatigue failure of the tooth surfaces;
- abrasive wear of the tooth surfaces;
- noise as a result of high speeds, heavy loads, or mounting inaccuracies.

In these notes only static failures due to bending stress, dynamic effects on bending
stress, and surface failure due to contact or Hertzian stress will be considered.
Therefore, cumulative fatigue effects on bending and surface loads will not be
discussed.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: a) Bending stress

- The particular purpose of these notes is to obtain relations for the bending stresses in
a loaded tooth. Wilfred Lewis (1892) presented a formula for computing the
bending stress in gear teeth in which the tooth form entered into equation. The
formula still remains the basis for most design today.

- To derive the basic Lewis equation, refer to figure above which shows a cantilever of
cross-sectional dimensions F and t, having a length l and a load Wt uniformly
distributed across the distance F. The section modulus is I/c=Ft2/6 and therefore the
bending stress is given by :
M 6Wt l
σ= = 2
(55)
I c Ft
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: a) Bending stress (cont.)

- Referring to figure shown on previous slide, we assume that the maximum stress in a
gear tooth occurs at a point a. By similar triangles, we can write:

t 2 l t2
= or x= (56)
x t 2 4l
- If we now substitute the value of x from equation (56) into equation (55) and multiply
the numerator and denominator by the circular pitch p, we find:
Wt
σ=
2 (57)
F   xp
3
- Letting y=2x/3p and substituting m=p/π and Y= π y, we obtain:
Wt
σ= (58)
FmY
- Table below shows the values of Y :
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: a) Bending stress (cont.)

- Table below shows the values of Y :

Lewis form factor for tooth design.

 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: b) Stress concentration

- When Wilfred Lewis first proposed the formula for bending stress, stress
concentration factors were not in use. But it is known now that there are a great many
situations in which they must be used. Photoelastic investigations were interpreted in
terms of the fatigue stress concentration factor Kf as:
L M
 t  t 
Kf = H +  +  (55)
Where:
r  l 
H = 0.34 − 0.4583662φ L = 0.316 − 0.4583662φ M = 0.290 + 0.4583662φ

r f + (b − r f )
2

r=
(d 2) + b − rf
- In these equations l and t are found from the
layout of figure on the right, φ is the pressure
angle, rf is the fillet radius, b is the addendum, and
d is the pitch diameter:
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: c) Geometry factor

- The AGMA established a factor J, called the geometry factor, which uses the
modified form factor Y of equation (58), the fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf of
equation (59), and a load-sharing ratio based on the proportion of the total load
carried by the most heavily loaded tooth. The AGMA equation of factor J is as
follows:
Y
J= (60)
K f mN
- With this definition of geometry factor, we can now write equation (58) in the form:

Wt
σ= (61)
FmJ
, which gives the normal stress corresponding to the total load W acting at the highest
point of single-tooth contact including the effects of stress concentration. Values of
geometry factor J are given in Tables A (for φ=20º) and B (for φ=25º).
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: c) Geometry factor (cont.)

Table A - AGMA geometry form factor for tooth design.

 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: c) Geometry factor (cont.)

Table B - AGMA geometry form factor for tooth design.

 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: d) Dynamic effects

- When a pair of gears is driven at moderate or high speeds and noise is generated, it
is certain that dynamic effects are present. One of the earliest efforts to account for
an increase in dynamic load due to velocity employed a number of gears of the same
size, materials, and strength which were subjected to destructive testing. For example,
if a pair of gears failed at 3 [kN] at zero velocity, and at 1.5 [kN] at velocity V1, then a
velocity factor, designated as Kv, of 0.5 was specified for the gears at velocity V1.
Thus another identical pair of gears running at pitch-velocity V1 could be assumed to
have a dynamic load equal to twice the transmitted load.
Carl Barth in the XIX century first expressed velocity factor, also called dynamic
factor, by the equation:
3
Kv = (62)
3 +V
These tests were performed on teeth having a cycloidal profile, instead of an involute;
Cycloidal teeth were in quite general use in those days because they were easier to cast
than involute teeth.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: d) Dynamic effects (cont.)

- For cut or milled teeth or for gears not carefully generated:
6
Kv = (63)
6 +V
- For spur gears whose teeth are finished by hobbing or shaping, AGMA recommends
the formula: 50
Kv = (64)
30 + 200V
- If the gears have high-precision shaved or ground teeth and if an appreciable
dynamic load is developed, then the AGMA dynamic factor is:
78
Kv = (65)
78 + 200V
- If the gears have high-precision shaved or ground teeth and if there is no appreciable
dynamic load is developed, then the AGMA recommends the dynamic factor Kv=1.
Introducing the dynamic factor into equation (61) gives :
Wt
σ= (66)
K v FmJ
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability

- To assure a satisfactory life, the gears must be designed so that the dynamic surface
stresses are within the surface endurance-limit of the material. In many cases the
first visible evidence of wear is seen near the pitch line; this seems reasonable
because the maximum dynamic load occurs in this area. To obtain an expression for
the surface-contact stress, we shall employ the Hertz theory. The contact stress
between two cylinders may be computed by the equation:
2F
pmax = (67)
Where:
πbl
pmax = surface pressure, [Pa];

F = force pressing the two cylinders together, [N];

l = length of cylinders, [m];

b=
[ ][
2 F (1 −ν 1 ) E1 + (1 −ν 2 ) E2
2 2
]
πl (1 d1 ) + (1 d 2 )
, where: E1 , E2 and ν1 , ν2 are the elastic constants and d1 and d2 are the diameters,
respectively, of the two cylinders.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability (cont.)

- To adapt these relations to the notation used in gearing, we replace F by Wt /cos φ ,
d by 2r, and l by the face width F. With these changes we can substitute the
expression of b into equation (67). Replacing pmax by σH, the surface compressive
stress (Hertzian stress) is found to be:

σH2 =
Wt (1 r1 ) + (1 r2 )
[ ][
F cos φ (1 −ν 1 )2 E1 + (1 −ν 2 )2 E2 ] (68)

, where r1 and r2 are the instantaneous values of the radii of curvature on the pinion-
gear tooth profiles, respectively, at the point of contact. By accounting for loading
sharing in the value of Wt, equation (68) can be solved for Hertzian stress for any
point from the beginning to the end of tooth contact (where sliding and rolling are
neglected).
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability (cont.)

- As an example of the use of this equation let us find the contact stress when a pair of
teeth is in contact at the pitch point. The radii of curvature r1 and r2 of the tooth
profiles, when they are in contact at the pitch point, are:

d P sin φ d G sin φ
r1 = r2 = (69)
2 2
, where φ is the pressure angle. Then:
1 1 2  1 1 
+ =  +  (70)
r1 r2 sin φ  d P d G 
Defining the speed ratio mG as:
NG dG
mG = = (71)
NP dP
, equation (70) can be re-written as:
1 1 2 mG + 1
+ = (72)
r1 r2 sin φ mG d P
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability (cont.)
- Combining equations (68) and (72) we obtain the compressive stress (-):
Wt 1 1
σH = −
 1 −ν P 2 1 −ν G  cos φ sin φ mG
2
Fd P (73)
π  + 
mG + 1
 EP EG  2
The subscripts P and G in equation (73) designate pinion and gear, respectively.
The second term in radical of equation (73) is called the elastic coefficient CP. Thus
CP is given by:
1
CP =
 1 −ν P 2 1 −ν G 2  (74)
π  + 

 E P E G 

Values of CP have been worked out for various combinations of material, and these
are listed in table below.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes

Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability (cont.)

Values of the elastic coefficient CP for spur and helical gears

with non-localized contact and for ν=0.3.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Tooth Stresses: e) Surface durability (cont.)
- The geometry factor I for spur gears is the denominator of the third term under the
radical of equation (73). Thus:

cos φ sin φ mG
I= (75)
2 mG + 1

Now recall that a velocity factor Kv was used in the bending-stress equation to account
for the fact that the force between the teeth is actually more than the transmitted load
because of the dynamic effect. This factor must also be used in the equation for surface-
compressive stress for exactly the same reasons, i.e. Cv = Kv, given by equation (61).
Finally, combining equations (73), (74) and (75) we obtain:

Wt
σ H = −C p (76)
Cv Fd p I
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Helical Gears – Kynematics and
Force Analysis
The helical gears are used to transmit
motion between parallel shafts.
However, in the case of helical
gears the teeth are not parallel to
the axis of rotation like in spur
gears.
The helix angle is the same on each
gear, but one gear must have right-
hand and the other a left hand helix.
The shape of the tooth is an involute
helicoid and is illustrated in figure on
the right.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Helical Gears – Kynematics and Force Analysis (cont.)
Figure below represents a portion of the top view of a helical-rack. Lines ab and cd are
the centerlines of two adjacent helical teeth taken on the pitch plane. The angle is the
helix angle. The distance ac is the transverse circular pitch pt in the plane of rotation
(usually called the circular pitch). The distance ae is the normal circular pitch pn in the
plane of rotation, and is related to the transverse circular pitch as follows:
pn = pt cosψ (77)

The distance ad is called the axial pitch px, and is related to the transverse circular
pitch as follows:
pt
px = (78)
tanψ
The normal module mn, is given by:
mn = m cosψ (79)
The pressure angle φn in the normal direction is different from the
pressure angle φt in the direction of rotation, because of the
angularity of the teeth, these are related by:
tan φn
cosψ = (80)
tan φt
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Helical Gears – Kynematics and Force Analysis (cont.)
Figure below is a three-dimensional view of the forces acting against a helical-gear.
The point of application of the forces is in the pitch plane and in the center of the gear
face. From the geometry of the figure, the three components of the total (normal) tooth
force W are: W = W sin φ
r n

Wt = W cos φn cosψ (81)

Wa = W cos φn sinψ
Where:
W = total force;
Wr = radial component;
Wt = tangential component, also called transmitted load;
Wa = axial component, also called thrust load;

Usually Wt is given and the other forces are desired as

follows: W = W tan φ
r t t

Wa = Wt tanψ (82)
Wt
W=
cos φn cosψ
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Helical Gears – Strength Analysis
The same equations for bending stress (66) and surface stress (76) in spur gears could
be repeated in here because they also apply to helical gears. For helical gears the
velocity factor is usually given by equation (65).
Geometry factors for helical gears must account for the fact that contact takes place
along a diagonal line across the tooth face and that we are usually dealing with the
transverse pitch instead of normal pitch. The worst loading occurs when the line of
contact intersects the tip of the tooth, but the unloaded end strengthens the tooth. The
J factor for can be found in table below. AGMA also published J factors for φn=15º
and φn=22º . Geometry factors I for helical and herringbone gears are calculated from
the equation: cos φt sin φt mG
I= (83)
2m N mG + 1
In this equation φt is the transverse pressure angle and mN is the load-sharing ratio
and is found from equation: pN
mn = (84)
0.95Z
Here pN is the normal base pitch; it is related to the normal circular pitch pN by the
relation:
p N = pn cos φn (85)
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Helical Gears – Strength Analysis (cont.)
The quantity Z is the length of the line of action in the transverse plane. It is best
obtained from layout of the two gears, but may also be found from the equation:
Z= (rP + a )2 − rbP2 − (rG + a )2 − rbG2 − (rP + rG )sin φ (86)
, where rP and rG are the pitch radii and rbP and rbG are the base-circle radii,
respectively, of the pinion and gear.

Geometry factors for helical and

herringbone gears having a
normal pressure angle of 20º.
(a) Geometry factors for gears mating
with a 75-tooth gear.
(b) J-factor multipliers when tooth
numbers other than 75 are used in
the mating gear.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Gear Arrangements
The early reduction gear designs incorporated many devices to minimize the effects of
bending and torsion of the pinion and of inaccuracies in machining and
alignment. However, experience has demonstrated that such devices are unnecessary,
and gear elements can be so proportioned and machined that uniform tooth
pressures can be obtained without use of mechanical devices to compensate for
pinion deflections. Hence, helical gears have been used for many years and remain a
part of most systems of gearing.
- Figure A represents the simplest arrangement of a marine reduction gear, i.e., the
pinion meshing with gear, as used, for instance, for connecting a propeller to a diesel
engine or to an electric motor;
- Figure B is a drive with two pinions as used frequently with diesel engines of
comparatively large power;
- Figure C represents the early-type of single-reduction gear for a turbine drive, the
principal difference between this reduction gear and the one shown in Figure B
being in the number of pinion bearings. It was used for speed ratios up to 20:1;
- Figure D represents the early-type of single-reduction gear for a turbine drive, the
principal difference between this reduction gear and the one shown in Figure B being in
the number of pinion bearings. It was used for speed ratios up to 20:1;
- Figure E represents the nested-type double-reduction gear, which has also been
used with cross-compound turbines;
- Figure F illustrates the type of gear referred as a locked-train double-reduction
gear;
.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Gear Arrangements (cont.)
- Figure G is a locked-train type double-reduction gear for a cross-compound turbine
or for two gas turbines prime movers. This arrangement has become standard for high-
powered naval vessels and high-powered merchant vessels because it minimizes the
weight and size of the assembly;
- Figure H is a planetary gear. It has a single input “sun pinion” which drives three or
more “planet gears”. These planet gears are mounted on a planet carrier which is solidly
connected to the output coupling. The outer “ring gear” is held stationary in the gear
housing. This type of type of gear has been applied to turbine-generator drive gears.
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Gear Arrangements (cont.)
 2.6.2 Gearboxes
Gear Arrangements (cont.)
Many other reduction gear arrangements are possible and have been used. For example, an
epicyclic gear arrangement is shown in figure below. Epicyclic gears with their compact,
lightweight, construction are being increasingly used in marine transmissions.