LABORATORY MANUAL FOR

CHEMISTRY/CONCEPTS IN CHEMISTRY
PRACTICALS
(18CYB101J/18CYB102J)
(For first year B.Tech students, common to all branches)
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SRM NAGAR, KATTANKULATHUR-603203

Department of Chemistry

SRM Institute of Science and Technology

 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified to be a Bonafide Record of work done by……………………………………….Register

Number……………………………………. of I year B.Tech in the chemistry Laboratory, SRM

Institute of Science and Technology during the academic year…………………………..

Lab in charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the practical examination held on……………………….. at the Department of

Chemistry, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603 203.

Date:……………………… Examiners:

1.

2.
 DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Chemistry Practical

Mapping of Program Learning Outcomes with Course Learning Outcomes

Course Course Chemistry Course Basic LTPC

18CYB101J BS
Code Name Category Sciences 3 1 2 5

Program Course Learning Outcome (CLO)

Learning
Outcomes Analyze Utilize the Rationalize Utilize the concepts Perceive the Utilize
(PLO) atomic, principles of bulk of thermodynamics importance of concepts in
molecular spectroscopic properties in understanding stereochemistry chemistry for
orbitals of technique in using thermodynamically in synthesizing technological
organic, analysing the thermodyna driven chemical organic advancement
inorganic structure and mic reactions molecules based on
molecules to properties of considerati applied in electronic,
identify molecules ons and pharmaceutical atomic and
structure, periodic industries molecular
bonding, properties level
molecular of elements modification
energy
levels
1. Engineering H H - H - -
Knowledge

2. Problem - - H H H -
Analysis

3. Design & H - - - H -
Development

4. Analysis, - H - H - -
Design,
Research

5. Modem . H - . - -
Tool Usage
 CONTENTS

I. Instructions to the Students

II. Introduction to Laboratory Experiments

III. Rubrics for the Experiments

IV. List of Experiments

V. Short Procedure

VI. Sample Questions

I Instructions to the Students

1. Get yourself prepared by going through the procedure for the experiment for the day’s

work before coming to the laboratory.

2. Bring laboratory manuals, calculators and a piece of cloth for every practical class.

3. Wear a lab coat and shoes while working in the laboratory.

4. Use the minimum possible quantity of chemicals / reagents. Switch off the instruments,

when they are not in use.

5. Handle the apparatus and glassware with utmost care. Keep the working table and sink

neat and clean. Do not throw filter paper, broken bits of glasses on the table or into the

sink.

6. After completion of the experiments, clean all the apparatus and keep them in their

respective places. Replace the reagent bottles in the respective places at once after use.

7. Get the laboratory workbook corrected immediately after the completion of the

experiment. Submit the record notebook before starting the next experiment.

8. Ensure that the details on experiments are recorded in the record of attendance and

assessment at the end of each class.

9. Be punctual to the laboratory. Maintain discipline and cleanliness in the laboratory.

10.Report breakage immediately to the laboratory staff.

11.Switch off the instruments, when they are not in use.

II Introduction to Laboratory Experiments

Synthesis, analysis and characterization are important processes in chemistry. In

synthesis compounds are prepared, its composition and structure can be determined through
chemical analysis and characterization techniques. There are two general analytical methods:
qualitative and quantitative analysis. Titrimetry is one of quantitative analysis. It involves the
estimation in solution by measurement of volumes. It is a handy, quick and fairly accurate
method of quantitative analysis. It is based on reactions between substances in aqueous
solutions. It involves frequent measurement of volumes of the reacting solutions and is,
therefore, called volumetric analysis. In volumetric analysis, two solutions are always made
to react in a conical flask known as titration flask. One of these two solutions is taken in the
burette and other in the conical flask. This process of finding out the volume of the titrant
required to react completely with a known volume of the solution under analysis is known as
titration.

The exact point at which a chemical reaction is completed during titration is called its
end point or equivalence point. In order to find out the end point, a reagent is used either
internally or externally which produces a visible change in colour just at the stage when the
reaction is completed. Such a reagent is called an indicator.

Terms involved in Volumetric Analysis

Titration: The process of finding out the volume of one of the solutions required to react
completely with the definite volume of the other solution is known as titration.

Standard solution (Titrant): In volumetric titration, one of the required solutions must be
standard. A standard solution is the one whose strength (of concentration) is known. If a
reagent is available in pure state, its standard solution is prepared by dissolving an accurately
weighed amount of it in water and making the solution to known volume by dilution. It is
called the Direct Method. All such substances whose standard solutions are made by the direct
method are termed Standard Substances or Primary standards. Oxalic acid crystals,
succinic acid, anhydrous sodium carbonate, potassium dichromate, ferrous ammonium
sulphate (Mohr’s salt), silver nitrate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride etc. belong to this
category. The following are the conditions for a chemical to be a primary standard.

The conduction for a chemical as a primary standard:

1. It must be obtained in a highly purified state.

2. It must be stable in the air.
3. It must be readily soluble in water.
4. It should possess a large equivalent weight so as to minimize the weighing error.
5. The error in determining the end point must be negligible.

The direct method is not possible in case of those substances which, in general, fall short
of the above conditions e.g.., alkali hydroxides, inorganic acids (like HCl, H 2SO4, HNO3,
etc.,). These are called the secondary standards. Their standard solutions are prepared by the
so-called indirect method. An approximately desired weight of the substance is dissolved in
water and the solution is made up to a known volume. The exact strength of the solution is
then determined by Standardization, i.e., titration with a suitable standard reagent.

End point and Equivalence point: The point at which the completion of reaction occurs is
called equivalence point, whereas an end point is an observable physical change that occurs
near the equivalence point.

Indicator: The substance which indicates the completion of the reaction by change in colour
at the end point.

Strength: The amount of substances dissolved in one liter of a solution when expresses in
grams is termed as strength of a solution. Strength of the solution can also be expressed in any
of the following ways:

(i) Normality: It is the number of gram equivalents of the substance dissolved per liter of
the solution. It is denoted by N,
 N = Grams of solute per liter of the solution
Gram equivalent weight of the solute

If one gram equivalent of a substance is dissolved per liter of the solution, it is called
Normal solution.
(ii) Molarity: It is the number of moles of the solute present per liter of the solution. It is
denoted by M,

M = Grams of solute per liter of the solution

Molecular mass of the solute

(iii) Molality: It is the number of moles of the substance dissolved in 1000gm or 1kg of the
solvent. It is denoted by m,

M = Grams of solute per 1000gm of the solvent

Molecular mass of the solute

Equivalent Weight

The equivalent weight of the substance is defined as the number of parts by the weight of it
that combines with or displaces one part by weight of hydrogen or eight parts by weight of
oxygen. Equivalent weight expressed in grams is called gram equivalent weight.

(i) Equivalent weight of an acid = Molecular weight of acid

Basicity of acid

(ii) Equivalent weight of a base = Molecular weight of base

Acidity of base
The expression which relates the normalities and volumes of the two-reacting solution in a
titration is called Normality equation. It is expressed as,

N1V1=N2V2

Where NI and V1 represent normality and volume used for one solution and N2 and V2
represent normality and volume used for the second solution.

Common glassware used in titrimetry is burette, pipette, measuring flask, measuring cylinder,
conical flask and reagent bottles.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

All the apparatus (burette, pipette, conical flask, standard flask etc.,) should be washed first
with water and then detergent followed by distilled water before use.

1. Rinse the burette with a solution to be taken in the burette.

2. Rinse the pipette with a solution to be measured in the pipette.
3. Do not rinse the conical flask with the solution taken in it. Wash with distilled
water every titration.
4. After switching on the instrument allows some time for stabilization.
5. Calibrate the instrument whenever it is required.
6. At every instant, handle the instrument gently and register our observations with
maximum sensitivity of the instrument.
7. Care should be taken to see that the electrodes of the cell are completely
immersed in the solution before the reading is measured.
8. Immerse the cell/electrode always in a beaker containing distilled water, when
they are not in use.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A PIPETTE

Pipette is a graduated tube with a bulb in the middle for measuring and transferring liquids
from one vessel to another.
 1. The pipette should be washed well before use and rinsed twice before filling it up
with the solution to be measured.
2. Always use your fore-finger and not the thumb for closing its upper end.
3. The solution should not be sucked too fast as it may go inside the mouth.
4. Solutions of poisonous substances should not be sucked with mouth-instead use a
pipette filler or burette.
5. Do not blow the last drop remaining in the pipette.
6. Always keep the pipette in a vertical position/vertically.
7. Hot solutions should not be measured using a pipette.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE USING A BURETTE

1. Burette is a graduated glass tube, commonly having a stop-cock at the bottom and is
used for measuring liquids.
2. The burette should be washed before usage should be rinsed twice before filling with
the solution to be measured
3. While taking a reading, the graduation corresponding to the lower meniscus of the
solution should always be read for colorless solution.
4. The reading should be taken by keeping the eye at the same level as that of the meniscus
and as close to the level as possible to avoid error due to parallax.

Standard (Volumetric) flasks

Standard flasks have a flat bottom, pear shaped body and a long narrow neck. These are
usually calibrated to contain the specified volume when filled to the lined etched on the neck,
and are used in the preparation of standard solutions and in the dilution of given solution to
known volumes. The flasks most commonly used have capacities of 25,50,100,250,500 and
1000mL.

Making a given concentrated solution to a known volume in a standard measuring flask

 To make up the given solution to the specified volume, the solution is carefully
transferred with the help of a thin glass rod and a small funnel. Care should be taken so that
not even a fraction of a drop of the given concentrated solution is wasted by split or any other
means. For this purpose, the given solution is handled in the following way.

First wash the mouth of the solution-bottle with a little quantity of distilled water. Then
transfer the whole solution in a thin stream to the flask through a small funnel using a glass
rod. While pouring the solution, it should be observed that the solution is readily collected in
the flask and does not form a film on the surface of the funnel. The solution-bottle has to be
washed at least four times with a little quantity of distilled water at a time. The collected
solution is mixed further with water and thoroughly shaken to get a uniformly concentrated
solution. Rest of the volume in the flask is slowly filled up with water coming as a line (stream)
from a wash bottle. When the volume of the solution is nearing the glass mark, a clean pipette
can also be made use of. Water should be added in drops, at the same time observing that the
liquid meniscus level coincides with the mark. For the dilution of colorless solutions, the lower
meniscus coincidence is taken as the making up mark.

On completion of the make-up process, the graduated flask is stoppered and shaken
several times by placing the stopper in the middle of the left-hand palm and holding the bulb
of the flask in the right hand. Invert the flask and shake. This procedure ensures a well
uniformly concentrated solution. Never remake the solution to the mark after shaking even if
the liquid level is seen below the mark. This may be due to a thin film formation or sticking
up of a fraction of drops in the neck of the flask.
Data Analysis

In every measurement all efforts should be made to minimize the uncertainty, eliminate
errors and maximize reliability of data. Personal judgement and the soundness of the principle
of the experiment chiefly determine the accuracy of data. In science, incorrectly recorded
results are worse than no results at all. Incorrect results lead to wrong calculations. Scientific
data are subjected to certain mathematical and statistical tests before accepting and reporting.

Precision

Precision is defined as the agreement between the numerical values of two or more
measurements of the same object that have been made in an identical manner. Thus, a value is
said to be precise when there is agreement between a set of results for the same quality.
However, a precise value need not be accurate.

Accuracy
 Accuracy represents the nearness of a measurement to its expected value. Any
difference between the measured value and the expected value is expressed as the error. The
difference between accuracy and precision must be noted. Accuracy is nearness to a true or
expected value whereas precision is concerned with agreement among the measurements made
in the same way.
III Rubrics for Evaluation of the Experiments

S.No Name of the Marks (Observation/ Marks based on Total Marks

experiment Calculation / graph) Percentage to be
error awarded for
an
experiment
1. Determination of the
amount of sodium
carbonate and
sodium hydroxide in
a mixture by
titration.
2. Determination of
strength of an acid by
Conductometry. 6 0-1% = 4 10 marks
3. Determination of Marks
hardness (Ca2+) of 1.1-2% = 3
water using EDTA – Marks
Complexometric 2.1-3% = 2
method. Marks
4. Determination of 3.1-4% = 1
ferrous ions using Mark
potassium Above 4.1 % =
dichromate by 0
Potentiometric
titration.
5. Estimation of the
amount of chloride
content of a water
sample.
6. Determination of
molecular weight of
polymer by viscosity
average method.
7. Determination of the
strength of a mixture
of acetic acid and
hydrochloric acid by
Conductometry.
8. Determination of
strength of an acid
using pH meter.
IV LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Determination of the amount of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide in a mixture by titration.

2. Determination of strength of an acid by conductometry.

3. Determination of hardness (Ca2+) of water using EDTA – complexometric method.

4. Determination of ferrous ions using Potassium dichromate by potentiometric titration.

5. Estimation of the amount of chloride content of a water sample.

6. Determination of molecular weight of polymer by viscosity average method.

7. Determination of the strength of a mixture of acetic acid and hydrochloric acid by conductometry.

8. Determination of strength of an acid using pH meter.

 Records of Laboratory Work
Name of the student: Register No:
Branch : Section :
Ex. Date of Title of the Experiment Date of Marks Signature of
No Conduct Submission faculty
 1.Determination of the amount of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydroxide in a Mixture by
Titration

EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

AIM:
To determine the amount of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in a mixture
using hydrochloric acid.
CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Phenolphthalein,
Methyl orange, Distilled water.
PRINCIPLE:
The titration of a mixture of NaOH and Na2CO3 with a standardized HCl solution has two equivalence points.
The first equivalence point is due to the conversion of all the carbonate to bicarbonate and sodium hydroxide
to sodium chloride as follows:
𝐍𝐚𝟐𝐂𝐎𝟑+ 𝐇𝐂𝐥 → 𝐍𝐚𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑+𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥
𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇 + 𝐇𝐂𝐥 → 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥 + 𝐇𝟐𝐎
The pH of the resulting solution is around therefore phenolphthalein could be used as an indicator. The second
equivalence point is due to the reaction of the resulting bicarbonate with an excess of HCl solution as follows:
𝐍𝐚𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑+ 𝐇𝐂𝐥 → 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥 + 𝐂𝐎𝟐+ 𝐇𝟐𝐎
In this stage methyl orange is used to find the equivalence point because the pH of the solution at this point will be
around 3.8.

PROCEDURE:
Titration I: Standardization of HCL
Pipette out 20mL of standard sodium bicarbonate solution in a 250mL clean conical flask. Add 2-3
drops of methyl orange indicator. The solution will turn yellow in colour. Titrate the mixture against
hydrochloric acid taken in the burette. The end point is the colour change from yellow to orange. Repeat the
titration for the concordant values.
Titration II: Estimation of the mixture of (Na2CO3+NaOH)
Make up the given solution in a 100mL standard measuring flask. Pipette out 20mL of the made-up
solution in a 250mL conical flask. Add 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. The solution is titrated against
standard hydrochloric acid in a burette. The end point is the colour change from pink to colorless. Titre value
is noted as AmL. to the same conical flask solution 2-3 drops of methyl orange indicator was added. (Without
pouring out the conical flask solution) The solution will turn yellow. This is titrated against standard
hydrochloric acid from
“A” mL till “B” mL is reached. That is till end point orange colour is reached. The titration is repeated for the
concordant values.
Titration I: Standardization of HCl

S.No. Volume of pipette Burette reading Concordant value Indicator

solution (mL) (mL) (mL)
(Na2CO3 solution)
Initial Final
Methyl
Orange

Calculation:

Volume of HCl (V2) =

Normality of HCl (N2) =

Volume of Na2CO3 (V1) = 20 mL

Normality of Na2CO3 (N1) = 0.05 N

V1N1 = V2N2

N2 = (V1*N1)/ V2

=……….N
Titration II: Estimation of the mixture of Na2CO3 and NaOH

S.No. Volume of pipette Burette reading Concordant value Indicators used

solution (mL) (mL) (mL)
(Na2CO3+NaOH) Initial Final
HPh M.O HPh M.O
(A) (B)
Phenolphthalein(Hph)
Methyl Orange(M.O)

A – Phenolphthalein End point – Volume of the acid used up to HPh end point

B – Methyl Orange End point – Total volume of acid used till M.O end point

(B-A) = C – Volume of acid used for ½ CO32- neutralisation

2C – Total volume of acid used for complete neutralisation of CO32- ions

Calculations:
Estimation of Na2CO3
Volume of HCl (V1) = 2C
Normality of HCl (N1) = from titration I
Volume of mixture (V2) =20mL
Normality of mixture (N2) = ?
V1N1 = V2N2
N2 = (V1*N1)/ V2
=……….N
Amount of Na2CO3 present in the whole of = (Normality × (Equivalent weight of
the given solution of Na2CO3) Na2CO3)

10
 = (N2*53)/10
=……….gm/L
Estimation of NaOH:

Volume of HCl (V1) = A – C (mL)

Normality of HCl (N1) = from titration I

Volume of mixture (V2) = 20mL

Normality of mixture (N2) = ?

V1N1 = V2N
N2 = (V1*N1)/ V2

=……..N

Amount of NaOH present in the whole of the = (Normality × (Equivalent weight of

given solution of NaOH) NaOH)

10

= N2 × 40

10

=………gm/L
RESULT:
Amount of NaOH present in the 100mL of the given solution = _______ gm/L
Amount of Na2CO3 present in the 100mL of the given solution = _______ gm/L
Bottle No. = _____
Rubrics for Evaluation Marks
Experiment, Observation, Calculation

% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 2. Determination of strength of an acid by conductometry
EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

AIM:

To determine the strength of a given HCl solution with standard NaOH by conductometric
titrations.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Burette, Pipette, Standard measuring flask, glass rod, Beaker, Wash bottle, funnel, Conductivity
meter, conductivity cell.

CHEMICALS REQUIRED:
NaOH solution (0.1N), distilled water, HCl solution whose concentration is to be found.

PRINCIPLE:
The principle of the conductometric titration is that during a titration process, one ion is replaced with
another and the difference in the ionic conductivities of these ions directly impacts the overall
electrolytic conductivity of the solution. It is evident from the equation that as NaOH solution is
gradually added, the H+ ion having high ionic conductance are replaced by Na+ having lower ionic
conductance and hence the conductivity of the solution gradually decrease. At the equivalent point
the conductivity would be minimum due to replacement of all H+ ion by Na+ ion. After the
equivalence point Na+ and OH- would accumulate in the solution and conductance of the solution will
again increase
H+ + Cl- + Na++ OH- → Na++ Cl-+ H2O

PROCEDURE:
Make up the given HCl solution in a 100mL standard measuring flask. Pipette out 10mL of the
made up HCl into a beaker. Dilute the solution with distilled water, so that the conductivity cell
can be immersed well in the solution (up to 100mL). Stir the solution well with the help of a glass
rod. Note down the conductance of the solution from the conductivity meter. Fill the burette with
standard NaOH solution and run down into the beaker in small increments (1mL) with gentle
stirring of the contents of the beaker.
After each addition, stir the contents of the beaker and after an equilibrium time of 2-3minutes
note the corresponding conductance value and tabulate it. Continue the titration up to 15
increments, after the conductance reaches a minimum and starts increasing after the completion of
the titration, wash the conductivity cell with distilled water and immerse in distilled water.
Plot a graph between conductivity and volume of NaOH added. The intersection of two lines to
the volume axis gives the end point.
Volume of NaOH required for neutralization is taken from graph (fair) on intersection point which
is corresponding to the volume axis (x). In order to get accurate results, perform a fair titration by
adding NaOH in small amounts (0.2mL) near and beyond the end point. Calculate the strength of
the given strong acid from the given NaOH strength.

MODEL GRAPH:
TITRATION 1:

Titration between standard NaOH and unknown HCl (pilot)

S.No Volume of NaOH (mL) Conductance (mho)

 TITRATION 2:

Titration between standard NaOH and unknown HCl (fair)

S.No Volume of NaOH (mL) Conductance (mho)

CALCULATION:
(10mL)
Volume of HCl solution = V1

Normality of HCl solution = N1

Volume of NaOH = V2 (from the 2nd graph)

Normality of NaOH = N2 (0.1N)

V1N1 = V2N2
N1 = V2N2/ V1

=…….N
The strength of the given HCl solution = ---------N
RESULT:

The strength of the given HCl solution = N

Bottle number =………..

Rubrics for Evaluation Marks

Experiment, Observation, Calculation and
Graph
% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 3. Determination of Hardness (Ca2+) of Water Using EDTA – Complexometric Method
EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:
Aim
To estimate the amount of total hardness, permanent hardness and temporary hardness of a given water
sample by EDTA method.

Apparatus Required
Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, Standard volumetric flask, funnel.

Reagents Required
Standard hard water, sample water, boiled water, Eriochrome Black-T (EBT) indicator, ammoniacal
buffer (NH3-NH4Cl) solution and ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA).

Principle
Ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid disodium salt is used to determine the total hardness, permanent
hardness (sulphate and chlorides of calcium & magnesium) and temporary hardness (bicarbonates of
calcium & magnesium) of the given water sample. The hardness causing metal ions (Ca2+ & Mg2+)
form wine-red coloured weak complex with Eriochrome Black-T indicator in the presence of a buffer
solution. The indicator is replaced by EDTA and a stable complex is formed with the addition of EDTA.
Due to the removal of EBT indicator, wine-red colour changes to steel blue. The entire reaction between
metal ions and EBT is represented as follows
1. Ca2+/ Mg2++EBT ------→ [Ca/Mg - EBT] [Unstable complex, wine red]
The unstable complex is quickly replaced by Ca/Mg EDTA complex at pH 9-10
2. Ca/Mg EBT +EDTA ------ → Ca/Mg - EDTA [ Stable complex] + EBT [ Blue]

Procedure
Titration I: Standardization of EDTA
Pipette out 20 mL of standard hard water into a clean conical flask. Add 5 mL of ammoniacal buffer
solution followed by 2 to 3 drops of EBT indicator in to the conical flask. The solution turns into wine
red colour immediately. Titrate the wine-red coloured solution against EDTA taken in the burette. The
change of wine-red colour to steel blue colour is observed as the end point. Repeat the titration for
concordant values. Let the titre value be noted as V1 mL.
Titration II: Determination of Total Hardness

Pipette out 20 mL of sample water into a clean conical flask. Add 5 mL of ammoniacal buffer solution
and 2 to 3 drops of EBT indicator. Now the solution turns into wine red in colour. Titrate the wine-red
coloured solution against EDTA taken in the burette. The change of wine-red colour to steel blue colour
is end point. Repeat the titration for concordant values. Let the titre value be noted as V2 mL.

Titration III: Determination of Permanent Hardness

Take 100 mL of the water sample in a 500 mL beaker and boil gently for about one hour. Cool and
then filter it into a 100 mL standard flask and make the volume up to the mark. Pipette out 20 mL of
boiled water into a clean conical flask. Add 5 mL of ammoniacal buffer solution and 2 to 3 drops of
EBT indicator. The solution turns wine red in colour. Titrate the wine-red coloured solution against
EDTA taken in the burette. The change of wine-red colour to steel blue colour is the end point of the
titration. Repeat the titration for concordant values. Let the titre value be noted as V3 mL.

Titration I: Standardization of EDTA

Table 1: Standard hard water Vs EDTA

S.No. Vol. of std. hard Burette Reading Vol. of EDTA Indicator

water (mL) Initial (mL) Final (mL) (mL)

EBT

Titration II: Determination of Total Hardness

Table 2: Sample water Vs EDTA

S.No. Vol. of Sample Burette Reading Vol. of EDTA Indicator

water (mL) Initial (mL) Final (mL) (mL)

EBT
Titration III: Determination of Permanent Hardness
Table 3: Boiled water Vs EDTA

S.No. Vol. of boiled Burette Reading Vol. of EDTA Indicator

water (mL) Initial (mL) Final (mL) (mL)

EBT

Calculation
Titration – I

1 mL of standard hard water contains 1 mg of CaCO3

Therefore, 20 mL of standard hard water contains 20 mg of CaCO3
20 mL of standard hard water consumes V1 mL of EDTA (or)
V1 mL of EDTA is equivalent to 20 mg of CaCO3
Hence, 1 mL of EDTA is equivalent to (20/V1) mg of CaCO3

Titration – II

V2 mL of EDTA is equivalent to (V2/V1) X 20 mg of CaCO3 equivalent

20 mL of sample water will contain = (V2/V1) X 20 mg of CaCO3 equivalent; Therefore,
1000 mL of the sample water will contain = (1000/20) X (V2/V1) X 20 mg of CaCO3
The total hardness of the given water sample = _____ppm.

Titration – III

V3 mL of EDTA is equivalent to (V3/V1) X 20 mg of CaCO3 equivalent

20 mL of boiled water will contain (V3/V1)X 20 mg of CaCO3 equivalent; Therefore,
1000 mL of the boiled water will contain = (1000/20) X (V3/V1)X 20 mg of CaCO3
The permanent hardness of the given water sample = _____ppm.

The temporary hardness of

= Total hardness–Permanent hardness
the given water sample

=……………ppm
Result

The total hardness of the given water sample = ppm

The permanent hardness of the given water sample = ppm
The temporary hardness of the given water sample = ppm

Rubrics for Evaluation Marks

Experiment, Observation, Calculation

% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 4. Determination of ferrous ions using Potassium dichromate by potentiometric titration

EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

Aim:

To estimate the amount of ferrous (Fe2+) ions present in the given solution.

Apparatus Required:

Potentiometer assembly, 25mL burette, 10mL pipette, 250mL beakers, standard flask, calomel and
platinum electrodes.

Reagents Required:

Ferrous ammonium sulphate, dil. H2SO4, Standard K2Cr2O7

Principle:

Measurement of EMF of an electrochemical cell using a potentiometer and change in EMF due to the
chemical (redox) reaction is monitored. In this potentiometric titration set up, an indicator electrode (Pt
electrode) and reference (calomel) is coupled to form electrochemical cell for Fe2+ to Fe3+. Fe2+ is
oxidizes to Fe3+ as K2Cr2O7 is progressively added. Platinum electrode which is kept in contact with a
mixture of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions act as a redox electrode (indicating the redox reaction). The reduction
potential of this single electrode depends on the ratio of [Fe2+/Fe3+] initially. During the titration of Fe2+
in H2SO4 medium with K2Cr2O7, this ratio varies to a little extent at the beginning and suddenly near
the end point. It is observed that there is a sudden increase in the EMF of the cell at equivalence point.

The cell set up: Hg| HgCl2(s), KCl (1N) || Fe2+|Fe3+, Pt

The chemical reaction: 6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

MODEL GRAPH:
Procedure:

The given ferrous iron solution is made up to a known volume (say 100mL) in a SMF following
the standard procedure with usual precautions. Exactly 10mL of the made up Fe2+ solution is pipette
out into a clean 100mL beaker. About 10mL of dil.H2SO4 and 100mL of distilled water are added to it.
A platinum electrode is dipped into this solution and coupled with the standard calomel electrode. The
resultant cell is then incorporated into the potentiometric circuit. Standard K2Cr2O7 solution, which is
taken in a burette, is added in installments of 1mL into the beaker and the cell EMF is measured after
addition by proper mixing. Continue the process till and also well beyond the neutralization point which
is indicated by abrupt change in the EMF. Note the volume of K2Cr2O7 solution required for complete
oxidation of Fe3+ solution from the plot of EMF versus the volume of the standard K2Cr2O7 solution
added. Plot the graph by taking Emf Vs volume of K2Cr2O7 addition. The end point is taken from the
mid-point of S- shape graph.

Perform similar titration by adding 0.1mL portions of added K2Cr2O7 solution till there is an
abrupt change in the EMF is observed. Tabulate the measured EMF corresponding to each addition of
K2Cr2O7. Plot the graph by taking ∆E/ ∆V vs volume of K2Cr2O7 addition. The exact end point can be
determined from the peak value meeting the x-axis from the second graph.
Table 1: Pilot titration: (FAS Vs K2Cr2O7)

S. Volume EMF ΔE
No. of (Volts) (Volts)
K2Cr2O7
(mL)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Table 2: Fair Titration (FAS Vs K2Cr2O7)

S. Volume of EMF ΔE (volts) ΔV (mL) ΔE/ ΔV

No K2Cr2O7 (volts) (Volts/
(mL) mL)
.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

CALCULATION:

Volume of pipette solution (FAS) = V1 mL

Volume of K2Cr2O7 = V2 mL

Normality of K2Cr2O7 = N2

Normality of FAS (N1) = ?

Strength of FAS = N1 = V2N2

V1
Amount of Fe3+(gm/Lit) = Eq. wt.* normality of Fe3+
Amount of Fe2+ in 100mL = Normality of Fe2+ * 55.85

10

RESULT:

The amount of iron present in the given solution =…………….gm/L

Bottle number =………….

Rubrics for Evaluation Marks

Experiment, Observation, Calculation and
Graphs
% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 5. Estimation of the amount of chloride content of a water Sample
EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:
Aim:
To estimate the amount of chloride content in a water sample by Mohr’s method.
Apparatus required:
Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, Glass rod, Funnel, Standard flask.
Reagents required:
1.05 N NaCl solution, AgNO3 Solution, 2% K2CrO4 indicator, DI water, Test solution
Principle:
It is an example of precipitation reaction. The reaction between chloride and silver nitrate is
direct and simple. It proceeds as follows:
AgNO3 + NaCl → AgCl ↓+ NaNO3
The completion of the reaction in this case is observed by employing K2CrO4 solution as the
indicator. At the end point, the yellow colour of solution change into reddish brown due to the
reaction
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4 → Ag2CrO4 + 2KNO3

K2CrO4 indicator will not be precipitated as Ag2CrO4 until all the chlorides in the solution have
been precipitated as AgCl.
Procedure:
Titration I- Standardization of Silver Nitrate solution

Pipette out 20mL of standard NaCl solution (0.05 N) into a clean conical flask. Add 1mL of 2%
K2CrO4 indicator solution (The solution turns yellow in color). Titrate it against the AgNO3
solution taken in the burette. Shake the conical flask continuously and continue to titrate until the
reddish-brown tinge of the solution does not disappear. Note down the burette reading and repeat
the experiment for concordant values.

Titration II: Estimation of Chloride

Transfer the given solution into 100mL standard flask and make the solution carefully. Pipette out
20mL of the made-up chloride solution into a clean conical flask. Add 1mL of 2% K2CrO4
indicator solution (The solution turns yellow in color). Titrate it against the standard AgNO3
solution taken in the burette. Shake the conical flask continuously and continue to titrate until the
reddish-brown tinge of the solution does not disappear. Note down the burette reading and repeat
for concordant values.
 TABLE I: Titration I- Standardization of Silver Nitrate solution
S.No Vol. of std. Burette reading Vol. of Indicat
NaCl soln (mL) AgNO3 or
(mL) Initial Final (mL)
1 K2CrO4
2
3
Volume of AgNO3 Solution (V1)=….mL Normality
of AgNO3 Solution (N1) = ?
Volume of NaCl Solution (V2) = 10 mL
Normality of NaCl Solution (N2) = 0.05 N

N1 = (V2 x N2) / V1

Normality of AgNO3 Solution (N1) = ------N

TABLE II
Titration II- Estimation of amount of chloride in a water sample
S.No Vol. of the sample soln Burette Vol. of Indicato
(mL) reading AgNO3 r
(mL) (mL)
Initia Final
l
1 K2CrO4
2
3

Volume of Chloride solution (V1) = 10mL

Normality of Chloride solution (N1)= ?
Volume of AgNO3 Solution (V2) = …mL
Normality of AgNO3 Solution (N2)= from titration I
N1 = (V2 x N2) / V1

Normality of Chloride solution (N1) = N

 Therefore, the amount of chloride present in the whole of the given solution

= (Normality of the chloride solution x Equivalent weight of Chloride) /10

= (N*35.5)/10

= gm/Lit

Result:

Amount of chloride present in the whole of the given solution is = gm/Lit

Bottle number =….

Rubrics for Evaluation Marks

Experiment, Observation, Calculation

% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 6. Determination of molecular weight of a polymer by Viscosity average method

EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

AIM:

To determine the molecular weight of a polymer in solution by using a viscometer

Apparatus required:

Ostwald’s viscometer, Stop watch, Standard flasks, Graduated pipette and Suction bulb

Reagents required:

Polymer (PVA) and water

Principle:

Measurement of solution viscosity offers a simple and convenient method for molecular weight
determination if polymer is soluble in a suitable solvent. In a capillary viscometer (Ostwald
/Ubbelhode), the viscosity of a liquid is proportional to the time taken by a known volume of liquid
to flow through a capillary under a specified hydrostatic pressure at a fixed temperature. Using
Poiseuille’s equation it is possible to show that if t, η and r are the flow time, viscosity and density
of a solution respectively; and t0, η0 and r0 are those of pure solvent, then,
η/η0 = r/r0 * t/t0
The value of η/η0 is known as the relative viscosity ηrel. In dilute solutions, which are often
employed for molecular weight determination, r is not much different from r0 and hence
ηrel = η/η0 = t/t0
Specific viscosity ηsp is defined as
ηsp = η - η 0 / η 0 = η / η 0 -1
= η rel - 1
Reduced viscosity η red is equal to the ratio of the relative viscosity to concentration
of the sample,
η red = η sp / C

The Staudinger – Mark-Houwink equation which relates ηi with molecular weight

ηi = K (M)a
For polyvinyl alcohol solution, K = 45.3x10-3 and a = 0.64.

where “M” is molecular weight of the polymer, ηi is intrinsic viscosity, “K” is an empirical
parameter characteristic of a particular solute-solvent pair and ‘a’ is a shape parameter. From
known values of K and a, molecular weight can be determined.

Intrinsic viscosity ηi,

A plot of ηsp / C (reduced viscosity) vs C is a straight line for dilute solutions,

the intercept

Procedure:

Preparation of various concentrations of polymer in water (solvent).

1 % of polymer solution in water will be supplied. We need to prepare atleast 5 dilutions viz., 0.1,
0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 % polymer in water before carrying out the experiment.

Dilutions can be done by using volumetric expressions:

V1N1 = V2N2

Eg. To prepare 25 mL of 0.2 % diluted solution from a 1% solution, volume is

V1 = V2N2/N1 = 25 mL x 0.2 % / 1% = 5 mL
Similarly, any other dilutions can be prepared by the above method.

S. No Concentration Time of Relative Specific Reduced viscosity

of the flow in viscosity Viscosity (ηred) = ηsp /C x 100
polymer sec η/η0 = t/t0 ηsp = η /η0 -1
solution (average)
1 Pure solvent t0
2 0.1 % ts
3 0.2 % ts
4 0.3 % ts
5 0.4 % ts

6 0.5 % ts

Calculation:

Result:
Volume of polymer solution used for each measurement: mL
The average molecular weight of the given polymer is g/mol.
Rubrics for Evaluation Marks
Experiment, Observation, Calculation and
Graph
% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 7. Determination of the strength of a mixture of Acetic Acid and Hydrochloric Acid by
Conductometry

EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

Aim:
To estimate the strength of mixture of acetic and hydrochloric acid present in a given mixture
using conductometric titration.
Apparatus and reagents required:
Conductivity meter, Conductivity cell (Platinum plates), Burette, Pipette, Conical flask, standard
measuring flask (SMF), NaOH, given unknown solution.
Principle:
The principle of conductometric titration is based on the fact that during the titration, one of the
ions is replaced by the other ions and invariably these two ions differ in the ionic conductivity with
the result that conductivity of the solution varies during the course of titration. During the titration
of strong base against a strong acid is carried out, there are two break points observed in the graph.
The first break point corresponds to the neutralization of strong acid (Eqn.1). After the complete
neutralization of strong acid, at the second break point the neutralization of weak acid starts and
conductivity increases slightly as unionized weak acid becomes the ionized salt (Eqn.2). Finally,
the conductance increases due to the excess of strong base OH- ions as the titrant.

NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O………. (Eqn.1)

When the whole strong acid is consumed, base reacts with weak acid and

NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COO- + Na+ + H2O ……. (Eqn.2)

Procedure:
Make up the given mixture of acid to 100mL using distilled water in standard measuring
flask. Pipette out 10mL from this made-up solution into a clean beaker and then diluted to ~100
mL using distilled water. Immerse conductivity cell into the beaker and measure conductance for
every 0.5mL addition of NaOH from the burette and stir the solution for each addition. After
complete neutralization, the amount of acid present in the given mixture is determined based on
the volume of base consumed. Volume of base consumed for strong acid and weak acid are
determined by plotting a graph between conductance (Y axis) and volume of NaOH added (X
axis), where first end point corresponds to strong acid and the second end point corresponds to
weak acid.
Model graph:
 Table: Titration of Mixture of Acids Vs Base

S. No Volume of NaOH added (mL) Conductance (ohm-1)

1 0
2 0.5
3 1
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Calculation:
I Determination of strength of HCl:
Volume of mixture = V1 (20mL)

Normality of HCl solution = N1

Volume of NaOH = V2 (E1 from the graph)

Normality of NaOH = N2 (0.1N)
 V1N1 = V2N2

N1 = V2N2/ V1
The strength of the given HCl solution = N
II Determination of strength of Acetic acid:

Volume of mixture = V1 (20mL)

Normality of acetic acid = N1

Volume of NaOH = V2 (E2 - E1 from the graph)

Normality of NaOH = N2 (0.1N)

V1N1 = V2N2

N1 = V2N2/ V1

The strength of the given acetic acid = N

Result:
1. The strength of HCl present in the whole of the given solution _________ N.
2. The strength of CH3COOH present in the whole of the given solution ______ N.

Bottle number =------------

Rubrics for Evaluation Marks

Experiment, Observation, Calculation and
Graph
% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 8. Determination of strength of an acid using pH meter

EXPERIMENT NO. DATE:

Aim
To find out the strength of given HCl by titrating it against NaOH (0.1N) using pH meter.
Apparatus Required
250 and 100mL beaker, glass rod, 10mL pipette, 100mL standard measuring flask, pH meter,
Reagents Required
NaOH solution (0.1N), HCl sample solution, distilled water.
Principle
A pH meter is a scientific instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between a
pH electrode and the reference electrode with respect to hydrogen ion concentration which
is expressed as “pH value”. Initially there is a little change in pH due to the change in electrode
potential that depends upon the fraction of H+ ions removed by a base NaOH when added in small
increments to the acid (HCl). As the end point is reached, the fraction of H+ ions removal increases
rapidly by the base that causes a rapid change in pH of the test solution.

H+ + Cl- + Na++ OH- → Na++ Cl-+ H2O

Procedure
Make up the given HCl solution to 100mL using distilled water. Pipette out 10mL of this made-
up solution into a clean 250mL beaker and add 100mL of distilled water. Dip the pH meter into
the solution and note the pH. Fill the burette with standard NaOH (0.1N) solution and add 1mL
increments into the beaker, and measure the pH after each addition. Continue the process till and
well beyond the neutralization point as indicated by an abrupt change in pH. Calculate the range
at which sudden rise in pH occurs. Perform the similar titration by adding 0.2mL increments of
standard NaOH close to the end point (1mL on either side of the range). Tabulate the pH measured
corresponding to each addition.
Plot 2 graphs by taking
1. pH vs Volume of NaOH added
2. Δ pH/ΔV vs Volume of NaOH added.
The exact endpoint should be calculated from the second graph.
Model Graphs

Table 1 Pilot Titration (Standard NaOH Vs Unknown HCl)

S.No Volume of NaOH added (mL) pH

Table 2 Fair Titration (Standard NaOH Vs Unknown HCl)

S.No Volume of NaOH pH ΔpH ΔV ΔpH/ΔV

added (mL)

Calculation

Volume of HCl = V1mL (10mL)

Normality of HCl = N1
Volume of NaOH = V2mL (from the 2nd graph)
Normality of NaOH = N2 ( 0.1N)
V1NI = V2N2
N1 = V2N2 / V1
The strength of given HCl solution = _______ N.
Result
The strength of given HCl solution is = _________ N.
Bottle number =-------------
Rubrics for Evaluation Marks
Experiment, Observation, Calculation and
Graphs
% of error

Signature of the teacher with date

 V SHORT PROCEDURE

1.Determination of the amount of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide in a mixture

by titration.

Titration I Titration II
Burette solution Hydrochloric acid Std Hydrochloric acid
Pipette solution 20ml of std Na2CO3 solution 20 ml of made-up mixture
(0.05N) (Na2CO3+NaOH)
Indicator Methyl orange Phenolphthalein & Methyl
orange
End point Yellow to orange Pink to colourless
(I end point)
Yellow to Orange
(II end point)

2.Determination of strength of an acid by conductometry.

Burette NaOH solution Equivalence mass of

solution HCl = 36.47
Pipette 10 ml of made up HCl solution (Diluted till the cell is
solution immersed properly)
• Conductance is measured using conductivity meter.
• A conductance cell immersed in the diluted pipette solution (HCl)
• Each addition of 1ml of NaOH to in beaker solution conductance is measured.
• Initially the conductance decreases and at one point its starts increasing. The point at
which the conductance starts increasing shows that the end point has reached.
• A plot of conductance against volume of NaOH gives the end point. The intersection of
two lines and volume corresponds to the intersecting point to X axis is to be noted.
• A fair titration is conducted in same manner to get accurate end point ( in portions of 0.1
ml)
 • The strength of HCl is obtained using V1N1=V2N2

Model graph: [common for pilot and fair titrations]

Volume of NaOH

3.Determination of hardness (Ca2+) of water using EDTA – Complexometry method

Titrations Burette Pipette solution Additional Indicator Equivalence/end

solution reagents point

Standardization 20ml of standard

of EDTA hard water
EDTA 5ml of buffer 3-4 drops Change of wine
Determination solution 20ml of sample solution (NH3- of EBT red to steel blue
of total hard water NH4Cl) colour
Hardness
Determination 20ml of boiled,
of permanent filtered water
hardness sample

Temporary Hardness = Total Hardness-Permanent Hardness

4.Determination of ferrous ion using potassium dichromate by potentiometric titration

Burette solution Standard K2Cr2O7

Pipette solution 10ml of made up Fe2+ solution
Additional reagents 10ml of dil.H2SO4 solution
Electrodes used Pt and Calomel electrode
Equivalent mass of Fe2+ ions 55.85

• After each addition of 1ml of burette solution, the emf increases gradually.
• At the neutralization point there will be abrupt change in emf.
• From the plot of emf vs the volume of standard K2Cr2O7, the end point obtained from the
graph.
• Fair titration is conducted in similar manner by the addition of burette solution in portions
of 0.1ml. the plot of E/V vs volume of K2Cr2O7 gives the end point accurately.
• The amount of given solution is calculated using formula.
5.Estimation of amount of chloride content of a water sample

Titration I Titration II
Burette solution AgNO3 Std. AgNO3
Pipette solution 20ml of std NaCl solution (0.02 20 ml of made-up chloride
N) solution
Additional reagent - -

Indicator 1 ml of 2% K2CrO4 1 ml of 2% K2CrO4

End point Appearance of red ppt. Appearance of red ppt.

6. Determination of molecular weight of polymer by viscosity average method

• From 1% stock solution of polymer five different dilutions are prepared by the following
volumetric expressions,

V1N1 = V2N2

V1 = V2 × N2

N1

• t0 time for solvent to flow into using Ostwald Viscometer. For solution of different
concentration are t1, t2, t3, t4 and t5 for the five (NB: only fixed amount 10ml or 12ml of
prepared dilutions are taken in the viscometer).
• Relative viscosity is found out by using ƞrel = ts/t0 [where ts is = t1, t2, t3,..]
• The specific viscosity ƞsp is found out using the relation,

Ƞsp = Ƞrel-1

• Reduced viscosity is also found out using Ƞred = Ƞsp/C.

• A plot Ƞsp/C Vs C gives a straight line for dilute solutions.
• By extrapolation, Ƞint is found out. Using Mark-houwink’s equation,

M = (Ƞint/k)1/α is found out

Model Graph

Ƞsp/C

} Ƞint

C X

7. Determination of strength of mixture of acetic acid and hydrochloric acid by

conductometry

Burette solution 0.5 N of NaOH

Pipette solution 20 ml of mixture of acids made up in 100ml SMF
Apparatus Conductivity meter & Conductivity cell
End point From graph
1st intersection point(A) corresponds to the neutralization of HCl
2nd intersection point(B) corresponds to the neutralization of
CH3COOH
(NB: In calculating volume of NaOH that is used to neutralize
CH3COOH only, the value of A should be subtracted from B)

Sample graph

(Conductance
in ohm-1)

Volume
A of NaOH (ml)
B
8. Determination of strength of an acid using pH meter

Burette solution 0.1 N of NaOH

Pipette solution 10 ml of made-up solution of HCl from 100ml SMF
Apparatus Digital pH meter & Cell is also pH meter
End point 2 graphs are drawn.
From the 2nd graph(b) the peak value meeting X axis is
taken as end point.
Sample Graph
VI Sample Questions

1. What is permanent and temporary hardness? Give salts responsible for permanent and temporary hardness
in water.
2. Calculate permanent hardness for sample hard water if the volume of the boiled water sample pipetted is
100mL and volume of EDTA consumed is 13.4mL. The volume EDTA consumed for standard hard
water sample is 19.6mL.
3. What type of reaction does silver nitrate and sodium chloride undergo?
4. Calculate the normality of AgNO3 when12.5mL of it is consumed for 10mL of NaCl solution?
5. What are the ions responsible for alkalinity in water sample?
6. Give the type of reaction that is involved in the determination of amount of mixture of bases by titration?
7. Calculate the amount of Na2CO3 when the Phenolpthalein end point is 23.5 mL and Methyl orange end
point is 46.9mL for 50 mL of made-up solution containing the mixture [pipette solution] when the
Normality of acid is 0.0478N.
8. What happens to conductance when a solution is diluted?
9. When acid is titrated against base by conductometric method, the Conductance decreases and then
increases. Why?
10. Calculate the Normality of acid when the intersection point from the graph meets at 8.9mL in x-axis
for 10 mL of acid solution with 0.1N solution of base.
11. What is the oxidizing agent used in the potentiometric titration?
12. What is the indicator and reference electrode used in the potentiometric titration?
13. Calculate the amount of Fe2+ ions present in whole of the given solution if volume of pipette solution 10mL.
Let us assume that the peak point in the following 2nd graph meet at 9.5mL for Potentiometric titration. Let
the normality of the standard solution be 0.09N.

14. Give the structure for Polyvinyl alcohol and Polystyrene.

15. What is the solvent used for the dissolution of PVA and Why?
16. Intrinsic viscosity from the graph meeting at y-axis after extrapolating is 66 for the given polymer.
Calculate Molecular weight when the k and α for PVA is 45.3 * 10-3 and 0.64 respectively.
17. What is the relation between pH and EMF of the cell for acid – base titration? Give the model
graphs for the pilot and fair titrations. Find the peak point for the above graph and also calculate the
 Normality of the acid if the normality of the base is 0.11N and pipette solution amount is 10mL.
18. What are weak and strong acids? Give examples.

a. CH3COOH + Na+ + OH- →?

b. H + + Cl- + Na+ + OH- →?

19. Give reasons for the variation of curves in the graph given below. Let V1 be [from the graph] 5.8 mL
and V2 be 10.7mL. Calculate the Normality of strong acid and weak acid if the N of the base be 0.6N

and the pipette solution be 20 mL.

N.B: The amount of Pipette solution, Normality is changed for few experiments.