DATA ANALYSIS

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VARIABLES
Refers to characteristics, attributes, or factors that can vary
or take on different values within a study. These variables are
essential for researchers to understand, measure, and analyze
because they help investigate relationships, trends, and
patterns in the data.
Qualitative (descriptive) Quantitative (numerical)
gender height
marital status weight
color age
texture rate
taste. speed
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VARIABLES
Discrete Variables Continuous Variables
are quantitative variables can take on any value within
that have distinct and separate a specified range. They have
values. These values are an infinite number of possible
typically whole numbers or values and can include
counts. decimals and fractions.
Population Continuous variables are
Number of students measured rather than counted.
Number of children Height
Age Temperature
Time
Distance

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MEASUREMENT SCALES
01 Nominal 03 Interval
data points are grouped by name or data is measured on a scale with equal
identity, and there is no inherent intervals between values. It includes an
order or ranking among categories. arbitrary zero point, meaning that a value of
gender zero does not indicate the absence of the
eye color attribute being measured.
car type temperature
IQ

02 Ordinal 04 Ratio
data is categorized into ordered the highest level of measurement. Data
categories or ranks. While there is a have all the properties of interval data, but
relative order among categories, the it includes a true zero point, zero indicates
intervals between them are not the complete absence of the attribute
necessarily equal or meaningful. being measured.
grade level income
socioeconomic status height, weight, age
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DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
are brief descriptive coefficients that summarizes a
given data set, which can be either a representation of
the entire population or a sample of it. It's like organizing
information and creating a narrative around it.

Frequency and Percentage Table

Measures of Central Tendency

Measure of Variability
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Frequency and Percentage Table

The frequency and percentage table displays

counts and percentages for each distinct value
found in a variable (normally a categorical
variable). Frequencies are the number of times
each score occurs in the data set, whereas
percentage is a number or ratio representing a
fraction of 100.

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Frequency and Percentage Table

Example Scenarios:

A researcher would like to know what religion do

his respondents belong to.
A high school teacher would like to know how
many students find the subject difficult or not.
A research student would like to describe the
grade level of their respondents.
A reporter would like to know whether people
agree or disagree with the Anti-Terror Bill.
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Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendencies, also known as

averages, attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position. This will help us
understand the typical or "central" value in a set
of data. There are three main types of
averages:

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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Measures of Central Tendency

MEAN

The mean is found by adding up all the

numbers in the data and then dividing that
total by the number of data points.
Example: 5,7, and 10
add them together (5 + 7 + 10 = 22)
then divide by the number of data points (3),
giving us a mean of 22 ÷ 3 = 7.33

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Measures of Central Tendency

MEDIAN

The median is the middle value in the data

when it is arranged in order. If we have the
numbers 5, 7, 10, 15, and 20, we line them up
and find the middle value, which is 10. The
median is handy when we have data with
extreme values or outliers that might affect the
mean.

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Measures of Central Tendency

MODE

The mode is the value that appears most

frequently in the data. The mode is helpful
when dealing with categories or data that can
only take certain values, like favorite colors or
the number of siblings someone has.
Example: 2, 3, 3, 5, and 5,
The mode is 3 and 5 because they appear
twice.
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Measure of Variability (Dispersion)

Also called measure of dispersion or measure

of spread, is used to describe the variability in a
sample or population. It is usually used in
conjunction with a measure of central tendency,
such as the mean or median, to provide an
overall description of a set of data.

STANDARD INTERQUARTILE RANGE

DEVIATION RANGE

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Measure of Variability (Dispersion)

STANDARD
DEVIATION

The standard deviation is a statistic that

measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to
its mean and is calculated as the square root of
variance. It is used when the mean is used to
calculate central tendency. If data points are
further from the mean, there is RANGE a higher
deviation within data set; thus the more spread
out the data, the higher SD.
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Measure of Variability (Dispersion)

INTERQUARTILE
RANGE

It describes the difference between the third

quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1), telling
us about the range of the middle half of the
scores in the distribution. It is reported along
with the median, when dealing with skewed
and/or data with outliers. Similar toRANGE standard
deviation, the variation is high if the interquartile
range is high.
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Measure of Variability (Dispersion)

RANGE

The easiest way to quantify variability. It

reveals the difference between a set of data's
highest and lowest scores. We can quickly
determine the degree of dispersion between
values in the data using the range. Although
outliers or extreme numbers can significantly
impact it, it does not consider all the values in
RANGE
between.
Example: Heights of each student in a class
Range is the highest and shortest student.
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SUMMARY OF STATISTICAL TOOL

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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

This is used to make educated assumptions
Hypothesis Testing: Comparison of Means
about your population based on the data from
your sample. It enables us to accurately One Sample T-test
extrapolate generalizations about the entire Independent Sample T-test
population from what we discover in a smaller
Paired Sample T-test
sample. For instance, we can gather a
sample of students, inquire about their study Analysis of Variance
practices, and assess their marks to
Hypothesis Testing: Tests of Association
determine whether or not students who study
more earn better grades. We may then make Chi-square Test for Independence

predictions about each kid in the school using

Correlation Analysis
inferential statistics.
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Comparison of Means

One Sample T-test

One sample t-test determines whether the sample mean is statistically

different from known or hypothesized population mean.

Example Scenario:

Suppose you are interested in determining whether an aseembly line produces laptop
computers that weigh five pounds.
You want to check if the average height of male Filipinos is 162 cm.
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Comparison of Means

Independent Sample T-test

Independent sample t-test is a hypothesis test for answering questions about

the mean where the data are collected from two random samples of independent
observations.

Example Scenario:

You want to check whether there is a significant (or only random) difference in the average
cycle time to deliver a pizza from Pizza Company A vs. Pizza Company B.
Do two types of music, type-I and type-II, have different effects upon the ability of college
students to perform a series of mental tasks requiring concentration?
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Comparison of Means

Paired Sample T-test

Is a statistical hypothesis test used when comparing two-related samples,

matched samples, or repeated measurements on a single sample to assess
whether their population mean differ.
Example Scenario:

You are a teacher, and you want to check if your students learned something in your
discussion. You conducted a Pre-test and Post-test to measure their learnings before and
after the discussion.
You are a coach, and you want to check if your players improved after taking some
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Comparison of Means

Analysis of Variance

Also called one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to determine

whether there are any statistically significant differences between the means of
three or more independent (unrelated) groups.
Example Scenario:

Suppose we want to test the effect of five different exercises. For this, we recruit 20 men
and assign one type of exercise to 4 mean (5 groups). Their weights are recorded after.
You want to study the effect of fertilizer on yield of wheat. We apply six fertilizers, each of
different quality, on six plots of land each of wheat. The yield from each plot of land is
recorded and the difference in yield among the plots is observed. Excellence & Relevance
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Tests of Association

Chi-square Test for Independence

The Chi-square test for independence is a statistical tool used to see if there is a connection
between two variables when we only have information about how many times different things happen (or
frequency) without specific numerical measurements. It helps us determine if there's a link between the
variables or if they occur independently.
.
Example Scenario: We want to know if there's a relationship between gender (male or female) and
favorite ice cream flavor (chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry) among 100 people. We count how many
males and females prefer each flavor: 20 males like chocolate, 10 like vanilla, and 5 like strawberry,
while 15 females like chocolate, 15 like vanilla, and 20 like strawberry. Using the Chi-square test for
independence, we can check for a connection between gender and ice cream preference. The test will
help us see if the differences in the number of people who like each flavor are due to random chance or if
there's a real relationship between gender and ice cream preference.
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INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Hypothesis Testing: Tests of Association

Correlation Analysis

Correlation Analysis is a way to figure out how two things are related. A negative connection
exists when one thing rises while the other falls.

1. Pearson Correlation Coefficient - , a number, shows the strength and direction of the association
between two variables. Its possible values are -1 to 1. When the value is almost one, a significant
negative association exists. For instance, persons who exercise less often tend to weigh more. The value
has a significant positive association when it is close to 1.

2. Spearman Correlation Coefficient - is another statistic that illustrates how strongly and in which
direction two facts are related. It operates somewhat differently from the Pearson model in that it
considers the order of the data rather than the actual numbers. Because of this, it can be helpful when
we have neither numerical nor regularly distributed data. The Spearman coefficient ranges from -1 to 1.
Values near -1 or 1 indicate a strong relationship, whereas 0 indicates no link. Excellence & Relevance
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Statistical Tools for Hypothesis Testing

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