INTERFACING

DIO MODULE & INTERFACES

Digital Input Output:
Specs of Our Microcontroller:
 As we mentioned before, any computing system must have three main components:
Processor, Memory and Input/Output Peripherals.
We declared Processor and Memory in the last Session, so we will explain the first peripheral
of our Input/Output Peripherals “DIO”.
 Before in deep in DIO, we will recognize on our microcontroller on which we will work, it is an
AVR microcontroller “ATmega32”.
 The name of microcontroller consists of three
syllables:
- AT: indicates to the producer, ATMEL company.
-mega: indicate to the type of family, whether
there are three families “tiny, mega, Xmega”.
-32: indicates how many k bytes are the size of
flash?
 Let’s speak about the Specs of ATmega32.
Digital Input Output:
Specs of Our Microcontroller:
 High-performance, Low-power AVR® 8-bit Microcontroller:
it means that its data bus size is eight bits.
 Advanced RISC Architecture, so it means that:
– 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single-clock Cycle Execution.
– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers.
– Fully Static Operation.
– Up to 16 MIPS Throughput at 16 MHz.
– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier.
 Nonvolatile Program and Data Memories:
– 32K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash: Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles.
– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits:
In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program and True Read-While-Write Operation.
– 1024 Bytes EEPROM: Endurance: 100,000 Write/Erase Cycles.
– 2K Byte Internal SRAM – Programming Lock for Software Security.
Digital Input Output:
DIO Peripheral:
 A Digital Input Output is a peripheral that only deals with digital signals, it can generate
output digital signal “OUTPUT Mode”, or it can also read or detect input digital signals by
using “INPUT Mode”.

 Any peripheral consists of Hardware Circuit, but unfortunately the processor deals with
memory only, so any peripheral must have a piece of memory to act as an intermediary
between the processor and the hardware circuit.

 According to the last point, there is a new type of memory will be appeared, this is
“Input/Output Memory”.

 The type of architecture of our microcontroller is “Harvard Architecture”.

Digital Input Output:
Accessing to I/O memory:
 As we mentioned before that ATmega32 architecture is a Harvard Architecture, so every
memory system will be connected to the processor by a separated “Bus Set” so if the I/O
memory will be connected by two ways:
 Port Mapping:
As the following figure, every
memory system is connected to
the processor using a separated
Bus Set, so according to
Harvard architecture, there is
no way to access any memory system except RAM
using the C level, so to access I/O memory, it must be
accessed using Assembly level.
Digital Input Output:
Accessing to I/O memory:
 As we mentioned before that ATmega32 architecture is a Harvard Architecture, so every
memory system will be connected to the processor by a separated “Bus Set” so if the I/O
memory will be connected by two ways:
 Memory Mapping:
As the following figure, I/O memory is connected on the same Bus Set of RAM, so
I/O and RAM will share the same bus as a Von-Neumann Architecture, so the I/O now
can be accessed using
C level, but unfortunately
there is no way to
pipeline between I/O and
RAM memory, So if the
user needs the fast access
not the easy way access,
what should exactly the user do?...!
Digital Input Output:
Accessing to I/O memory:
 Our Microcontroller will merge the two techniques in its Architecture, so the I/O memory will
be connected by a separated Bus Set “so its addresses will be started with $00 address, but
these addresses are only accessed by Assembly Level”, also it is connected to with the Bus Set
of RAM memory “So the addresses of I/O registers will be started from $20, because
the previous 32 locations are the
remapping addresses of GPRs, and it
can be accesses by C Level”.

 So, if the user needs easy access, he

can use the Memory Mapping
addresses into C Level, and if the user needs
fast access, he can use the Port Mapping
addresses.
Digital Input Output:
Accessing to I/O memory:
 To Access I/O by using Port Mapping addresses, we must use Assembly Level by using for
example: “IN & OUT” instruction.

 The IN instruction tells the CPU to load one byte from an I/O
register to the GPR. After this instruction is executed, the
GPR will have the same value as the I/O register. For example,
the “in 20, 0x16” instruction will copy the contents of
location 16 (in hex) of the I/O memory into R20. Each location
in I/O memory has two addresses: I/O address and data
memory address. Each location in the data memory has
a unique address called the data memory address.
Each I/O register has a relative address in comparison to the
beginning of the I/O memory; this address is called the I/O
address.
Digital Input Output:
Accessing to I/O memory:
 To Access I/O by using Port Mapping addresses, we must use Assembly Level by using for
example: “IN & OUT” instruction.

 The OUT instruction tells the CPU to store the GPR to the
I/O register. After the instruction is executed, the I/O register
will have the same value as the GPR. For example, the
“out PORTD, R10” instruction will copy the contents of R10
into PORTD (location 12 of the I/O memory).
Notice that: in the OUT instruction, the I/O registers are
referred to by their I/O addresses (like the IN instruction).
Digital Input Output:
Difference between LDS & IN:
 LDS instruction to copy the contents of a memory location to a GPR.
This means that we can load an I/O register into a GPR, using the LDS instruction.
So, what is the advantage of using the IN instruction for reading the contents of I/O
registers over using the LDS instruction? The IN instruction has the following advantages:
 The CPU executes the IN instruction faster than LDS, IN instruction lasts 1-machine
cycle, where as LDS lasts 2-machine cycles.
 The IN is a 2-byte instruction, whereas LDS is a 4-byte instruction.
This means that the IN instruction occupies less code memory.
 When we use the IN instruction, we can use the names of the I/O registers instead
of their addresses.
 The IN instruction is available in all of the AVRs, where as LDS is not implemented in
some of the AVRs.
 Notice that in using the IN instruction we can access only the standard I/O memory, while
we can access all parts of the data memory using the LDS instruction,
Digital Input Output:
Difference between LDS & IN:
 LDS instruction to copy the contents of a memory location to a GPR.
This means that we can load an I/O register into a GPR, using the LDS instruction.
So, what is the advantage of using the IN instruction for reading the contents of I/O
registers over using the LDS instruction? The IN instruction has the following advantages:
 The CPU executes the IN instruction faster than LDS, IN instruction lasts 1-machine
cycle, where as LDS lasts 2-machine cycles.
 The IN is a 2-byte instruction, whereas LDS is a 4-byte instruction.
This means that the IN instruction occupies less code memory.
 When we use the IN instruction, we can use the names of the I/O registers instead
of their addresses.
 The IN instruction is available in all of the AVRs, where as LDS is not implemented in
some of the AVRs.
 Notice that in using the IN instruction we can access only the standard I/O memory, while
we can access all parts of the data memory using the LDS instruction,
Digital Input Output:
Pin Configuration of ATmega32:
 ATmega32 has 40 pins into DIP manufacturing, 44 pins into TQFP
manufacturing, there is no difference between of them in the
features, but the extra 4 pins only extra pins for ground and Vcc.

 There are 32 General Purpose Input/Output pins, and only

8 Specific Function pins, Lets start with specific function pins:
 Vcc: This pin must be connected to “5V”.

 GND: This pin must be connected to “0V”, there are two

pins at each side for PCB usage.

 RESET: This pin is Active Low pin, when it is connected to

GND, the reset handler will be run, so the code will be
started from the beginning.
Digital Input Output:
Pin Configuration of ATmega32:
 There are 32 General Purpose Input/Output pins, and only
8 Specific Function pins, Lets start with specific function pins:
 AREF: This pin is connected to a volt “max is 5V”, which is
used as reference voltage for ADC peripheral, it will be
declared later in ADC session.

 AVCC: This pin is connected to a volt “5V”, which is used

as the power of ADC peripheral, because ADC is only
peripheral that takes its power from external pin, not fro m
the power of microcontroller like the remaining
peripherals.
Digital Input Output:
Pin Configuration of ATmega32:
 There are 32 General Purpose Input/Output pins, and only
8 Specific Function pins, Lets start with specific function pins:
 XTAL1 & XTAL2:
These pin are connected to the external crystal clock
which XTAL1 pin is an output from microcontroller to
drive the crystal clock “Mechanical Clock” and XTAL2 is an
input pin to get through the output clock from the crystal
clock to microcontroller.
If the type of clock is electrical, XTAL2 pin is only pin will
be connected to the output of Clock circuit to this pin
because the circuit takes its power from an external
power source, so this connection is called as
“By Pass Connection”.
Digital Input Output:
Pin Configuration of ATmega32:
 There are 32 General Purpose Input/Output pins, now we will
discuss the General Purpose Input Output Pins.
 As our microcontroller is an 8-bit Data bus, also every pin can be
controlled by a single bit, the pins will be divided into Four
Groups “A, B, C and D”.
 Every Group will contain eight pins, so every group has a register
at least to control the pins of group.
 In fact, every group has three registers to control its pins:
- Data Direction Register “DDRx”:
it controls the direction of pins “OUTPUT or INPUT”.
- Output Register “PORTx”:
it controls the level of pins “HIGH or LOW”.
- Input Register “PINx”:
it stores the level that is connected to pins “HIGH or LOW”.
Digital Input Output:
Hardware Circuit of DIO:
 As we mentioned before, any peripheral must have main two components: Hardware
Circuit and memory to manage the processor to order or request a command from the
hardware circuit, and the main hardware component of our DIO is Tri-State Buffer.

 Normal Buffer Component as the following figure works

as high impedance buffer that can allow the voltage
which is applied on “A” gets through to “Q” after
reducing voltage power, it only reduces the current.

 Tri-State Buffer looks like the normal buffer, but it has an extra pin,
this pin controls the voltage flow between “A & B”, so if enable
pin is powered to “0”, there is no voltage will get through, if it is ?
powered to “1”, the voltage will get through from “A  B”.
Digital Input Output:
Hardware Circuit of DIO:
 As we mentioned before, any peripheral must have main
two components: Hardware Circuit and memory to manage
the processor to order or request a command from the
hardware circuit, and the main hardware component of our
DIO is Tri-State Buffer.

 There are main three registers into our DIO,

first is the Direction Data Register called “DDR”,
which controls the direction of pin
“input =0, output=1” because it is triggered
the Tri-State Buffer to enable “1” or Disabled
“0” the output circuit.
Digital Input Output:
Hardware Circuit of DIO:
 If the Direction of pin is configured as an output, the DIO can gets through High or Low
level, by configuring the output register called “PORT” by “High=1 , Low=0”.

 If we need to turn on a LED, we have two ways to access the DIO register “actually, we have
two addresses to access any I/O register: memory and port mapping, Lets start with
memory mapping addresses.

 Assume that the LED is connected to

Pin 3, Group B, now we must open the datasheet
to get the addresses of registers we need.
Digital Input Output:
Register Summery of I/O registers:
 We will find that every I/O register has two addresses, the memory mapping exists into
practices (), Port mapping will be outside, because it starts from $00 location.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 After checking the register summery, the addresses of DIO registers start from
“0x30  0x3B” as memory mapping addresses, and also they start from
“0x10  0x1B” as port mapping addresses.

 As we mentioned before, Port Mapping addresses are used only in the

assembly level.

 All IO registers can be accessed by “IN / OUT” instructions, but there are
Two instructions that can access IO registers from “0x00  0x1F”, which
are “SBI: Set Bit Instruction, CBI: Clear Bit Instruction” and they can
Set/Clear a specific bit into an IO register from “0x00  0x1F” as one
instruction that takes two clock cycles, and it can not be interrupted
because it is a single instruction not like Set/Clear in C level, because it
takes minimum there instructions “Read – Modify – Write”.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Light Emitting Diode:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light
when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine
with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons.
The color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photons) is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap of
the semiconductor.
White light is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of
light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor device.
 Most of LEDs run at “3 volts” maximum, and the maximum current that
it consumes is about “20 mA” maximum, so if it is connected to “5 volts”,
it must be connected in series with a resistor that its value can be calculated
by: 𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 = 𝟓 − 𝟑 −𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝜴 , but most common LEDs can be
𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎
connected to 𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝜴.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Types of Connection:
 Source Connection:
It means that the LED will obtain the power source from the microcontroller itself,
like the next figure, which the microcontroller is considered as the power source
of LED, so its activation state is to power the Pin to High.
 Source Connection:
It means that the LED will obtain the power source from external power source,
like the next figure, which the microcontroller is considered as the power sink
of LED, so its activation state is to power the Pin to Low.
 Current sinking and sourcing:
Each I/O pin can sink or source a recommended current of 20mA.
Each I/O pin can sink or source a maximum current of 40mA.
It must be ensured that the current sourced or sunk from all the
ports combined, should not exceed 200mA.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 To control a LED, first we must set the pin that will be connected to it as an output, then
the output register must be set/cleared according to the type of connection, so we have
two methods to control the LED by accessing “memory or port mapping addresses”.

 Assume that the LED will be connected to “pin 3” in group “ C ”, so the accessing method
will be memory mapping “DDRC: 0x34 , PORTC: 0x35”.
We have the address of register, but it must be assigned into pointer or casted to be
accessible, so casting will be chosen to reduce memory consumption.

 For example, “0x34” will be casted to pointer to the register size itself “1 Byte”, so it will be
casted to pointer to u8 “unsigned char”, as the following: (u8 *)0x34, now it becomes a
pointer, but we need to dereference this pointer, so the final result will be:
*( (u8 *)0x34 ) = any_value_you_need;
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Example Code to turn on the led “using Memory Mapping”:
This code will turn on the LED that will be connected
to pin 3, in group C, now we use the <util/delay.h>
library to use its APIs:
“_delay_ms( time_in_milli_second ); ”
“_delay_us( time_in_micro_second );”
to make an application that blinks this LED with
one second interval.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Example Code to Blink the led “using Memory Mapping”:
The code besides is written to blink the
LED, but in fact it will be turned on once,
then turned off once, because there now
thing that orders the processor to repeat
the code, normally the execution of main
function will end and never to enter again,
so, we need to use a keyword in C that
can order the processor to run this code
forever.
Guess, what should we use?....!!
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Super Loop:
The super loop is used for two reasons:
- For running the program for ever, and
making the main function never exists.
-To protect the program memory,
because if there is no super loop, PC
register will be increased forever, until
it is overflowed, so the Program Counter
will start from zero, and the processor will
access all flash sections that are not accessed
in normal cases, but if you try to do it, you will
not find any result that because the startup
code protect it be finalize function that only has
a super loop, and it is only executed if the main function is an exited function.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Super Loop:
This is our code after using super loop system,
so, the LED will be blinked forever.
 Now, we want to access the pins using
“Port Mapping” addresses, so we must use
assembly level “IN/OUT 0x00 – 0x3F” or
“SBI/CBI 0x00 – 0x1F” to access, but if we need to
access it within a C code, is it available?.....!!
 If an assembly instruction is written with a C code,
compiler will generate an error because the assembly
instructions are not defined in C syntax.
 So, if an assembly instructions should be written within
a C code, we must use inline assembly.
Digital Input Output:
Turning on a LED:
 Inline Assembly:
To use this feature, we will use the internal
function “asm”, so we can write the assembly
instruction can be written as a string, and be
passed as an argument for “asm”.

 So if pin 3 in Group C will be configured as an

output pin using “SBI/CBI” instructions, it will be
written ‘SBI 0x14, 3’, so
it will be:
__asm__ (“SBI 0x14 , 3”);
// set bit 3 in DDRC register by 1
Digital Input Output:
Input Mode:
 Connection of Switch:
- Connect Switch to Power Source:
In this case, the pin should be configured as an Input, so the Tri-State Buffer will be
disabled, Now if the switch is closed, PINx register will be triggered and “Logic ONE” will be
written.
If the switch is opened,
the PINx register will be
connected to open circuit,
so the bit related to this pin
will be floated,
so it can be changed by any small noise.
So, the pin must read
“Logic ZERO” when the
switch is open , But HOW??...........!!!
Digital Input Output:
Input Mode:
 Connection of Switch:
- PULL-DOWN Resistor:
In this case, the pull-down resistor is a mandatory to avoid the Open Circuit or Floating
signal, and as we mentioned before that we need to trigger the PINx register by ZERO if it is
opened, but a high impedance resistor must be connected to avoid the short circuit
between power source
and ground, also to make
the power source avoid the
high impedance line, and all
power will be sink into
the bit in PINx related to pin.
 CLOSE state  1
OPEN state  0
Digital Input Output:
Input Mode:
 Connection of Switch:
- Connect Switch to Ground:
In this case, the pin should be configured as an Input, so the Tri-State Buffer will be
disabled, Now if the switch is closed, PINx register will be triggered and “Logic ZERO” will
be written.
If the switch is opened,
the PINx register will be
connected to open circuit,
so the bit related to this pin
will be floated,
so it can be changed by any small noise.
So, the pin must read
“Logic ONE” when the
switch is open , But HOW??...........!!!
Digital Input Output:
Input Mode:
 Connection of Switch:
- PULL-UP Resistor:
In this case, the pull-up resistor is a mandatory to avoid the Open Circuit or Floating signal,
and as we mentioned before that we need to trigger the PINx register by ONE if it is
opened, but a high impedance resistor must be connected to avoid the short circuit
between power source
and ground, also for
power exhausting in the
resistor when it is closed,
and the ground will be
the dominant signal that
will affect on PINx register.
 CLOSE state  0
OPEN state  1
Digital Input Output:
Internal Pull-up Resistor:
 Connection of Switch:
- PULL-UP Resistor:
In this case, the pull-up resistor exists internally into our microcontroller, this resistor has
two poles, when the external pull up resistor is connected to pin, one of their poles is
connected to pin and the other is connected to power source, so when it is connected
internally, the pole which
is connected to pin is still
connected to pin, but the
second must be connected to Vcc, so the
register that can generate
5v is PORTx, so to enable the internal pull up
resistor of an input pin,
PORTx must also be set in
the same order of pin.
Digital Input Output:
Example on Input Signals:
 Toggle the LED, if the switch is pressed:
Switch is connected to PA2,
LED is connected to PB5:
- First, set the pin connected as output.
-Then, set the pin connected an pulled up
input.
-After that, check if the bit related to the
pin connected to switch if it has ZERO
“because the close state in this type of connection
is ZERO, and ONE if it is opened”, the LED
will be toggled, if not, there is nothing will
be happened.
Digital Input Output:
Example on Input Signals:
 Toggle the LED, if the switch is pressed:
Switch is connected to PA2,
LED is connected to PB5:
- First, set the pin connected as output.
-Then, set the pin connected an pulled up
input.
-After that, check if the bit related to the
pin connected to switch if it has ZERO
“because the close state in this type of connection
is ZERO, and ONE if it is opened”, the LED
will be toggled, if not, there is nothing will
be happened.
Digital Input Output:
Seven Segment Display:
 The emission of these photons occurs when the diode junction is forward
biased by an external voltage allowing current to flow across its junction,
and in Electronics we call this process electroluminescence.

 The actual color of the visible light emitted by an LED, ranging from blue
to red to orange, is decided by the spectral wavelength of the emitted
light which itself is dependent upon the mixture of the various impurities
added to the semiconductor materials used to produce it.

 The seven segment simply contains seven LEDs arranged to form

numbers from 0  F, it has 10 pins, from a to g, every pin is
connected to every LED, and one is connected to the DOT LED,
and the remaining two pins are connected to common pole of these
LEDs whether they are connected to ANODE pole or CATHODE pole.
Digital Input Output:
Seven Segment Display:
 Common Cathode Seven Segment:
The activation of segment in this type is High Signal, and the Common
Pin activation is Low Signal, So to Draw numbers from 0  F:
Digital Input Output:
Seven Segment Display:
 Common Anode Seven Segment:
The activation of segment in this type is Low Signal, and the Common
Pin activation is High Signal, So to Draw numbers from 0  F:

just flip all activation level exists into

the previous table or get the ONE’s
complement of bytes into
the previous table.
Labs On DIO :
GI:
 Make a system that has two switches, one of
Them increases the value of Seven Segment, and
the second decreases its value.
KEYPAD
KEYPAD CONCEPT:

• The keypad is a set of

mechanical switches which
are arranged into a
matrix.
WHY KEYPAD?

• If we want to use about 16 switches

into our project, we will need about
16 input pin from our microcontroller,
about half of GPIO pins, but if we
need about 49 switches, what shall we
do?
• In this case, we need about 49 input
pin for our switches, so if they are
arranged into a matrix 7x7 we only
need 14 pins only.
WHY KEYPAD?

• In the figure besides, keypad

4x4, so we only need about 8
pins to connect these switches
into our system.
• So, the keypad concept is used
to reduce the number of
microcontroller pins.
• But in this case, how does
the keypad work?
HOW KEYPAD WORKS?

• After arranging the switches into a matrix,

we will have four columns and for rows,
So, we can set any set of them as an
output and the other as an input.
• Assume that the columns set is output, and
the rows set is input, what is the kind of
the signals must be written on these
columns to easily indicate the pressed
button?
HOW KEYPAD WORKS?

• The best sequence is to set all the columns by HIGH at Pull up Resistors
first.
• Then, change C1 signal to LOW then check if any row 1 2 3 A
read Zero or not. Input Pin 1
R1
• Assume that R3 readsZero signal, so the pressed 4 5 6 B R2 Input Pin 2
button is C1R3.
7 8 9 C R3 Input Pin 3
• If not, turn C1 to HIGH again and set C2 to LOW and
check if any Row reads Zero or not. Input Pin 4
# 0 * D R4
• Repeat this sequence until you find zero on any row
then return the pressed key, or until columnsare C1 C2 C3 C4

Output Pin 1
Output Pin 2
Output Pin 3
Output Pin 4
finished and return keypad not pressed.
HOW KEYPAD WORKS?

• The best sequence is to set all the columns by HIGH at Pull up Resistors
first.
• Then, change C1 signal to LOW then check if any row 1 2 3
read Zero or not. + R1
Input Pin 1

• Assume that R3 readsZero signal, so the pressed 4 5 6 - R2 Input Pin 2

button is C1R3.
7 8 9 R3 Input Pin 3
• If not, turn C1 to HIGH again and set C2 to LOW and x
check if any Row reads Zero or not. Input Pin 4
0 R4
• Repeat this sequence until you find zero on any row
C = /
then return the pressed key, or until columnsare C1 C2 C3 C4

Output Pin 1
Output Pin 2
Output Pin 3
Output Pin 4
finished and return keypad not pressed.
KEYPAD ALGORITHM:

• Write onC1 To C4 “0111F: Pull up Resistors

• This means that C1 is activated, and we are
going to check the buttons in C1, If any row 1 2 3 + Input Pin 1
R1
of the rows R1 to R4 isset to 0, then the
corresponding button in C1 is pressed. 4 5 6 - R2 Input Pin 2

• Write onC1 To C4 “1011F: 7 8 9 x R3 Input Pin 3

• This means that C2 is activated, and we are 0 R4

Input Pin 4
going to check the buttons in C2, If any row
C = /
of the rows R1 to R4 isset to 0, then the C1 C2 C3 C4

Output Pin 1
Output Pin 2
Output Pin 3
Output Pin 4
corresponding button in C1 is pressed.
KEYPAD ALGORITHM:

• Write onC1 To C4 “1101F: Pull up Resistors

• This means that C4 is activated, and we are
going to check the buttons in C3, If any row 1 2 3 + Input Pin 1
R1
of the rows R1 to R4 isset to 0, then the
corresponding button in C1 is pressed. 4 5 6 - R2 Input Pin 2

• Write onC1 To C4 “1110F: 7 8 9 x R3 Input Pin 3

• This means that C4 is activated, and we are 0 R4

Input Pin 4
going to check the buttons in C4, If any row
C = /
of the rows R1 to R4 isset to 0, then the C1 C2 C3 C4

Output Pin 1
Output Pin 2
Output Pin 3
Output Pin 4
corresponding button in C1 is pressed.
KEYPAD DRIVER:

• Now, After understanding how to

implement the Keypad matrix and the
Algorithm of it,

Try writing its software module

STEPPERMOTORS
STEPPERMOTORS:

• What is the Stepper Motor?:

• A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor,
is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into
several equal steps. The motor's position can be commanded
to moveand hold at one of these steps without any position
sensorfor feedback (an open-loop controller in contrast to
Servo which is a closed Loop system), if the motor is correctly
sized to the application in respect to torque and speed.
STEPPERMOTORS:

• Why the Stepper Motor:

• Stepper motors are often an extremely important
component in a motion control system.
• Stepper motors can produce full, instantaneous torque -
even from a standstill. This makes them very useful for
motion control applications, where accuracy,
repeatability, and power are paramount.
STEPPERMOTORS:

• Types of Stepper Motors:

• Permanent magnet stepper
• Variable reluctance stepper
• Hybrid synchronous stepper
• Types of Phases of Stepper Motors:
• Unipolar.
• Bipolar.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Types of Stepper Motors:

• The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By energizing one or more of the stator phases,
a magnetic field is generated by the current flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns with this field. By supplying
different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to reach the desired final position.
Figure 2 shows a representation of the working principle. At the beginning, coil A is energized, and the rotor is
aligned with the magnetic field it produces. When coil B is energized, the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align
with the new magnetic field. The same happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the colors of the stator
teeth indicate the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Full Step Activation:

• In this type of stepper motors, the
coils must be activated sequentially,
as the following figure, the activated
coils are 1  2  3  4 to
generate Clockwise rotation.
• To reverse the rotation, the
sequence of activation will be
1432.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Full Step Activation:

• Assumethat if the current flows into the coil in clockwise
direction, the North will be generated at left, South at
right.
• So, the south pole of electrical magnetic field will attract
the North pole of permanent magnet.
• After that, Deactivate Coil 1, then activate the next coil.
• Apply this sequence, Deactivate the current coil, then
activate the next.
• This type iscalled Bipolar activation.
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

After applying this sequence, the rotor rotates at clockwise direction

THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Full Step Activation:

• To change the direction of
rotation, there are two methods:
• Changing the activation sequence:
1432
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

After applying this sequence, the rotor rotates at counter-clockwise direction

THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Full Step Activation:

• To change the direction of rotation,
there are two methods:
• Changing the polarity of some coils.
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

After applying this sequence, the rotor rotates at counter-clockwise direction

THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Half Step Activation:

• Assume that if the current flows into the coil in clockwise
direction, the North will be generated at left, South at
right.
• So, the south pole of electrical magnetic field will attract
the North pole of permanent magnet.
• After that, activate Coil 1 and the next coil to generate
half step.
• Apply this sequence.
• This type is called Bipolar activation.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Half Step Activation:

• It takes Eight steps for a completely cycle.
• The stride angle become half of the full-step
angle.
• It can be reversed by the same way into full
step by changing the activation sequence or by
changing the polarity of some of coils.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Half Step Activation:

• Micro stepping:
• It can be seen as a further enhancement of half-
step mode, because it allows to reduce even further
the step size and to have a constant torque output.
This is achieved by controlling the intensity of the
current flowing in each phase. Usingthis mode
requires a more complex motor driver compared to
the previoussolutions.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Four Coils Half Step Activation:

• Micro stepping:
• Brief of micro stepping isto activate the
different coils by different voltage, I meant
that as example, at 1,2 activation, the voltage
on coil 2 is reduced to generate several step
angles.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils Full Step Activation:

• Assume that if the current flows into the coil in clockwise
direction, the North will be generated at left, South at
right.
• So, the south pole of electrical magnetic field will attract
the North pole of permanent magnet.
• After that, Deactivate Coil 1, then activate the next coil.
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

After deactivation of the coil 2, the first coil will be activated in inverse polarity.
Final step, coil 2 also will be activated in inverse polarity.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils Half Step Activation:

• Assume that if the current flows into the coil in clockwise
direction, the North will be generated at left, South at
right.
• So, the south pole of electrical magnetic field will attract
the North pole of permanent magnet.
• After that, activate Coil 1 and activate the next coil.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils Half Step

Activation:
• This is the activation
method for counter-
clockwise rotation.
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils, Micro Stepping:

• This is the activation method for counter-clockwise rotation.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils, Common Polar, Full Step Activation:

• There are only two coil in this type of stepper motor, but
each coil is divided from its middle point.
• Because of division, Common pin polar exists, so the coil
activation needs only one polar activation.
• Now, we will apply clockwise rotation sequence on the
coils as the following:
 THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

Applying High on 1, Low on Common.

Applying High on 3, Low on Common.
Applying High on 2, Low on Common.
Applying High on 4, Low on Common.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Two Coils, Common Polar, Full Step

Activation:
• According the last activation method, you can
notice that the common pin was activated
every time by the same signal, So, this type of
this motor is called Unipolar activation.
• This motor type we will work on.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Different between Unipolar and Bipolar:

• Assume that we has two identical motors with two coils, but one of
them is unipolar and the other is bipolar
Criteria Unipolar Bipolar
Coil implementation There are two coils There are two coils
with common without additional
pole pole
Num of 4 8
Control
transistors
Torque Weak Double of unipolar
Configurability Can be run as a Bipolar, also Only runs as Bipolar
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Internal Modification:
• Aswe mentioned before, we can decrease the angle of step by activation double
coils or
micro stepping, but now we will decrease the step by increasing the number of
internal coils.
• Unfortunately, increasing the number of coils will increase the number of wires
outside the motor.
• It will be difficult to control this motor because of huge quantity of wires.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Internal Modification:
• Thelast problem hasbeen solved by that: the coils has90 degrees
between of themwill have commonwires outside the motor, like the
following figure, all blue coils have the same wire outside the motor, and
pink coil also and yellow and orange and so on.
• So, after this modification, there are only four wires are outside of the
motor.
• If the blue coil is activated, all coils will generate electrical-magnetic
field, and the nearest coil to the permanent magnet will attract the
permanent magnet.
THEORY OF STEPPERMOTORS:

• Internal Modification:
• The last problem has been solved by that: the coils has 90 degrees between of
them will have common wires outside the motor, like the following figure, all blue
coils have the samewire outside the motor, and pink coil also and yellow and
orange and so on.
• So, after this modification, there are only four wires are outside of the motor.
• If the blue coil is activated, all coils will generate electrical-magnetic field, and
the nearest coil to the permanent magnet will attract the permanent magnet.
OUR STEPPERMOTOR:

• We will use a small stepper motor that works at 5-Volt power, it is Two-coil-common-wire
motor.

• This Stepper can be run as:

• Unipolar.
• Bipolar.
• Its name is 28BYJ-48.
• It has five wires outside the motor:
• Blue.
• Pink.
• Yellow.
• Orange.
• Red.
OUR STEPPERMOTOR:

• Into the following figure, there is the datasheet of

28BYJ-48.
• Stride angle means the minimum angle per step(half
step).
• Variation ratio means that there is a gearbox that
has been implemented on the rotor shaft of motor, it
is used to increase the torque and decrease the
rotational speed.
• We can get the full step by multiplying the stride
angle by Two (11.25/64).
OUR STEPPERMOTOR:

• It can be used as a bipolar

(blue, yellow),
(pink, orange).
• It can be used as a unipolar by this
sequence activation.
(blue), (pink), (yellow), (orange).
FULL STEPSEQUENCE:

• These are the activation

signals if the common wire is
connected to ground(0 v).
• To rotate counterclockwise,
start from last to beginning.
HALF STEPSEQUENCE:

• These are the activation

signals if the common wire is
connected to ground(0 v).
• To rotate counterclockwise,
start from last to beginning.
ELECTRICAL SWITCH THAT WILL BEUSED:

• Because the stepper is a coil-based component, so it will consume a

huge power, that our micro can not be able to provide, and all coils
generate a high Back EMF.
• Those problems can damage the micro controller, so we must use any
electrical switch, the most common and widely used is transistors.
• The main component we will use is a Darlington Pair.
DARLINGTON PAIR:

• It is a multi-transistor configuration called the Darlington

configuration (commonly called a Darlington pair) is a circuit
consisting of two bipolar transistors with the emitter of one
transistor connected to the base of the other, suchthat the
current amplified by the first transistor is amplified further by
the secondone.[1] Thecollectors of both transistors are
together connected. Thisconfiguration hasa muchhigher
current gain than each transistor taken separately. It acts like
and is often packaged as a single transistor. It was invented
in 1953 by Sidney Darlington.
ULN2003 IC WHICH IS BASEDON DARLINGTON
PAIR:

• It is an IC that has seven Darlington pair, every base pin of

them is connected to in pins from In1 to in7.
• Every collector of Darlington pair is connected to out pins
from out1 to out7.
• +Vcc pin16 is called free-wheeling diode which is connected
to Vcc from sinking the current generated from Back EMF.
• GND pin8 is called common Emitter pin, all Emitter pins of
Darlington Pair are assembled and connected to this pin.
• The last pin must be connected to GND because of the
connection of this circuit is Open-Collector Circuit.
OPEN COLLECTOR CIRCUIT:

• The following figure shows that the

load will be connected to the collector
and the other side must be connected
to Vcc.
• The common pin of our motor must be
connected to Vcc.
• The truth table of this circuit is:
B C
0 float
1 0
ULN2003 IC WHICH IS BASEDON DARLINGTON
PAIR:

• To be the signals more logic, the ULN2003 added

a NOT-Gate before the base of Darlington Pair,
So the new truth table will be:
B C
0 0
1 float
OUR STEPPERMOTOR:

• In the following figure, there are a PCB circuit which has

been prepared for control our stepper motor.
• Now, the kind of activation signal is LOW because of
UNL2003 Circuit as we mentioned before.

• The truth
Blue Pink
table for clockwise Yellowis:
rotation Orange
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
OUR STEPPERMOTOR:

• As we mentioned before, the full step of our motor is

(11.25/64), sowe will calculate how many stepsour motor
must move to complete one cycle?
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• Steps
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
in a completed Cycle =
𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

360
= = 2048 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠.
(11.25 )
64
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑋 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
• Steps in a specific angle = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑋 2048
=
THANK YOU!