Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics Study and Revision Guide

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This text has not been through the Cambridge International endorsement process. Any references or
materials related to answers, grades, papers or examinations are based on the opinion of the author.
The Cambridge International syllabus or curriculum framework, associated assessment guidance material
and specimen papers should always be referred to for definitive guidance.

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ISBN: 978 1 3983 6137 9
© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022
First published in 2005
Second edition published in 2016
This edition published in 2022 by
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
Contents
Introduction iv
Exam breakdown v
Section 1 Motion, forces and energy
1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques 2
1.2 Motion 6
1.3 Mass and weight 12
1.4 Density 13
1.5 Forces 15
1.6 Momentum 22
1.7 Energy, work and power 24
1.8 Pressure 33
Section 2 Thermal physics
2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter 35
2.2 Thermal properties and temperature 43
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy 49
Section 3 Waves
3.1 General properties of waves 57
3.2 Light 68
3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum 83
3.4 Sound 87
Section 4 Electricity and magnetism
4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism 92
4.2 Electrical quantities 95
4.3 Electric circuits 108
4.4 Electrical safety 115
4.5 Electromagnetic effects 117
Section 5 Nuclear physics
5.1 The nuclear model of the atom 132
5.2 Radioactivity 137
Section 6 Space physics
6.1 Earth and the Solar System 148
6.2 Stars and the Universe 160
Index 167
Answers to exam-style questions are available at:
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeextras
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022

 Introduction
Skills
Welcome to the Cambridge IGCSE™ Physics Study and Revision Guide. This
book has been written to help you revise everything you need to know and
understand for your Physics exam. Following the Physics syllabus, it covers
all the key Core and Extended content and provides sample questions and
answers, as well as practice questions, to help you learn how to answer
questions and to check your understanding.

How to use this book

Key objectives

Revision activities

Sa ple question 1 Motion, forces and energy

Revision activity Skills

Demonstrating that there is no resultant momentum when an object is
in equilibrium

Key objectives
l l

l l 
l

moment of a force

Sample question
9

principle of moments

equilibrium


upward force
to hold
wheelbarrow Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

load Correct answer

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

22
23

Sample questions Teacher’s comments

Exam-style questions for you to think about.

Student’s answers

iv Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 Correct answers 1.2 Motion

3
4

Teacher’s comments
3
Revision activity
4

Exam-style questions
Correct answers
3
4

Exam-style questions
1

Extended syllabus 2

a
b
c
d
3

4
Answers egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Worked answers to the Exam-style 1.2 Motion

questions can be found at: Key objectives
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeextras l l

Exam breakdown
You will take three examinations at the end of your studies. If you have
studied the Core syllabus content you will take Paper 1 and Paper 3, and
either Paper 5 or Paper 6. If you have studied the Extended syllabus
content (Core and Supplement) you will take Paper 2 and Paper 4, and
either Paper 5 or Paper 6.

Paper 1: Multiple choice (Core) Paper 3: Theory (Core)

Paper 2: Multiple choice (Extended) Paper 4: Theory (Extended)

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 v

 Paper 5: Practical test Paper 6: Alternative to practical
1 hour 15 minutes 1 hour
40 marks 40 marks
Questions will be based on the experimental skills in Questions will be based on the experimental skills in
Section 4 Section 4
20% 20%

How to prepare for your examinations

Here are a few summary points to guide you:
l Use this book – it has been written to help students achieve high grades.
l Learn all the work – low grades are nearly always attributable to inadequate preparation. If you can
recall the work and show understanding of it, you will succeed. Do not leave things to chance.
l Practise skills such as calculations, equation writing, labelling diagrams and the interpretation of
graphs.
l Use past papers to reinforce revision, to become familiar with the types of question and to gain
confidence.
l Answer each question as instructed on the paper – be guided by the key words used in the question
(describe, explain, state etc.). Do not accept a question as an invitation to write what you know about
the topic.

Examination terms explained

The examination syllabus gives a full list of the command terms used by in the exam and how you are
expected to respond. This is summarised below.

Command word Explanation

Calculate Work out from given facts, figures or information
Compare Identify/comment on similarities and/or differences
Define Give the precise meaning
Describe State the points of a topic / give the characteristics and main features
Determine Establish an answer using the information available
Evaluate Judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount or value of something
Explain Set out purposes or reasons / make the relationships between things evident / state why
and/or how, and support with relevant evidence
Give Produce an answer from a given source or use recall/memory
Identify Name/select/recognise
Outline Set out the main points briefly
Predict Suggest what may happen, based on available information
Sketch Make a simple freehand drawing, showing the key features, and taking care over proportions
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

State Express in clear terms

Suggest Apply knowledge and understanding to situations where there is a range of valid responses,
in order to make proposals / put forward considerations

vi Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy
Key terms
Term Definition
Acceleration of free fall, g For an object near to the surface of the Earth this is approximately constant and is
approximately 9.8 m/s2
Accuracy An accurate measurement is one that is close to its true value
Air resistance Frictional force opposing the motion of a body moving in air
Centre of gravity The point at which all the mass of an object’s weight can be considered to be
concentrated
Density The mass per unit volume
Energy Energy may be stored as kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain),
nuclear, electrostatic or internal (thermal)
Equilibrium When there is no resultant force and no resultant moment on an object
Extension Change in length of a body being stretched
Friction Force which opposes one surface moving, or trying to move, over another surface
Gravitational field strength The force per unit mass
Mass A measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to an observer
Moment of a force Moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
Non-renewable Cannot be replaced when used up
Power The work done per unit time and the energy transferred per unit time
Pressure The force per unit area
Principle of conservation of Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it is always conserved
energy
Principle of moments States when a body is in equilibrium; the sum of the clockwise moments about any
point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the same point
Random error Error introduced by the person taking the measurement
Renewable Can be replaced; cannot be used up
Speed The distance travelled per unit time
Systematic error Error introduced by the measuring device
Velocity Speed in a given direction
Weight A gravitational force on an object that has mass
Work A measure of the amount of energy transferred. Work done = force × distance
moved in the direction of the force. SI unit is the joule (J)
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Acceleration Change of velocity per unit time

Deceleration A negative acceleration; velocity decreases as time increases
Efficiency (useful energy output/total energy input) × 100%
(useful power output/total power input) × 100%
Impulse Force × time for which force acts
Limit of proportionality The point at which the load–extension graph becomes non-linear
Momentum Mass × velocity
Principle of conservation of When two or more bodies interact, the total momentum of the bodies remains
momentum constant provided no external forces act

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 1

 1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

Term Definition
Resultant force The rate of change in momentum per unit time

Resultant vector A single vector that has the same effect as the two vectors combined

Scalar A quantity with magnitude only

Spring constant Force per unit extension

Terminal velocity Constant velocity reached when the air resistance upwards equals the downward

weight of the falling body

Vector A quantity which has both magnitude and direction

1.1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques

Key objectives
l l

l l

Each time you measure a quantity you are trying to find its true value.
How close you get to the true value is described as the accuracy of the
measurement.

Length
correct wrong

object

 Figure 1.1 The correct way to measure with a ruler

Length is the distance from one end of an object to the other. It is

measured using a ruler. To measure length accurately your eye must be
perpendicular to the mark on the ruler you are trying to read. This avoids
parallax (see Figure 1.1).
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Most rulers have millimetre markings. They give values to the nearest mm.
For example, if you have to measure a small distance of 4 mm you only
know the value to 4 ± 1 mm. To improve this measurement, you measure
multiple distances and find an average distance.

Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied. Figure 1.2 shows how to measure meniscus
volume using a measuring cylinder. You measure the volume of a liquid by
looking at the level of the bottom of the meniscus (see Figure 1.2). (For
mercury, you should look at the level of the top of the meniscus.)
 Figure 1.2 The correct way to

Measuring cylinders often measure in millilitres. Remember 1 ml = 1 cm3. measure a volume of liquid

2 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Skills
Converting cm3 to m3

Time
You need to be able to use analogue and digital stopwatches or clocks
to measure time intervals. To improve the accuracy of the measurement metal plates
of a short, repeated time interval, you can measure multiple times. For
example, measuring the period of the pendulum in Figure 1.3. The period
is the time taken for the pendulum to move from A to B and then back string
to A. You would measure the time for 10 such swings and then divide the support
stand
time by 10.

Errors in measurements
In any measurement there may be a measurement error. This is why results
are not always the same. The error might be random (a random error)
and cause an anomaly when you repeat the result. For example, an error
pendulum
B bob
introduced by your reaction time as you start and stop a stopwatch. The O A
error may be a systematic error. For example, a newton meter might have
a reading even when there is no force applied. This type of error is a zero  Figure 1.3 A pendulum

error. In this case the same error is introduced to all the readings.

scalar vector

l
l

l
l

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

resultant vector

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 3

 Sample questions

Sample questions
1 A student wishes to time how long it takes a ball to fall 1.5 m. Describe
how to obtain reliable results for the measurements of time and height. [4]

Student’s answer
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Teacher’s comments

4 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Correct answer


Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answer

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 5

 1.2 Motion

3
4

Teacher’s comments
3
Revision activity
4

ere

Correct answers
3
d
4
r
er
ch

Exam-style questions
1
2

a
b
c
d
3

4
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

1.2 Motion
Key objectives
l l

6 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

l l
l
l
l l

Speed
Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. Velocity is
speed in a given direction. If someone sees a runner moving at 5 m/s in a
northerly direction, then the runner’s speed is 5 m/s and their velocity is
5 m/s north. The speed, v, can be calculated from the distance travelled, s,
in a very short time, t, using the equation:
s
v=
t
In most cases, speed is calculated using a much longer time. This is then
the average speed of the object. The average speed is calculated using the
equation:
total distance travelled
average speed =
total time taken

Acceleration

deceleration

Distance–time graphs
Distance–time graphs show how an object’s distance changes with time.
Figure 1.6 shows the motion of an object plotted on a distance–time graph.

constant
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

speed
m/ecnatsid

at rest
constant
speed
at rest
O A B C D
time/s
 Figure 1.6 Distance–time graph

The gradient of the graph for the section AB is greater than the gradient
for section CD. This shows the object was moving at a faster constant speed
at AB. The gradient of the distance–time graph is equal to the speed.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 7

 1.2 Motion

Skills
Calculating the gradient of a graph

15

10 change in y

5
change in x

0 1 2 3 4

If the speed increases, the object is accelerating. If the speed decreases,

the object is decelerating. When the speed changes, the distance–time
graph will curve. An upward curve shows the object is accelerating as the
gradient is increasing. The solid green line in Figure 1.8 shows the object
accelerating. A downward curve (the dashed green line in Figure 1.8)
shows the object is decelerating.

40 A
accelerating
30
m/ecnatsid

20
T

10 accelerating

C B
0
1 2 3 4 5
time/s
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 1.8 Non-constant speed

8 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Determining the motion of an object from data

It is easy to interpret the motion from the shape of distance–time graphs,
but you can also tell when you look at data in tables. When the object
travels at a constant speed, the distance increases the same amount in
equal times. When the object is stationary, the distance remains the same.
When the distance increases in different amounts in equal times, the
speed is changing. Table 1.1 shows how the distance of an object changes
with time.
 Table 1.1 Distance–time data

Time/s 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Distance/m 0 5 10 15 15 16 18 24

Constant speed: Stationar y: Changing speed:

Ever y 2 seconds distance increases The distance remains the The distance travelled ever y

by 5 m same 2 seconds is increasing

Speed–time graphs
Speed–time graphs show the speed of an object over time. The area under
the speed–time graph is the distance travelled (green shaded area in
Figure 1.9).

constant
speed
s/m/deeps

n
ced

a tio
ler
ele

ce
itar

ac
no

at rest
0 A B C D
time/s

 Figure 1.9 Speed–time graph showing acceleration, constant speed and deceleration

In Figure 1.9, the object is accelerating between O and A, at constant

speed between A and B and between B and C it is slowing down or
decelerating.
The steeper the gradient of a speed–time graph, the greater the
acceleration. In Figure 1.9 the deceleration is greater than the
acceleration. The same change in speed happened in a much shorter time
interval and the gradient is steeper.
Near the surface of the Earth the acceleration of free fall (g) is
approximately constant and is equal to 9.8 m/s2.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 9

 Sample question

terminal velocity

Sample question
5 A runner completes an 800 m race in 2 min 30 s after completing the
first lap of 400 m in 1 min 10 s. Find their average speed for the last
400 m. [3]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The student used the
correct equation and the
correct distance, but used
the time for the whole
race instead of the time
for the last 400 m. The
Correct answer answer is quoted to 3 s.f.

Sample question
6 A car is moving in traffic and its motion is shown in Figure 1.11.
20 B
18
16
14
s/m/deeps

12
10 A C
8
6
4
2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

time/s

 Figure 1.11
a Choose from the following terms to describe the motion in
parts A, B and C: acceleration, deceleration, steady speed. [3]
b Calculate the total distance covered. [5]

10 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Student’s answers
a
b

Teacher’s comments
a
b

Correct answers
a
b

c
Revision activity

Exam-style questions
5
a
b
c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

6
a
b
c

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 11

 1.3 Mass and weight

1.3 Mass and weight

Key objectives
B he end of this section ou should be able to:

l l
l

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The unit of mass is the

kilogram, kg.
Weight is the gravitational force acting on an object that has mass. As it
is a force, the unit of weight is the newton, N.
Weight, W, and mass, m, are related. The weight depends on the strength
of the gravitational field the mass is in. Gravitational field strength is
defined as the force acting per unit mass and is given by the equation:

g=
W
m
Gravitational field strength has the same symbol g as the acceleration of
free fall as they are equivalent. The units are different. Near the surface of
the Earth, gravitational field strength is 9.8 N/kg and acceleration of free
fall is 9.8 m/s2.
A balance such as the one shown in Figure 1.12 compares an unknown
weight with a known weight.

mass 1
mass 2

weight 1 weight 2
 Figure 1.12 Balanced weights

As mass determines weight, a balance also compares masses. In Figure

1.12, mass 1 = mass 2 because weight 1 = weight 2.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Exam-style questions Revision activity

r
7
ey

nd
a
b

12 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

1.4 Density

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l define density, and recall and use the equation l use density data to determine whether an

relating density, mass and volume object will float or sink in a liquid

l describe how to determine the density of

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

For a mass m with volume V the density ρ is given by the equation:
ρ=
m
V
The units of density are kg/m3.

Skills
Measuring the density of different substances

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 13

 Sample question

Skills
Converting units

Floating and sinking

An object will sink in a liquid if it has density greater than the density of
the liquid.

Sample question
7 The mass of an empty measuring cylinder is 185 g. When the measuring
cylinder contains 400 cm3 of a liquid, the total mass is 465 g. Find the
density of the liquid. [4]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

l
Correct answer
f

Exam-style questions Revision activity

8 a
 o

Substance Mass/g Volume/cm3 Density/g/cm3

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

14 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

a
b

10

1.5 Forces
1.5.1 Effects of forces

Key objectives
l l
l

l
l
l

l l
l

Forces
Forces can change the size and shape of a body. You must be able to
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

describe an experiment to measure the extension of an elastic solid, such

as a spring, a piece of rubber or another object, with increasing load. The
extension is the change in length of the object being stretched. For some
materials, the load–extension graph is a straight-line graph through the
origin. This means the load is directly proportional to the extension. This
means doubling the force, doubles the extension. Not all load–extension
graphs are linear, which means the force required to stretch the material
changes as the material is stretched.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 15

 1.5 Forces

spring constant

limit of proportionality

Skills
Measuring extension of an object with increasing load

 Figure 1.14 Measuring the

extension of a spring with

increasing force

Forces and resultants

Force has both magnitude and direction. It is represented using an arrow
to show the magnitude and direction the force acts. If more than one
force acts on an object, you can find the resultant force. This is a single
force which has exactly the same effect as all the forces added together.
Figure 1.15 shows how to find the resultant of forces acting along the
same line. If a question simply describes forces, it will help to sketch a
force diagram showing the direction of each of the forces.

3N
=

1N 2N

= 1N
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

2N 3N

 Figure 1.15 Use addition or subtraction to find the resultant of forces acting in a

straight line

If the resultant force acting on an object is zero, then the object will stay
at rest or keep moving in a straight line at a constant speed.
If there is a resultant force acting on an object, then it changes velocity.
This can mean a change in speed or/and a change in direction. Remember
velocity is speed with direction.

16 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

 Figure 1.16 A resultant force changes the motion of an object

Friction
Solid friction is a force that opposes one surface that is moving or trying
to move over another. Friction results in heating. When an object moves
through a gas or liquid, there is a friction force opposing the motion. This
friction force in liquid is called drag and in air is called air resistance.


Object Force Circular motion

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 17

 Sample question

Sample question
8 An empty lift weighs 2000 N. Four people enter the lift and their total
weight is 3000 N. After the button is pressed to move the lift, the
tension in the cable pulling up from the top of the lift is 4000 N.
a Work out the resultant force on the lift. [2]
b State how the lift moves. [2]
c Calculate the resultant acceleration ( g = 9.8 N/kg). [3]

Student’s answers
a

Teacher’s comments
a

Correct answers
a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

18 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Exam-style questions Revision activity

11


a

b
c

12

13

a
b

1.5.2 Turning effect of forces

Key objectives
l
l
l l
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Moment of a force
The moment of a force is a measure of its turning effect. Everyday
examples of moments include spanners and the handle on a door. In each
case, the effort is applied at a distance from the pivot to increase the
turning effect.
A moment is defined by the equation:
moment = force × perpendicular distance from pivot

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 19

 Sample question

Principle of moments upward force

to hold
The principle of moments states when a body is in equilibrium, the wheelbarrow
sum of the clockwise moments about any point equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments about the same point.
An object is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no resultant pivot
load
moment on the object. Figure 1.19 shows a wheelbarrow pushed along at a
constant velocity. Therefore, there is no resultant force acting on it. The  Figure 1.19 Wheelbarrow in

clockwise moment of the load is equal to the anticlockwise moment of the equilibrium

upward force holding it up. Therefore, there is no resultant moment.

Skills
Demonstrating that there is no resultant moment when an object is in equilibrium

Sample question
9 A student carries out an experiment to balance a regular 4 m long plank
at its mid-point. A mass of 4 kg is placed 80 cm to the left of the pivot
and a mass of 3.2 kg is placed 100 cm to the right of the pivot.
Explain, by calculating the moments, whether the plank is balanced.
Use g = 10 N/kg. [4]

 Figure 1.21

Student’s answer

Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

n
Correct answer

as

20 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Exam-style questions Revision activity

14
a
b

15

1.5.3 Centre of gravity

Key objectives
l l

Centre of gravity
A body behaves as if its whole weight were concentrated at one point,
called its centre of gravity. If you hang an object so it can swing freely,
it will end up with its centre of gravity directly beneath the point of
suspension. In a regular object of uniform shape and density, the centre of
gravity will be in the geometric centre.

centre of gravity

 Figure 1.22 Centre of gravity is in the geometric centre of uniform shape and

density objects

Skills
Finding the centre of gravity
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 21

 Sample question

Toppling
The position of the centre of gravity affects the stability of an object. If
an object is pushed, it will topple if the vertical line from the centre of
gravity falls outside the base as in Figure 1.24a. It will not topple if the
vertical line stays within the base as in Figure 1.24b.
a b
centre of
gravity
base

 Figure 1.24 An object will topple if the vertical line from its centre of gravity falls

outside the base. a The object topples and b the object will remain standing

To increase the stability of an object:

l lower the centre of gravity
l increase the area of its base

Sample question
10 Explain why the model parrot will only stay on its perch if the
bulldog clip is in place. [2]

Student’s answer
card

perch

Teacher’s comments bulldog clip

 Figure 1.25

Correct answer

Exam-style questions
16
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

1.6 Momentum
Key objectives
l l le of conser vation of

lve simple problems

22 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Momentum ( p) is the product of mass (m) and velocity (v):

p = mv
The units of momentum are kg m/s. Momentum is a vector quantity and
so the direction is important.

Conservation of momentum
In any interaction between bodies, the total momentum is conserved.
This is known as the principle of conservation of momentum. This
includes explosions in rockets as well as collisions. In an explosion
such as a cannon firing, the total momentum before firing is zero. After
firing, the cannonball moves forward and the cannon rolls backwards.
Their momentum is equal and opposite.

Force and momentum

The impulse of a force is defined as the product of the force (F ) and the
Δ
time over which the force acts ( t).
impulse = FΔt
In any interaction, the impulse exerted on a body = change of momentum.
FΔt = Δ(mv) or FΔt = Δp
Earlier in this section, you used the equation F = ma for resultant force.
This relationship gives you another equation for resultant force and a new
definition. Resultant force is the change in momentum per unit time:
F= ∆p
∆t

Sample question
11 A truck of mass 1800 kg moving with a velocity of 4 m/s to the right
collides with a truck of mass 1200 kg moving with a velocity of 1 m/s
to the left. The truck of mass 1800 kg has a velocity of 1.5 m/s to the
right after the collision. Find the final velocity of the 1200 kg
truck. [4]
4m/s 1m/s 1.5m/s
v

1800 kg 1200 kg 1800 kg 1200 kg

before collision after collision

 Figure 1.26

Student’s answer
Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 23

 1.7 Energy, work and power

Correct answer

Revision activity
’,

Exam-style questions ty

17
ke.

a ds

b
c b ith

18 ere

ed.

1.7 Energy, work and power

1.7.1 Energy

Key objectives
l l

l l

Energy stores
Energy may be stored in many different ways.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Table 1.4 Energy stores and their descriptions

Stores of energy Description Equations

24 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Stores of energy Description Equations

Nuclear energy The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. It can be transferred

by nuclear reactions such as fission in nuclear reactors or fusion

in the Sun

Electrostatic energy Energy stored by charged objects

Internal energy Also called thermal energy

Δ is the Greek letter delta. It is used to represent change in a variable, in this

case, the change in the gravitational potential store with a change in height.

Energy transfers
The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed. However, energy can be transferred between stores by:
l forces (mechanical working)
l electrical currents (electrical working)
l heating through conduction, convection and radiation (Topic 2.3)
l waves (electromagnetic, sound and other waves)
You can represent these energy transfers using a simple energy flow
diagram such as in Figure 1.27.

high-level water generator

reservoir turbine

gravitational kinetic kinetic different

potential energy energy of energy stores

 Figure 1.27 Energy transfers in a hydroelectric power scheme

At each stage of energy transfer, some energy is transferred less usefully.

As you can see in Figure 1.27, not all the energy in the gravitational
potential store is transferred to the energy stores required by electricity
customers. Some of the energy is transferred to the surroundings.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI


© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 25
 Sample question

Sample question
12 A person winds up the spring of the
clockwork radio shown in Figure 1.29
using the muscles in their hand and arm.
The internal spring then unwinds to
provide energy to power the radio.
a Describe the energy transfer between
the muscles in the person’s arm
and the spring. [3]
b Describe the process by which

 Figure 1.29
energy is transferred by the
circuits in the radio. [1]
c Name two ways energy is
transferred from the radio. [2]

Student’s answers
a

b
c

Teacher’s comments
a

b
c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answers
a

b
c

26 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

Revision activity
Make flashcards for each energy store and type of energy transfer. Use
the cards to create energy transfer diagrams for different processes, e.g.
a wind turbine, a solar cell, dropping a ball, throwing a ball, a pendulum,
a torch. Compare your diagrams with a partner.

1.7.2 Work

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
l understand that mechanical work or electrical l recall and use the equation to calculate
work done is equal to the energy transferred mechanical work

In any energy transfer, work is done. Mechanical work is done when a force
moves though a distance. The greater the force, the more work is done.
The greater the distance moved, the more work is done.
work done = force × distance moved in the direction of the force

Know and be able to use the following equation:

W = Fd = Δ E
where W is work done and Δ E is energy transferred.
To calculate work, you must identify the force and the distance moved in
the direction of the force. If you walk up the stairs, you transfer energy
to the gravitational potential store by mechanical work. The force is your
weight (W = mg) and the distance is the vertical height of the stairs.

1.7.3 Energy resources

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
l describe the different ways useful energy is l
obtained or electrical power is generated, and
the advantages and disadvantages of each
method
l understand what is meant by the efficiency of l
energy transfer
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Energy resources
There are many different energy resources. They can either be:
l non-renewable – cannot be replaced when used up
l renewable – can be replaced which means they cannot be used up
When choosing an energy resource, you have to consider its availability,
reliability, scale and environmental impact. Most schemes involve a

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 27

 Sample question

generator. When a generator is turned it produces electricity (Topic 4.5).

Table 1.5 summarises this for the different energy resources.
 Table 1.5 Energy resources

How the useful Renewable

energy is obtained (R) or non-
or electrical power renewable Possible Environmental
Source generated (NR) Availability Reliable scale impact
Fossil fuels Chemical energy store NR Oil and gas Yes Large Burning produces
in the fuels is released running low; carbon dioxide
when they are burnt. coal for the (causes global
This heats water in a next 200 years warming) and sulfur
boiler, making steam. dioxide (causes acid
The steam turns a rain).
turbine, which in turn
drives a generator.
Water Hydroelectric– R Only some Yes Medium Loss of habitat
gravitational potential areas of the for wildlife; land
energy in the water world have used for farming or
behind the dam. As the suitable sites forestry may be lost
water flows through due to flooding for
the dam, turbines are the dam.
turned, which in turn
drive generators.
Tidal – same principle R Only some Yes Small Destroys habitats
as hydroelectric areas of the for wildlife and
world have causes problems in
suitable sites shipping routes
Waves – energy of the R Useful Yes Small Problems to
waves is used to drive for island shipping
a generator. communities
Geothermal Cold water is pumped R Only certain Yes Medium Some (open-loop)
into hot rocks below parts of the designs have air
the Earth’s surface. world have emissions, although
The steam is used rocks near at a much lower
to turn a turbine, enough to the level than burning
which then drives a surface that fossil fuels: carbon
generator. are hot enough dioxide (causes
for this to work. global warming) and
hydrogen sulfide
which changes
to sulfur dioxide
(causes acid rain).
However, closed-
loop designs do not.
Nuclear Nuclear fission NR Available to Yes Large Radiation;
releases energy which countries with radioactive waste
is used to generate nuclear power some of which has
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

steam, which turn stations to be stored for

turbines which drive a thousands of years
generator. (Topic 5.2)
Radiation Solar cells – light used R Anywhere No Small Large areas of solar
from the to generate electricity cells to generate
Sun more electricity
cover areas of land
which could be used
for food production.

28 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

How the useful Renewable

energy is obtained (R) or non-
or electrical power renewable Possible Environmental
Source generated (NR) Availability Reliable scale impact
Solar panels – infrared R Anywhere – but No Small
radiation heats water more effective
directly. closer to the
Solar furnace – Using equator
mirrors to focus the
energy on a boiler,
producing steam which
turns a turbine which
drives a generator.
Wind Turbine turned directly R Coastal and No Medium Noisy; wind farms
by the wind. upland sites and at sea can cause
best small problems for
shipping. Hazard to
migrating birds.
Biomass Chemical energy store R Anywhere Small Produces carbon
in the biofuels. dioxide but is carbon
neutral as carbon
dioxide absorbed
as biomass grows.
Land used for food
production may be
lost to biofuel growth.

Efficiency
As you know, when energy is transferred form one store to another it is
not all usefully transferred. How much energy is transferred usefully is
described as the efficiency. In an efficient energy transfer, more of the
energy input becomes useful energy output. A coal-fired power station
has an efficiency of about 30%. This means that for every 100 J of energy
released from burning coal only 30 J will be transferred to the electricity
customers. However, a wind turbine at peak wind can have an efficiency of
50%. More of the energy has been usefully transferred.

efficiency
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 29

 Sample question

Skills
Expressing efficiency

Sample question
13 For each of the following two statements, give one strength and one
weakness and write a conclusion.
a A supporter of nuclear power states that it should be more widely
used as there is no pollution. [3]
b A supporter of coal-fired power stations states that nuclear power
plants cannot be controlled and might explode like atomic weapons. [3]

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a

Correct answers b

a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Revision activity

30 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

1.7.4 Power
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l define power and recall and use equations to and calculate power

Power is the work done per unit time and the energy transferred per unit
time. Remember work done is a measure of the energy transfer. The unit of
power is the watt, W.
work done energy transferred
power = or power =
time taken time taken
W ∆E
P= or P=
t t

Sample question
14 The two cranes shown in Figure 1.30 are lifting loads at a port. Crane
A raises a load of 1000 N to a height of 12 m in 10 s. Crane B raises the
same load of 1000 N to the same height of 12 m but takes 12 s.

Teacher’s comments
a Correct answer.
b The student has
 Figure 1.30
confused the
relationship; the
a Compare the work done by the two cranes. [2]
shorter the time taken,
b Compare the power of the two cranes. [2]
the greater the power.
c Calculate the energy transferred and the power of each crane. [4]
c The calculation of
energy transferred
Student’s answers is correct, except

c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answers
a
b
c

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 31

 Sample question

Exam-style questions Revision activity

Write five questions

19 on power and their

answers. Include at least

one where you have to

Energy store at the Energy transfer Energy store at the rearrange the equation.
Device start that decreases process end that increases Swap questions with a

par tner and check you

agree with the solutions.

20

a
b

21

22
a
b
23

24

25
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

26 a

27

32 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 1 Motion, forces and energy

1.8 Pressure
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l define pressure, and recall and calculate l describe how pressure in a liquid varies with

pressure using the correct equation depth and density of the liquid

l describe how pressure varies with force and

Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area. To calculate the pressure,
you need to use the following equation:
F
p=
A
The unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa). A force of 1 N on an area of 1 m2
exerts a pressure of 1 Pa.
The greater the area in contact as a force is applied, the less the pressure.
For example, snowshoes and skis have a large surface area to stop the
person wearing them sinking into the snow. They have the same weight as
a person wearing normal shoes, but the pressure is less. A nail is designed
with a small area of contact so that there is a high pressure when a force
is applied. This allows the nail to be hammered into the wood.

Liquid pressure
Pressure beneath a liquid surface depends on the depth and the density of
the liquid.
l The greater the depth in a given liquid, the greater the pressure. This
is because as you increase in depth there is a greater weight of liquid
above you. Figure 1.31a shows how the pressure is greater at the
bottom of the column of liquid. Figure 1.31b shows that at one depth  Figure 1.31 Pressure in a liquid

the pressure acts equally in all directions.

l At a given depth, the greater the density of the liquid, the greater the
pressure. This is because a higher density liquid has a greater weight
per unit volume. Remember the density is the mass per unit volume.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Skills
How many significant figures to use for the final answer

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 33

 Sample question

Sample question
15 Some students are playing a ball game in the sea and the ball is pushed
60 cm below the surface of the water
(Density of seawater = 1.025 × density of freshwater.)
a Explain how the pressure on the ball at a depth of 60 cm below
the surface of the sea compares with the pressure just below the
surface. [2]
b Explain how the pressure on the ball at a depth of 60 cm below
the surface of the sea compares with the pressure 60 cm
below the surface of a freshwater lake. [2]

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a
b

b
c

Correct answers
a

c c

Exam-style questions
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

28
29
Revision activity
30
a
b

34 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Key terms
Term Definition
Absolute zero Lowest possible temperature: −273°C or 0 K

Condensation Change of a gas to a liquid

Conduction Flow of thermal energy transferred through matter from places of high temperature to

places of low temperature without movement of matter as a whole

Convection Flow of thermal energy through a fluid from places of high temperature to places of low

temperature by movement of the fluid itself because of change of density

Degrees Celsius °C; unit of temperature

Kelvin K; SI unit of temperature; a kelvin has same size as a degree Celsius but 0°C = 273 K

Molecule Combination of atoms

Particle Any small piece of a substance; it could be one ion, electron, atom or molecule or billions of

them

Radiation of thermal Transfer of thermal energy from one place to another by infrared electromagnetic waves

energy
Temperature A measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body

Thermal energy Energy of the molecules of a body

Vaporisation Change of a liquid to a gas

Specific heat capacity Energy needed per unit mass per unit temperature rise

2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

2.1.1 States of matter

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l know the proper ties of solids, liquids and gases and the terms for

the changes in state between them

Solids have a definite shape and size and are hard to compress.
Liquids have a definite volume but adopt the shape of their container.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

They are easier to compress than solids but still not easily compressed.
Gases have no definite size or shape but fill their container and adopt its
shape.

Changes of state
Melting occurs when a solid becomes a liquid.
Solidification or freezing occurs when a liquid becomes a solid.
Evaporation or boiling occurs when a liquid becomes a gas.
Condensation occurs when a gas becomes a liquid.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 35

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

2.1.2 Particle model

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l explain how the kinetic particle model explains l describe pressure and change in pressure in

the nature of solids, liquids and gases terms of par ticle motion and their collisions

with a surface

l
l
l
l
l

All matter is made up of particles (atoms, molecules, ions, electrons)

in motion. The higher the temperature, the faster the motion of the
particles. Almost always, matter expands with increases in temperature.
Particles have their least kinetic energy at absolute zero, the lowest
possible temperature.

Solids
Key features of solids:
l Particles are close together.
l Particles vibrate about fixed points in a regular array or lattice.
l The rigid structure of solids results from these fixed positions.
l As temperature increases, the particles vibrate further and faster. This
pushes the fixed points further apart and the solid expands.

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Skills
Drawing simple particle diagrams

l
l  Figure 2.1 A model of the

l behaviour the particles of a

solid

36 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Liquids
Key features of liquids:
l Particles are slightly further apart than in solids.
l Particles are still close enough to keep a definite volume.
l The main motion of the particles is vibration. The particles also move
randomly in all directions, not being fixed to each other.
l As temperature increases, the particles move faster and further apart,
so the liquid expands. One exception to this is that, when liquid water
is heated from 0°C to 4°C, its structure changes, so it contracts instead
of expands.

Skills
Drawing simple particle diagrams

l
l
l
l
l 

Gases
Key features of gases:
l Particles are much further apart than in solids or liquids.
l Particles move much faster than in solids or liquids.
l There is no definite volume. Particles move throughout the available space.
l Particles constantly collide with each other and the container walls.

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l There are no forces between particles except during a collision.

l Gases have low densities.
l The higher the temperature, the faster the speed of the particles. In
fact, temperature is a measure of the average speed of the particles.
l The higher the temperature, the larger the volume of a gas at constant
pressure.
l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 37

 Sample questions

Skills
Drawing simple particle diagrams

l
l

Brownian motion
In the apparatus in Figure 2.4, smoke particles reflect the light, which is
seen in the microscope as tiny bright dots. They move around randomly,
and they also appear and disappear as they move vertically. This movement
is caused by the irregular collisions between the microscopic smoke
particles and fast-moving, invisible air particles. This is clear evidence for  Figure 2.3 A model of the

the particle model of matter. behaviour of the particles of

a gas

microscope

window

lid
lamp
smoke

glass rod glass cell

Observing Brownian motion
 Figure 2.4 Observing Brownian motion of smoke particles

Teacher’s comments
a
Sample questions s

1 Compare: b
a the separation of particles of a liquid and a gas [2] o
b the nature of the motion of particles of a solid and a liquid [2]
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

f
c
s

Student’s answers
a
b c
c

38 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Correct answers
a
b

2 A student looks in a microscope at a cell containing illuminated smoke

particles. Explain:
a what is seen [1]
b the movement observed [1]
c what causes this movement [2]

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a
b
c
b

c
Correct answers
a
b
c

2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

Key objectives
l l

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Gas pressure
There is a force when fast-moving particles collide with the walls of the
container they are in. Gas pressure is caused by the total force of collisions
per unit area. The higher the temperature, the faster the particles move.
If the volume is kept constant, the pressure increases because:
l there are more frequent collisions with the container walls
l the collisions are harder, so exert more force
Note: The gas particles do collide with each other but this is not relevant
to the cause of gas pressure.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 39

 Sample questions

Gas pressure and volume at constant temperature

At a constant temperature, gas molecules move at a constant average
speed, so the average force from each collision is the same. If the gas is
compressed into a smaller volume, there are more frequent collisions on
each unit of area of the surface. So, the total force per unit area increases
and the pressure increases.
Similarly, if the gas expands to a greater volume at a constant
temperature, the pressure decreases.

volume

Skills
Rearranging the equation to make any variable the subject
O pressure
 Figure 2.5 Pressure and volume

of a fixed mass of gas at constant

temperature

Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales

Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature. On the Celsius scale
absolute zero is −273°C. On the Kelvin scale it is 0 K. The two scales have
units of the same size and are related by the equation:
temperature in K = temperature in °C + 273

Skills
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Converting between kelvin and degrees Celsius

kelvin
degrees Celsius

Sample questions
3

40 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

4 A gas cylinder is heated in a fire. State what happens to the pressure

of the gas and explain your answer in terms of the gas particles. [4]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

5 Describe in terms of the particles of a gas the effect on the pressure

of a gas of an increase of volume at constant temperature. [4]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

Correct answer
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

6 The temperature in a cold store is −24°C. Calculate the temperature

Teacher’s comments
in kelvin. [2]

Student’s answer

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 41

 Sample questions

Correct answer

Revision activities
1
2

Exam-style questions
1

b
2
a d
a
b
c
d
3

Solids Gases
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

a
b
c

42 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Speed of the particles Number of collisions per second

of the gas between particles and walls

a
b
c

2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

Thermal energy flows from a hot body to a cold body.
Temperature measures the amount of thermal or internal energy in a body.
In everyday terms, it measures how hot a body is.

2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Key objectives
l l egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 43

 Sample question

l
l

 Table 2.1 Uses and disadvantages of thermal expansion

Uses Disadvantages
eft between lengths of railway

xpansion in hot weather.

ar’s cooling system expands when

ot. A separate water tank is

ot water to expand into.

an explode if overheated.

In the fire alarm circuit in Figure 2.6, thermal energy from the fire causes
the lower metal in the bimetallic strip to expand more than the upper
metal. This causes the strip to curl up, which completes the circuit and the
alarm bell rings.

 Figure 2.6 A fire alarm

Sample question
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

7 The lid is stuck on a glass jar. How could you use hot water to
release it? Explain in terms of the particles how this works. [4] Teacher’s comments
Student’s answer The student did not specify
where exactly the hot
water should be used and
gave a vague, incorrect
explanation of the role of
the molecules. It is quite
acceptable to use the terms
molecules or particles.

44 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Correct answer

2.2.2 Specific heat capacity

Key objectives
l l
l
l

When thermal energy flows into a body, its molecules move faster,
increasing its internal energy, the kinetic energy of its particles and its
temperature.

Specific heat capacity

Skills
Rearranging the equation for specific heat capacity
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 45

 Sample question

Skills
Measuring the specific heat capacity of a solid

Skills
Measuring the specific heat capacity of a liquid


egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Sample question
8

46 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Key objectives
l l
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l

During vaporisation (evaporation and boiling) thermal energy is supplied

to break the bonds between particles without a change of temperature. The
boiling temperature of water at standard atmospheric pressure is 100°C.
Evaporation causes the particles in the remaining liquid to cool down
because energy is needed to break the bonds between molecules, and the
more energetic particles escape from the surface.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 47

 Sample question

The rate of evaporation increases with:

l higher temperatures, as more particles at the surface are moving
faster
l increased surface area, as more particles are at the surface
l a wind or air movement, as the gas particles are blown away so
cannot re-enter the liquid
An object is cooled when in contact with an evaporating liquid because
the liquid has cooled down.

Condensation occurs when gas or vapour particles return to the liquid

state. Thermal energy is given out as the bonds between particles in the
liquid re-form.
Melting, or fusion, takes place at a definite temperature called the
melting point. Ice is solid water. The melting temperature of ice at
standard atmospheric pressure is 0°C. Thermal energy must be provided
to break the bonds between particles for them to leave the well-ordered
structure of the solid.
Solidification, or freezing, occurs when particles of a liquid return to the
solid state. This takes place at a definite temperature called the freezing
point, which has the same value as the melting point. Thermal energy is
given out as the bonds between particles of the solid re-form.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Evaporation takes place from the surface of the liquid at all liquid
temperatures.
Boiling occurs at a definite temperature called the boiling point.
Bubbles of vapour form within the liquid and rise freely to the surface.
Energy must be supplied continuously to maintain boiling.

Sample question
9 A student is playing football on a cool, windy day, wearing a T-shirt
and shorts. He feels comfortably warm because he is moving around
vigorously. His kit then gets wet in a rain shower. Explain why he
now feels cold. [2]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The student’s answer is
far too vague and does
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

not mention the cooling

caused by evaporation.
Correct answer

48 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Revision activity
Work in pairs to revise the equation connecting temperature in kelvin and °C and how to rearrange it. On

your own, complete each of the following questions. Then swap answers and check each other’s work.

1 Write down the equation connecting temperature in kelvin and °C with temperature in kelvin on its

own on the left of the equals sign.

2 Write down the equation connecting temperature in kelvin and °C with temperature in °C on its own

on the left of the equals sign.

Exam-style questions
8

a
b
c
d
9  Figure 2.9

10

11

12

a
b

2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Thermal energy is always transferred from a place of high temperature to a
place of low temperature.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

2.3.1 Conduction
Key objectives
l l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 49

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

In conduction, thermal energy is transferred through a material without

movement of the material.

 Figure 2.10 The paper over the

brass does not burn because

brass is a good conductor

steam

boiling water

very little
conduction

ice

Skills
metal

gauze to

Demonstrating the properties of good and bad thermal conductors keep ice

down

 Figure 2.11 Water is a poor

conductor of thermal energy

2.3.2 Convection

Key objectives
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

In convection, thermal energy is transferred owing to movement of the

liquid or gas itself. Convection cannot take place in a solid.
The liquid or gas expands on heating, so its density falls. The warmer and
lighter liquid or gas rises to the cooler region, transferring thermal energy
in the process.

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 2 Thermal physics

Skills
Demonstrating convection

2.3.3 Radiation

Key objectives
l l
l
l

In radiation, thermal energy is transferred by infrared radiation, which is

part of the electromagnetic spectrum (see Topic 3). All objects emit this
radiation.
Surfaces that are good absorbers of thermal energy radiation are also good
emitters. Surface colour and texture can affect emission, absorption and
reflection of infrared radiation. Black surfaces are better emitters and
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

absorbers than white surfaces. Dull or matt surfaces are better emitters
and absorbers than polished surfaces.
There need not be any matter between the hot and cold bodies (no
medium is required).
Most solids and liquids absorb infrared radiation, including water, which is
transparent to light.
Core students do not have to describe the two experiments below, but
if you understand them it will help you to answer questions on the Core
syllabus.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 51

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Skills
Good and bad emitters and absorbers of infrared radiation

2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Key objectives
l l

Saucepans and other solids through which thermal energy must travel are
made of metals such as aluminium or copper, which are good conductors.

52 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition

 2 Thermal physics

Blocks of expanded polystyrene are used for house insulation because they
contain trapped air, which is a bad conductor.
A domestic radiator heats the air next to it which then rises and transfers
thermal energy to the rest of the room. Despite its name, a radiator works
mainly by convection.
Double glazing reduces the transfer of thermal energy by trapping a narrow
layer of air between the window panes and reducing convection.
The Sun heats the Earth by infrared radiation through space.
Refrigerators have cooling pipes at the back. These have fins to give a
larger surface area to increase loss of thermal energy by convection and
radiation. The fins are also painted black to increase thermal energy loss
by radiation because black surfaces are good emitters.
Many buildings in hot countries are painted white because white surfaces
are bad absorbers of radiation from the Sun.
The colour of the surface influences radiation only. Black surfaces do not
increase thermal energy transfer by conduction and convection.

Sample questions

 Figure 2.15

10 Figure 2.15 shows an X-ray tube. Only a small proportion of energy from
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

the electrons that strike point A goes into the X-rays that are emitted
from that point. Most of the energy is transferred to thermal energy
at point A; this energy is removed by the copper rod. Explain how
conduction, convection and radiation play a role in the removal of
this thermal energy. [6]
Teacher’s comments
Student’s answer

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 53

 Sample questions

Correct answer

11 A metal spoon rests in a hot drink in a cup.

a State the type of thermal energy transfer which makes the end of
the spoon out of the drink become hot. [1]
b

Teacher’s comments
a
Student’s answer
a

Correct answer
a

12

Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answer

Revision activity

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 2 Thermal physics

Revision activity
Make flash cards for the following questions to revise the
mechanisms for conduction of thermal energy in solid metals and
thermal radiation. Write the question on one side of each card and
the answer on the other.
1 Explain how thermal energy is conducted by electrons in metals.
2 Explain the secondary mechanism of conduction used by non-
metals.
3 Write down what is meant by thermal radiation.
4 State and explain whether thermal radiation can occur in space.

Exam-style questions
13

14
a

15

16 egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 55

 3 Waves

Key terms
Term Definition
Amplitude The maximum displacement of a wave from the undisturbed position, or maximum change of

value from zero

Converging lens A lens which refracts parallel rays of light such that they converge to meet at a point

Crest of a wave A wavefront where all the points have their highest displacement

Diverging lens A lens which refracts parallel rays of light such that they diverge away from a point

Electromagnetic Waves of the same nature with a wide range of wavelengths made up of oscillating electric

spectrum and magnetic fields

Focal length The distance between the optical centre and the principal focus of a lens

Frequency The number of complete oscillations per second

Longitudinal wave Direction of vibration of par ticles of the transmitting medium is parallel to the direction of

travel of the wave

Principal focus Point on the principal axis to which light rays parallel to the principal axis converge, or

(focal point) appear to diverge from

Real image An image which can be formed on a screen

Transverse wave Direction of vibration or change of value is perpendicular to the direction of travel of

the wave

Trough of wave A wavefront where all the points have their lowest displacement

Virtual image An image which cannot be formed on a screen

Wave speed The distance moved by a point on a wave in 1 s

Wavefront A line on which the par ticles or values of the wave are in phase

Wavelength The distance between corresponding points in successive cycles of a wave

Analogue signal A signal that can take any value within a range

Compression Regions where par ticles of the transmitting medium are closer together

Digital signal A signal that can only take one of two definite values: high (maximum value) or low (close to 0)

Rarefaction Regions where par ticles of the transmitting medium material are fur ther apar t

Refractive index The ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different regions
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

3.1 General properties of waves

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l know that waves transfer energy without l distinguish between transverse and longitudinal

transferring matter waves and know different types of each wave

l describe what is meant by wave motion as l describe how water waves can be used to

illustrated by simple experiments illustrate reflection, refraction and diffraction

l understand the terms wavefront, wavelength,

l
l l
l

Waves transfer energy from one point to another without transferring

matter. Some waves (e.g. water waves and sound waves) are transmitted
by particles of a material vibrating about fixed points. They cannot travel
through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves (e.g. light waves and X-rays) are a combination of
travelling electric and magnetic fields. They can travel through a vacuum.

Types of wave motion

In transverse waves, the oscillation of the material or field is at right
angles to the direction of travel of the wave. Figure 3.1 shows a transverse
wave travelling in a horizontal rope. Each piece of rope oscillates
vertically about a fixed point, but the pieces do not oscillate in time with
each other.
direction of travel
of wave
crest

rope
direction of trough
vibration

 Figure 3.1 Transverse waves in a rope

Transverse waves only oscillate vertically when the wave travels

horizontally. Transverse waves oscillate horizontally when the wave travels
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

vertically because the oscillation is always at right angles to the direction

of travel.
In longitudinal waves, the oscillation of the material is parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Figure 3.2 represents a longitudinal wave travelling in a horizontal spring.
Each coil of the spring oscillates horizontally about a fixed point, but the
coils do not oscillate in time with each other.

compressions
rarefactions

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 57

 3.1 General properties of waves

C R C R C

direction of travel of wave

fixed end
 Figure 3.2 Longitudinal waves in a spring

Longitudinal waves only oscillate horizontally when the wave travels

horizontally. Longitudinal waves oscillate vertically when the wave travels
vertically, because the oscillation is always parallel to the direction of travel.
Electromagnetic radiation, water waves and seismic S-waves (secondary)
are transverse waves.
Sound waves and seismic P-waves (primary) are longitudinal waves.

Describing waves
The wave speed (v) is the distance moved by a point on the wave in 1 s.
The frequency ( f ) of a wave is the number of complete cycles per second
and is measured in hertz (Hz).
The wavelength (λ) of a wave is the distance between two corresponding
points (e.g. crests) in successive cycles.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the wave from
the undisturbed position (marked a in Figure 3.3) or maximum change of
value from zero.
Amplitude is not the height difference between the top of a crest and the
bottom of a trough. Amplitude is the height difference between the top of
a crest and the mean position, or between the bottom of a trough and the
mean position.
wavelength
λ undisturbed
tnemecalpsid

position
a
crest distance
a
trough

 Figure 3.3 Displacement–distance graph for a wave at a particular instant

Speed, frequency and wavelength are related by the equation:

v = fλ

Table 3.1 summarises some types of waves.

 Table 3.1 Types of waves
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Type of wave Longitudinal/transverse Travel through a material

Transverse Material needed
Either Material needed
Transverse Material needed
Both Material needed
Longitudinal Material needed
, Transverse No material needed, but some
electromagnetic waves can travel
through certain materials

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 3 Waves

You need to be able to use the term wavefront as a line showing the
position of a wave. A wavefront shows similar points of an extended
travelling wave, such as a wave in water. The crest of a wave is a wavefront
where all the points have their highest displacement. The trough of a wave
is a wavefront where all the points have their lowest displacement.

Water waves
We can observe a wave travelling on the water surface of a ripple tank to
illustrate how waves behave.
Key features of a ripple tank:
l A beam just touching the surface vibrates vertically to produce a wave.
l A light source shines through the water and shows the wave pattern on
a screen above or below the ripple tank.

Reflection
In Figure 3.4, the wave produced by the vibrating beam is reflected from
the flat metal barrier. The reflected wave is at the same angle to the
reflecting surface as the incident wave. Speed, wavelength and frequency
are unchanged by reflection.
vibrating beam produces a wave

wavefronts of
the incident wave

wavefronts of
the reflected wave

the wave is
reflected at
the barrier

 Figure 3.4 Reflection of a wave in a ripple tank

Skills

Drawing wavefronts to show reflection at a plane

surface l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l
l
l l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 59

 3.1 General properties of waves

 
Refraction
Figure 3.7 shows a wave entering the shallow water above the glass where
its speed is reduced. The frequency stays the same, so the wavelength is
also reduced. The refracted wave changes direction.
vibrating beam produces a wave

wavefronts of
the incident wave

glass plate in ripple tank reduces depth

of water so the wave is slowed down

 Figure 3.7 Refraction of a wave in a ripple tank

Skills

Drawing wavefronts to show refraction due to

change of speed

l 
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l
l


l l

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 3 Waves

Diffraction through a narrow gap

Speed, wavelength and frequency are unchanged by diffraction, as shown
in Figure 3.10.
vibrating beam produces a wave

wavefronts of
the incident wave

barrier with
narrow gap

wavefronts of
the diffracted wave

 Figure 3.10 Diffraction of waves in a ripple tank by a gap that is narrower than the

wavelength

Notes for drawing wave diagrams

Points to note when drawing wave diagrams to show reflection, refraction
and diffraction:
l Careful, accurate measuring and drawing are essential to produce good
diagrams.
l The initial wavefronts must be parallel and have constant wavelength.
l Measure the wavelength of the incident waves.
l Reflected wavefronts must be parallel and have the same constant
wavelength as the incident waves.
l Refracted wavefronts must be parallel and have a constant wavelength.
Depending on the situation, the wavelength will be more or less than
the incident wavelength.
l Diffracted wavefronts have straight and/or circular portions. The
wavelengths between diffracted wavefronts must be carefully measured
to be the same as the incident wavelength. The change of radius of the
circular portions is the wavelength.

Diffraction at a gap or at an edge

Diffraction from a gap is shown in Figure 3.11.
vibrating beam produces a wave

wavefronts
of the incident
wave barrier with
wide gap
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

no observable
diffraction in
the shaded
areas
wavefronts of
the diffracted
wave

 Figure 3.11 Diffraction of waves in a ripple tank by a gap

Note: the centres of the part-circles are at the edges of the wide gap.
Diffraction at an edge is shown in Figure 3.12.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 61

 3.1 General properties of waves

vibrating beam produces a wave

wavefronts
of the incident
wave barrier with
wide gap

no observable
diffraction in
the shaded
areas

wavefronts of
the diffracted
wave

 Figure 3.12 Diffraction of waves in a ripple tank by an edge

Skills
Describing diffraction due to an edge
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

Sample questions
1 Sketch one and a half cycles of a transverse wave and mark on
your sketch the amplitude and wavelength. [4]

Student’s answer

Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

2 A sensor detects that 1560 cycles of a wave pass in 30 s. Work out the
frequency of the wave. [3]

Student’s answer
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Teacher’s comments

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 63

 Sample questions

Correct answer

3 Find the frequency of a radio wave with a wavelength of 1500 m. [3]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The student has done
everything correctly,
but the unit is wrong. It
should be Hz not kHz.
Perhaps the student
assumed that, as radio
frequencies are often
expressed in kHz, this was
Correct answer the correct unit.

4 An earthquake wave is travelling vertically down into the Earth;

the oscillations are also vertical. State, with a reason, whether the
wave is longitudinal or transverse. [2]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

It is the direction of
oscillation relative to the
direction of travel that
Correct answer matters – the student
does not mention this.

5 Complete the diagram to show the wave reflected at the barrier. [3]
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 3.16

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 3 Waves

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The reflected wavefronts
drawn by the student
are all parallel and at
the correct angle, which
is good work. However,
the wavelength between

Correct answer


6 Waves in a ripple tank have a wavelength of 16 mm and approach an
interface parallel to the wavefronts. The waves slow down after the
interface to 0.75 of their original speed.
a Draw four wavefronts and the interface. [2]
b Calculate the new wavelength after passing the interface. [2]
c Add four wavefronts after passing the interface to your diagram
drawn for part a. [2]

Student’s answer
a


b
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI


© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 65
 Sample questions

Teacher’s comments
a The student’s answer is correct and carefully drawn.
b The student has used inverse proportionality between wavelength
and speed instead of direct proportionality.
c Based on the incorrect wavelength in part b, the student has
correctly drawn the new wavefronts.

Correct answers
a
b


7 Figure 3.22 shows wavefronts 12 mm apart approaching a barrier with a
gap of 8 mm.
Draw carefully three wavefronts to show the pattern of the waves after
passing through the barrier.

 Figure 3.22 [3]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The student has carefully
drawn three semicircles
which score 1 mark.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

The semicircles should

be centred on the
middle of the gap. The
wavelength should be
 constant and the same
as the wavelength of the
incident wavefronts.

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 3 Waves

Correct answer

Revision activity

Exam-style questions Revision activity

1
a
b
2
a
b
3

4 egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI


a
b
c

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 67

 3.2 Light

3.2 Light
Light moves as waves of very small wavelength, but it is often convenient
to use light rays to work out and explain the behaviour of light.
A light ray is the direction in which light is travelling and is shown as a
line in a diagram.
An object is what is originally observed.
An optical image is a likeness of the object, which may not be an exact
copy.
A real image is formed where the rays cross and can be shown on a screen.
A virtual image is observed where rays appear to come from and cannot be
formed on a screen.

3.2.1 Reflection of light

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l know and use the terms normal, angle of l state and use the relationship ‘angle of

incidence, angle of reflection reflection equals angle of incidence’

l know what is meant by real and virtual images

l l

When light rays strike a mirror or similar surface, they return at the same
angle from the normal as the incident ray. This is called reflection.
plane
mirror

i r

incident ray normal reflected ray

 Figure 3.26 Reflection of light by a plane mirror

= angle of incidence = angle between normal and incident ray

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

r = angle of reflection = angle between normal and reflected ray

angle of incidence = angle of reflection or i = r
Real and virtual images
A real image is formed where light rays actually converge. It can be
formed on a screen.
A virtual image can be seen as a point from which light rays diverge.
It cannot be formed on a screen.

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 3 Waves

Formation of a virtual optical image by a plane mirror

Figure 3.27 shows the formation of a virtual image by a plane mirror.
I
virtual rays

A B

real rays
 Figure 3.27 Construction to find the image in a plane mirror

The image of the object O is not formed on a screen. It is at point I where

the rays appear to come from. The properties of an image in a plane mirror
are:
l It is the same size as the object.
l The line joining the object and the image is perpendicular to the mirror.
l It is the same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the
mirror.
l It is laterally inverted.
l It is virtual.

l
l

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Sample question
8 Draw a diagram to show the path of a ray striking a plane mirror
with an angle of incidence of 35°. Mark and label the incident ray,
normal, reflected ray and angles of incidence and reflection. [4]

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 69

 Sample question

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

easured
dence
irror line,
e normal.
rect, as
ay for the
n. The
on is also
red away
ine.

Correct answer

3.2.2 Refraction of light

Key objectives
l l
l
l

l nternal
l

l
l

When a ray is travelling at an angle to a surface and enters a material where

it travels slower, it changes direction towards the normal (Figure 3.29). This
is called refraction.
When a ray leaves this material, it is refracted away from the normal.

normal
i
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

A air

B air

normal b

 Figure 3.29 Refraction of a ray through a glass block

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 3 Waves

For refraction at point A, where the ray enters the glass:

l i = angle of incidence = angle between normal and incident ray
l r = angle of refraction = angle between normal and refracted ray
l The ray is refracted towards the normal, so the angle of refraction is
less than the angle of incidence.
For refraction at point B, where the ray leaves the glass:
l a = angle of incidence = angle between normal and incident ray
l b = angle of refraction = angle between normal and refracted ray
l Passing from glass to air, the ray is refracted away from the normal, so
the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence. When the
block is parallel sided, the ray leaving is parallel to the ray entering.

Skills
Demonstrating refraction of light

refractive index

Internal reflection and critical angle

Figure 3.30 shows a ray inside a tank of water passing out into the air;
some light is reflected internally and some is refracted away from the
normal.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

refracted
R ray
air

 Figure 3.30 Rays at a water–air boundary

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 71

 Sample question

i = angle of incidence = angle between normal and incident ray

r = angle of internal reflection = angle between normal and internally
reflected ray
R = angle of refraction = angle between normal and refracted ray
The law of reflection still applies, so i = r.
The greater the angle of incidence, the more energy goes into the
internally reflected ray, which becomes brighter. The greatest angle of
incidence when refraction can still occur is called the critical angle (c).
In Figure 3.31, the angle of refraction is 90° and the refracted ray travels
along the surface.

refracted

air R = 90 ° ray

water

 Figure 3.31 Angle of incidence is the same as the critical angle

In this case, sin R = sin 90 = 1 and the refractive index is 1/n because the
light is passing from water into light. The refraction equation becomes:
1 sin c 1
= or n =
n 1 sin c

If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, there is no

refracted ray and all of the energy is in the bright internally reflected ray.
This is called total internal reflection (Figure 3.32).

air no refracted ray

 Figure 3.32 Total internal reflection

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Everyday uses of total internal reflection are binoculars and periscopes.

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 3 Waves

Skills
Internal reflection and total internal reflection in
a semicircular glass block


l

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 73

 Sample questions

Sample questions
9 Copy and complete Figure 3.35 to show the path of the ray through
the glass prism as it is refracted twice. Show both normals. [4]
student’s correct ray
student’s ray after
after first refraction
second refraction

correct ray after

Teacher’s comments
second refraction
The student has correctly
drawn the refracted ray
 Figure 3.35 The black line shows the question
within the prism and
both normals. However,
Student’s answer the student’s second
refraction, as the ray
leaves the prism, is
towards the normal. When
a ray moves into a region
where it travels faster, it
Correct answer is refracted away from the
normal.

10

a
b

Teacher’s comments
a
b
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answers
a

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 3 Waves

11

Teacher’s comments

Correct answers

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 75

 Sample questions

3.2.3 Thin lenses

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to: l describe an image using the terms enlarged/

l describe the action of thin converging and thin same size/diminished, upright/inver ted and

diverging lenses on parallel beams of light real/virtual

l
l
l
l

Converging lenses

 Figure 3.36 Action of a converging lens on a parallel beam of light

All rays of light parallel to the principal axis are refracted by the
converging lens to pass through the principal focus, F (Figure 3.36). The
distance between F and the optical centre, C, is called the focal length, f.

 Figure 3.37 Ray diagram for a converging lens

If the object is placed more than one focal length behind the lens, the
image will always be real and inverted (Figure 3.37). Depending on where
the object is placed, the image may be enlarged, the same size as the
object or diminished.

Skills
Drawing ray diagrams 1
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

4 5

Skills

Forming a real image with a converging lens

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 77

 Sample questions

The nature of an image

The characteristics of an image are described using the following terms
for an image when it is compared with the object: enlarged/the same size/
diminished, upright/inverted and real/virtual.

Diverging lenses

principal

 Figure 3.40 Action of a diverging lens on a parallel beam of light

All rays of light parallel to the principal axis are refracted by the
diverging lens to pass away from the principal focus, F. The distance
between F and the optical centre, C, is called the focal length, f.


egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

Sample question
12 a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 79

 Sample question


Teacher’s comments
a a The student’s answer is
correct.
b The student might
have intended the
correct answer but
has not been careful
when drawing. The
 rays should converge
exactly at the back of
b the eyeball.

Correct answers
a
b
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

3.2.4 Dispersion of light

Key objectives
l
l
l

White light is made up of seven colours. In order of increasing wavelength

these are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. In order of
increasing frequency, the sequence is reversed.
Each colour is refracted by a different amount in glass. If a beam of white
light falls on a glass prism, it is dispersed into a spectrum of the seven
colours (Figure 3.50).

 Figure 3.50 Forming a spectrum with a prism

Sample question
13 Figure 3.51 shows a ray of green light passing through a glass prism
from right to left.
A ray of orange light enters the prism on the same path as the original
ray of green light.
On the diagram draw with a dashed line the path of this ray through
and out of the prism. [3]  Figure 3.51

Student’s answer
Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 81

 Sample question

Correct answer Revision activity

Write down the seven

colours in order of their

refraction in a glass

prism. You may find it


helpful to use the capital

letters of this mnemonic:

Richard Of York Gave

Battle In Vain (or the

Revision activity name ‘Roy G Biv’) to stand

for the first letters of the

colours. To remember

which end of the visible

spectrum is refracted

most remember ‘Blue

bends best’.

Exam-style questions
5


a
b
c
6 a
b
7
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

a
b
8

a
b
c
i
ii

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 3 Waves

10 a
b

11

12 a

3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

Key objectives
l l

l l

l
l
l l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Properties of electromagnetic waves

All types of waves that make up the electromagnetic spectrum have
these properties in common:
l They can travel through a vacuum at the same high speed, which is
much faster than other types of waves that travel through a material.
l They show the normal wave properties of reflection, refraction and
diffraction.

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 3.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

l They are transverse waves.

l They travel owing to moving electric and magnetic fields.
l

The wave equation v = fλ applies, so the lower the wavelength, the higher
the frequency.
The Sun and other stars give off a wide range of types of electromagnetic
waves, which travel through space to Earth. Much of this radiation is
stopped by Earth’s atmosphere and can be detected only by satellites in
orbit outside the atmosphere.

Types of electromagnetic waves

You need to know the types of electromagnetic waves, in order of
decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency, as listed below.
Radio waves are used for:
l radio and television transmission
l radio astronomy detecting signals from stars and galaxies
l radio frequency identification (RFID) systems which track objects fitted
with a small radio transmitter

Microwaves are used for telecommunication, radar and microwave

ovens. They are used for satellite and mobile phone (cell phone)
telecommunication because microwaves can pass through some walls and
only require a short aerial. Microwaves can damage living cells and, as they
travel through matter, cause internal burns. Parts of the ears and eyes,
in particular, are easily damaged by microwaves, so great care is needed
to ensure that the doors of microwave ovens are always closed when in
use and that excessive mobile phone use is avoided. Personnel servicing
military aircraft in an operational situation wear protective suits to reflect
the microwaves emitted by the high-powered radar in the aircraft.
Infrared radiation is produced by hot objects and transfers thermal
energy to cooler objects. Hot objects below about 500°C produce infrared
radiation only; above this temperature, visible light is also radiated. Used
for thermal imaging (e.g. night-vision goggles which detect the infrared
radiation given off by warm objects), remote controllers, intruder alarms,
optical fibres as short wavelength infrared can carry high rates of data.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Excess infrared radiation can cause skin burns.

Visible light is a very narrow range of wavelengths that can be seen by
the human eye as the colours of the visible spectrum from violet to red.

Ultraviolet radiation is produced by the Sun, special ultraviolet tubes and

welding arcs. The radiation can cause sunburn and skin cancer and damage
eyes. It also produces vitamins in the skin and causes certain substances
to fluoresce. This fluorescence can reveal markings that are invisible in
visible light so is useful for security marking, detecting fake bank notes.
It is used for sterilising water.

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 3 Waves

Note: the commonly used expression ultraviolet light is incorrect.

Ultraviolet radiation is not part of the visible spectrum, so must not be
called light. This misconception might occur because often ultraviolet
lamps give off blue and violet light as well as ultraviolet radiation.
X-rays are produced in high-voltage X-ray tubes. They are absorbed
differently by different types of matter. They can produce shadow pictures
of inside the human body, which are invaluable for medical diagnosis.
X-rays can penetrate inaccessible solid structures. They are used by
security machines at airports and other travel hubs to scan luggage
for dangerous hidden objects. X-rays are dangerous to living matter as
they can kill cells and cause cell mutations which lead to cancers. Lead
shielding must be used to protect people from exposure, especially those
who work regularly with X-rays.
Gamma rays are produced by radioactive substances. They are very
dangerous to living matter. They are used to kill cancer cells and
dangerous bacteria. They are used to sterilise food and medical equipment.

Communication with electromagnetic radiation

analogue digital
signal

Communication with artificial satellite is mainly by microwaves.

Some satellite phones use low-orbit artificial satellites.
Some satellite phones and television use geostationary satellites (see
Topic 6 Space Physics).

Sample questions
14 State the type of orbit of satellites used for satellite television. [1]

15

Student’s answers
14
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15

Teacher’s comments
14

15

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 85

 Sample questions

Correct answers Revision activity

14 Make a revision
poster to show all the
15 types of radiation in
the electromagnetic
spectrum. Include the
types of waves and
directions of increasing
Revision activity wavelength and
increasing frequency.

Exam-style questions
13
a
b
c

14

a  Figure 3.55

b
15

Its wavelength is shorter A harmful effect on people

than… of excessive exposure is…
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

16 a
b

17 a i
ii
b
i
ii

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 3 Waves

3.4 Sound
Key objectives
B he end of this section ou should be able to:

l l

l l

l l

l
l

Sound waves are longitudinal waves that are produced by a vibrating

source, which causes a material to vibrate. A material or medium is
required to transmit sound waves.
The speed of sound in air at normal temperatures is 330–350 m/s.

Although normally observed in air, sound waves can travel through liquids
and solids, e.g. sea creatures communicate by sound waves travelling
through water.
The healthy human ear can hear sound in air in the frequency range of
20 Hz to 20 000 Hz (20 kHz). This is called the audible range. In practice,
only people with very good hearing can hear throughout this range.
With ageing, this range is reduced and hearing tests usually only check
frequencies between 250 Hz and 8 kHz.
Sound of a higher frequency than 20 kHz (the audible range) is called
ultrasound.

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l

The greater the amplitude of sound waves, the louder the sound.
The greater the frequency of sound waves, the higher the pitch.
Sound waves can be reflected, especially from large, hard, flat surfaces.
The reflected sound is called an echo.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 87

 Sample questions

Skills

Determining depth from time and wave speed

Sample questions
16 A student stands across a field from a large building and claps their
hands regularly. They hear each clap coinciding exactly with the echo
from the clap before. They measure their distance from the building as
100 m and the time taken for 16 claps as 10 s. Work out the speed of
sound in air. [4]

Student’s answer

Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 3 Waves

Correct answer

17 A railway worker gives a length of rail a test blow with a hammer,

striking the end of the rail in the direction of its length. A sound of
frequency 10 kHz travels along the rail. The speed of sound in the rail is
5000 m/s.
Calculate the wavelength of the wave. [2]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

18 A machine uses sound waves of frequency 3 MHz to form images within

the human body.
Choose one of the following as the best description of these waves:
long wavelength
hypersound
polarised sound
supersonic
ultrasound [1]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answer

19 Dolphins emit sound waves of 95 kHz. State and explain if these

waves are ultrasound. [2]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

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 Sample question

Correct answer

20 At a concert attended by people of all ages, including children and old

people, a sound of frequency 19 kHz is produced. Comment on how this
would be heard by the audience. [1]

Student’s answer Teacher’s comments

The answer is on the right
lines but is incomplete
because in such an
Correct answer audience it is unlikely
that everyone would have
completely healthy ears.

21

Teacher’s comments
Incorrect answer; sound is
sometimes transmitted as
an analogue signal but not
Correct answer always.

Revision activity Revision activity

Make flash cards to
revise some values about
sound waves. Include
the speed of sound
waves in air, the range
of frequencies audible
Exam-style questions to humans and the
frequency of ultrasound.
18
a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

c
i
ii

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 4 Electricity and magnetism
Key terms
Term Definition
Alternating current The direction of current flow reverses repeatedly
(a.c.)
Direct current (d.c.) Electrons flow in one direction only
Electric current The charge passing a point per unit time (current = / where is the charge flowing past a
I Q t Q

particular point in time )

t

Electromagnet Temporary magnet produced by passing an electric current through a coil of wire wound on a
soft iron core
Electromagnetic The production of a p.d. across a conductor when it moves through a magnetic field or is at
induction rest in a changing magnetic field
Electromotive force The electrical work done by a source in moving unit charge round a complete circuit
(e.m.f.)
Kilowatt-hour The electrical energy transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1 hour
(kW h)
Light-dependent Semiconductor device in which the electrical resistance decreases when the intensity of light
resistor (LDR) falling on it increases
Magnetic field A region of space where a magnet experiences a force due to other magnets or an electric
current
Magnetic materials Materials that can be magnetised by a magnet; in their non-magnetised state, they are
attracted by a magnet
Non-magnetic Materials that cannot be magnetised and are not attracted to a magnet
materials
Parallel circuit Components connected side by side and the current splits into alternative paths and then
recombines; current from the source is larger than the current in each branch
Permanent magnet Made of steel and retains its magnetism
Potential difference The work done by a unit charge passing through a component
(p.d.)
Relay Electromagnetic switch
Resistance Opposition of a conductor to the flow of electric current; symbol measured in ohms (Ω)
R

Series circuit Components connected one after the other; the current is the same in each part of a series
circuit
Solenoid Long cylindrical coil of wire
Temporary magnet Made of soft iron, and loses its magnetism easily
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Thermistor Semiconductor device in which the electrical resistance decreases when the temperature
increases
Transformer Two coils (primary and secondary) wound on a soft iron core which allow an alternating p.d.
to be changed from one value to another
Conventional Flows from positive to negative; the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive
current
Electric field A region in space where an electric charge experiences a force due to other charges
Light–emitting Semiconductor device which emits light when it is forward biased but not when it is reverse
diode (LED) biased
Potential divider Provides a voltage that varies with the values of two resistors in series in a circuit

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 91

 4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism

4.1 Simple phenomena of magnetism

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l describe the forces between magnets and showing its direction which is the direction

magnetic materials experienced by a north pole at that point

l ri n n ti m
l
l

l l

l l

Properties of magnets
Materials can be divided into two types:
l magnetic materials – materials which are attracted to magnets. Mainly
the ferrous metals iron and steel and their alloys. Cobalt, nickel and
certain alloys are also magnetic materials. These materials can all be
magnetised to form a magnet.
l non-magnetic materials – materials which are not attracted to
magnets and cannot be magnetised to form a magnet.
Every magnet has two poles: a north pole (N pole) and a south pole
(S pole). If a magnet is supported so that it can swing freely, the N pole
will always point towards the Earth’s magnetic north pole. The other end
is the S pole. When you bring two magnets near each other they both
experience a magnetic force. If two magnets are close together, poles N
and N will repel, poles S and S will repel, but poles N and S will attract.
Remember like poles repel and .
opposite poles attract

Induced magnetism
A unmagnetised magnetic material can be magnetised by bringing it close
to or by touching a magnet. This is called induced magnetism.
Figure 4.1 shows iron nails and steel paper clips becoming magnetised.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

S N

N S
S N

N S
S N

N S
S N

N S

 Figure 4.1 Induced magnetism

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

As you can see, each nail or paperclip has their own N and S pole as they
have each become magnets. If you remove the iron nails from the magnet,
the chain collapses. If you take the steel paperclips away, they are still
attracted to each other. This is because:
l iron is an example of a soft magnetic material (one that loses its
magnetism easily and is unmagnetised easily). The induced magnetism
in the iron is temporary. Soft magnetic materials are used to make
temporary magnets.
l steel is an example of a hard magnetic material (one that is harder to
magnetise but also harder to unmagnetise). The induced magnetism
is permanent. Hard magnetic materials are used to make permanent
magnets.
Magnetic fields
A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnet experiences a force.
Figure 4.2 shows the magnetic field around a bar magnet.

S N

 Figure 4.2 Magnetic field lines around a bar magnet

The arrows show the direction of force. It has been agreed that the arrows
show the direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point.

Skills
Plotting magnetic field lines
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 Sample question

N
S

Electromagnets
An electromagnet is a temporary magnet produced by passing an electric
current through a coil of wire wound on a soft iron core. The soft iron core
is magnetised only when there is a current in the wire.

 Figure 4.4 An electromagnet

The strength of an electromagnet can be increased by:

l increasing the current
l increasing the number of coils
l moving the poles closer together
The different features of permanent magnets and electromagnets mean
they have different uses. Table 4.1 summarises these.
 Table 4.1 Uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets

Type of magnet Description Examples of uses

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Sample question
1 Describe how to plot the magnetic field, including its direction,
around a bar magnet using iron filings. [5] Teacher’s comments
dent basically knows
Student’s answer t experiment,
escription is
e and lacking in
l detail.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Correct answer

Exam-style questions Revision activity

1
a
b

4.2 Electrical quantities

4.2.1 Electric charge
Key objectives
l l

l l
l
l l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Positive and negative charges

When certain materials (e.g. polythene) are rubbed with a cloth, they
become charged. The fact that an object is electrically charged can be
detected as shown in Figure 4.5. In Figure 4.5, two polythene rods are
both rubbed with a cloth. One rod is suspended freely on a thread. When
the second rod is brought near, the suspended rod moves away. There is
repulsion between the two charged objects. If a charged cellulose acetate
rod is brought close, the suspended rod is attracted. This shows there
are two types of electric charge: positive and negative. If two similarly

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 95

 4.2 Electrical quantities

charged objects are close together (+ and +, or – and –) they will repel,
but unlike charges (+ and –) will attract.

insulating thread

paper holder

rubbed

 Figure 4.5 Investigating charges

Charges, atoms electrons

Atoms are made of small positively charged nucleus containing positively
charged protons surrounded by an equal number of negatively charged
electrons (Topic 5.1.1). The charge on an electron and proton is equal and
opposite, and as there is the same number of each in an atom, the atom is
neutral.
Rubbing an object makes it charged because the friction causes electrons
to be transferred from one material to the other.
l The material gaining electrons becomes negatively charged (it now has
more electrons than protons).
l The material losing the electrons becomes positively charged (it now
has fewer electrons than protons).
Remember the protons are in the nucleus; they cannot move. It is only the
electrons that move.

Electrons, insulators and conductors

Electrical insulators are materials in which electrons are firmly held in
their atoms and cannot move, so electric charge cannot flow. Most plastics
are good insulators.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Electrical conductors are materials in which electrons can move freely

from atom to atom, so electric charge can flow easily. All metals and some
forms of carbon are conductors.
Insulators can become charged because the charge cannot move from
where the transfer happened. To charge the polythene rod (insulator) you
use a cloth (another insulator). A conductor will only become charged if it
is held by an insulating handle. This is because electrons are transferred
between the conductor and the ground through the body of the person
holding the conductor.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Skills
Detecting charges and testing materials

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 

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 97

 Sample question

 Figure 4.7c Electric field between two parallel plates. This is a uniform field. You

can tell because the field lines are parallel and evenly spaced.

Sample question
2 An inkjet printer produces a stream of very small droplets from a
nozzle. The droplets are given a negative electric charge and then
pass between two plates with positive and negative charge, as shown
in Figure 4.8.


a ]
b
]
c ]

Teacher’s comments
a a Correct answer.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

b b The student correctly

c stated that the force
is to the right but
failed to explain it.
Correct answers c The path between the
a plates must be curved,
b as the droplets are
accelerated to the
c right by the electric
force.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

4.2.2 Electric current

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l understand that an electric current is the flow l describe the use of ammeters and know the

of charge and in metals is the movement of difference between direct (d.c.) and alternating

free electrons current (a.c.)

l l

Electric current is a flow of charge. In metals there are free electrons.

These are electrons that are only loosely attached to a particular atom.
When you connect a battery across the ends of a metal wire, these
free electrons start to move. They move slowly in the direction of
the positive terminal of the battery (remember positive and negative
charges attract).

conventional current

Ammeters
Electric current is measured in amperes, usually abbreviated to amps
(symbol A), by an ammeter, which must be connected in series. The
positive terminal of the ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of
the supply. Figure 4.9 shows an ammeter in series with component X.
Ammeters can be analogue (have a scale and pointer like a moving-coil
ammeter) or have a digital display. Whichever type you use you should
use the correct range. If the current you are measuring is unknown, it
 Figure 4.9 Measuring
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

the current through

is good practice to start on the largest scale, for example, 0 to 10 A. component X

If the reading is very small or not detected, you can reduce the range
perhaps to 0 to 1 A. Choose the smallest possible range to get the
most accurate result, e.g if the current is 0.02 A, you would choose the
100 mA range.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 99

 Sample question

Skills
Expressing quantities using multipliers

tnerruc
steady d.c.

 time

Prefix Symbol Multiply by Prefix Symbol Multiply by

tnerruc
varying d.c.

time

 Figure 4.10a Direct current

Direct and alternating current

In a direct current (d.c.), the charge flows in one direction only
(Figure 4.10a).
In an alternating current (a.c.), the direction of the current changes
repeatedly (Figure 4.10b).

 Figure 4.10b Alternating current

The number of complete cycles per second of a.c. is the frequency of the
alternating current.

Sample question
3
a
b
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Teacher’s comments
a

Correct answers
a

Revision activity

4.2.3 Electromotive force and potential difference

Key objectives
l l

Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in

moving unit charge around a circuit. It is measured in volts.
Potential difference (p.d.) across a component is the work done by unit
charge passing through a component. It is also measured in volts.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 101

 Sample question

Voltmeters rest of circuit

The p.d. across a component is measured by a voltmeter, which must be
connected in parallel with the component. It can be helpful to build component X
the circuit and then place the voltmeter across the component. The X
positive terminal of the voltmeter should be connected to the side of the
component nearest to the positive side of the battery. Figure 4.11 shows a
V
voltmeter in parallel with component X.
voltmeter
Voltmeters can be analogue (have a scale and pointer as in Figure 4.12) or
have a digital display.  Figure 4.11 Measuring the

p.d. across component X

4
2 6
Revision activity
s

 Figure 4.12 An analogue voltmeter scale

Whichever type you use, you should use the correct range. Choose the
smallest possible range to get the most accurate result. For example, if
you expect the measurement to be 12 V, you must choose a suitable scale
such as 0 to 20 V. If the reading is 0.006 V, you should use 0 to 10 mV.

4.2.4 Resistance

Key objectives
l l
l
l
l

Resistance is the opposition of a conductor to the flow of electric current.

Resistance is calculated using the equation:
V
R=
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

I
where R = resistance in ohms (Ω), V = p.d. and I = current.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Skills
Determining resistance


1

3
4

  
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 103

 Sample questions

Resistance of a metal wire

The resistance of a metal wire depends on:
l length – the longer the wire, the greater the resistance
l cross-sectional area – the thicker the wire, the smaller the resistance
l the material the wire is made from

Sample questions
4 A student carries out an experiment to find the resistance of a wire.
They vary the supply voltage and take measurements using an ammeter
and a voltmeter. The table shows their first three readings.
Reading 1 2 3 4

Make sure you show your working for all parts of this question.
a Calculate the resistance for the third pair of readings. [1]
b Calculate the average value of resistance for the first three
readings. [1]
c Using this average value of resistance, calculate the current
the student can expect when they take the fourth reading. [2]

Student’s answers
a

c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Teacher’s comments
a
b
a

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Correct answers
a

5 Sample A is a length of wire of given material.

a Copy and complete the table for the resistance of three more
samples of wire of the same material. Choose from the following
words: greater, less, same.

Sample B C D

[3]

Student’s answers
Sample B C D

Teacher’s comments
a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 105

 Sample question

Correct answers Revision activity

In the third section of

Sample B C D your electrical quantities

sheet, summarise

the information about

resistance.

4.2.5 Electrical working

Key objectives
l l he correct equations for

r and electrical energy

l att-hour and calculate the cost

cal appliances

Electrical energy and electrical power

The electrical cell, battery or mains supply are a source of electrical
energy. Electric circuits transfer this energy to components in the circuit
and then into the surroundings. For example, a torch battery transfers
energy to the lamp; this energy is then transferred by light and by heating
to the surroundings.
To calculate the electrical energy transferred, use the equation:
E = Ivt

where E is the energy transferred (J), I is the current (A), V is the p.d. (V)
and t is the time (s).
It is also useful to consider the electrical power of an appliance.
Remember power is the amount of energy transferred every second
(P = W/t); the unit of power is the watt (W).
To calculate electrical power, use the equation:
P = IV

Paying for electricity

When buying electricity from a supply company, a much larger unit of
electricity is used: the kilowatt-hour (kWh). This is the electrical energy
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

transferred by a 1 kW appliance in 1 hour. The company then charges a price

per kilowatt− hour for the energy transferred. Remember 1 kW is 1000 W.
To calculate the energy transferred in kW h, use the equation:
energy transferred (kW h) = power (kW) × time (h)

Sample question
6 A travel kettle is designed for international use. With a 230 V supply,
the power rating is 800 W.
a Calculate the current with a 230 V supply and the resistance of
the element. [2]

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

b Find the current and power output of the kettle when used in
another country with a 110 V supply. [3]
c Comment on the use of this kettle in the country with the 110 V
supply. [1]

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a
a
b
b

Correct answers
a

Exam-style questions Revision activity

4
a
b
c

6
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

8
a
b
c

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 4.3 Electric circuits

9 You are asked to take measurements from the circuit shown in

Figure 4.15 and are provided with an ammeter, a voltmeter and any

necessar y connecting wires.

A B

C R D E F

 Figure 4.15

Complete the table to indicate which component, if any, you should

connect across the points AB, CD and EF to take each measurement. [2]

Measurement to be taken AB CD EF
current through R when connected to batter y

p.d. across r when connected to batter y

10 a
b

11
]

12
]

13

14
]

15

a ]

b ]

16
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

4.3 Electric circuits

4.3.1 Circuit diagrams and components

Key objectives
l

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

You must be able to draw and interpret all the symbols shown in Figure 4.16.
Revision activity

 Figure 4.16 Circuit symbols

4.3.2 Series and parallel circuits

Key objectives
l l
l
l
l
l
l

Series circuits
In a series circuit, there is just one path for the current to follow.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 4.17 Resistors in series

Rules for components in series:

l The current at every point in a series circuit is the same, I.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 109

 4.3 Electric circuits

l The total resistance (RT) in a series circuit is the sum of the individual
resistances:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3

l The combined e.m.f. of different sources in series is the sum of each

individual e.m.f. For example, if you connect two cells which each have
an e.m.f. of 1.5 V, the total e.m.f. is 3.0 V.

Parallel circuits
In a parallel circuit, there are alternative paths or branches for the current.

 Figure 4.18 Resistors in parallel

Rules for components in parallel:

l When components are in parallel, the current from the source is greater
than the current in each branch.
l The combined resistance of components in parallel is less than the
resistance of any one resistor.

l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

In lighting circuits in homes and businesses, lamps are connected in

parallel. This is because:
l Each lamp has the same p.d. across it, which is the p.d. of the supply.
Each lamp is therefore the same brightness and you can have as many
lamps as you want in the circuit.
l You can switch each lamp on and off individually. If one lamp should
fail, the other lamps will continue to work.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Sample questions
7 In Figure 4.17, R1 = 4 Ω and R2 = 3 Ω.
a Calculate the total resistance of R1 and R2. [2]
b The current through R1 is 1.5 A. State the current through R2. [2]
c Calculate the potential differences V1 and V2. [2]

Student’s answers
a
b

Teacher’s comments
a
b

c b

Correct answers
a
b
c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 Sample questions

8
a
b
c

Teacher’s comments
a
b
c
a b

Correct answers
a Revision activity
b

c de

4.3.3 Action and use of circuit components

Key objectives
l l

Increase in resistance of a conductor

Consider a conductor with a constant current through it. The product of
the resistance and the current gives the potential difference (V = IR,
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

remember the resistance R = V/I ).

If the resistance of the conductor increases and the current remains
constant, then the potential difference across the conductor increases.

Light-dependent resistors and thermistors

The resistance of a light-dependent resistor (LDR) falls with increasing
light level. It can be connected in a circuit that is required to respond to
changes in light level.
The resistance of a thermistor decreases considerably with increasing
temperature.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

These components can be used as an input to a switching circuit such as

in a security light that only works at night or in a fire alarm that switches
on when it detects heat.

Relays
Switching circuits cannot power the appliance they are switching on, for
example, starting the motor of a washing machine when the water is at the
correct temperature. A relay is a switch turned on or off by an electromagnet.
0 or 5 V

output of
switching relay
circuit

0V ~ mains
supply

appliance

 Figure 4.19 A relay is used to switch on a mains appliance

The small current from the switching circuit, switches on the electromagnet
which attracts the switch, closing it. The appliance is then switched on.

Variable potential divider I

A potential divider provides a voltage that varies with the values of two
resistors in series in a circuit. Figure 4.20 shows a potential divider with
two separate resistors R1 and R2.
R1 V1
If the value of R1 or R2 changes, the output voltage will change.
If R1 increases with R2 unchanged, V1 increases and V2 decreases. V

If R2 increases with R1 unchanged, V2 increases and V1 decreases. R2 V2

Remember the sum of p.d.s for components in series is equal to the total
p.d. The ratio of the voltages across the two resistors is given by:
I
R1 V1
=
R2 V2
 Figure 4.20 Potential divider

with two separate resistors

Skills
Using ratios to determine the p.d. across each resistor in a potential divider arrangement
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 113

 Sample questions

Figure 4.21 shows a circuit that acts as a fire alarm. When the
temperature of the thermistor rises, its resistance falls. The thermistor
and fixed resistor R are a potential divider, so the p.d. between S and
T rises and enough current flows into the relay for it to switch on the
bell.

relay d.c.

 

light-emitting diode (LED)

Exam-style questions
17

18
a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

19

a +
6V
b d.c

20

21


114 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 4 Electricity and magnetism

4.4 Electrical safety

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l state possible hazards when using mains l explain how trip switches and fuses work and

electricity choose appropriate settings and values for each

l understand that the mains circuit consists l explain why metal outer casings for electrical

of three wires – live, neutral and earth – appliances are earthed

and explain why switches are placed in the l state that for double-insulated appliances,

live wire the fuse protects the appliance from current

surges even without the earth

Dangers of electricity
Some common hazards when using a mains supply are:
l Damaged insulation can lead to very high currents flowing in
inappropriate places. This poses a danger of electric shock or fire.
l Cables that overheat owing to excessive current can lead to fire or
damage in the appliance or in the cables and insulation.
l Damp conditions. Water lowers the resistance to earth, so damp
conditions can lead to the current shorting and can cause shocks.
Electrical devices for use in damp conditions must be designed to high
standards of damp proofing, especially connectors and switches.
l Overloading plugs, extension leads or sockets. If you have too many
appliances plugged into one outlet, then the current will be too great.
This can cause overheating and so is a fire risk.

House circuits
Mains circuit wire consists of three wires: the live wire, the neutral wire
and the earth wire. The mains supply is usually a.c. and the potential
difference of the live wire with respect to earth varies depending on your
country (lowest value of any country is 110 V a.c. and highest value is
240 V a.c.). The neutral and earth wires are at 0 V with respect to earth.
The circuits in a home are all connected in parallel across the live and
neutral wires. This means they all receive the mains p.d. and can be
switched on and off separately. The switch is placed in the live wire, so
that when the appliance is switched off it is not connected to the mains
supply.

Fuses and trip switches

A fuse is a piece of wire that melts and breaks when too much current
flows through it. This switches off the circuit to protect against shock, fire
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

or further damage. Fuses are placed in the live wire to safely switch off
the device.
Trip switches or circuit breakers contain electromagnets which when the
current is large enough will separate contacts and break the circuit. They
operate quickly and can be easily reset by pressing a button.
Fuses come in different values and trip switches have to be set to
the right setting. To choose the correct values, you need to know the
maximum current expected. For example, if the maximum current is 9 A
you might use a 13 A fuse or choose a 10 A trip switch.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 115

 Sample question

Earthing
Appliances with metal cases have to be earthed using the earth wire. This
is to protect against electric shock. For example, if the live wire became
loose and touched the metal casing, the whole appliance would become
live. To prevent this happening, the earth wire is connected to the metal
appliance and connected to earth. If the case became live, a large current
would pass through the live wire to earth through the earth wire. The fuse
will melt and break, switching off the appliance.

Double insulation
Many electrical appliances have a plastic outer case, they are double-
insulated. As plastic is an insulator, there is no risk of shock and these
appliances do not need an earth connection. They will still have a fuse as
it protects the appliance from current surges due to a short circuit.

Sample question
9 People are gathered after dark on wet grass. Explain whether the
following three situations are potentially dangerous:
a A heater and several high-powered electric lamps are supplied
by an old extension cable. [2]
b There is a cut in the outer insulation of the cable. [2]
c The devices are connected to a switch lying on the lawn. [2]

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a Correct answer
b Incorrect answer –
b using a cable with any
c sort of cut is unsafe
practice.
c Correct answer.

Correct answers
a

Exam-style questions
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

22
Revision activity
a Summarise this section

b into five key points about

c electrical safety.

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

4.5 Electromagnetic effects

4.5.1 Electromagnetic induction

Key objectives
B he end of this section ou should be able to:

l l

l
l

When the magnetic field through a conductor changes, an e.m.f is induced.

This is called electromagnetic induction. This change can be caused by:
l a conductor moving through a magnetic field (Figure 4.24)
l a magnetic field moving relative to a conductor (Figure 4.25)

Skills
Demonstrating electromagnetic induction

3
1
5

6
4
2
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 4.5 Electromagnetic effects

Remember an e.m.f. is always induced when the magnetic field through a

conductor changes. If there is a complete circuit, a current will also be
induced.

Factors affecting the size of an induced e.m.f.

The induced e.m.f. increases with an increase in: Revision activity
l speed of relative motion of the magnet or coil Tr y explaining to a

l number of turns of any coil

partner how an e.m.f. is

induced in a conductor.
l strength of the magnet


Key objectives
l
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

t
I

Sample question
10
a

c 

a
b
c

Teacher’s comments
a

c
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Revision activity

Correct answers
a
b
c

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 119

 Sample question

4.5.3 Magnetic effect of a current

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l l

Field due to a straight wire

A wire or coil carrying an electric current produces a magnetic field.
The magnetic field pattern is a series of concentric circles, as shown in
Figure 4.31. You can determine the direction of the magnetic field using
the right-hand screw rule. The magnetic field lines point in the direction
of rotation of the screw.

 Figure 4.31 Field due to a straight wire

Field due to a solenoid

A solenoid is a long cylindrical coil. When a current flows, the field
pattern outside the solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet. Inside the
solenoid, there is a strong field parallel to the axis (Figure 4.32a). The
right-hand grip rule gives the direction of the field.
The fingers of the right hand grip the solenoid pointing in the direction of
the current and the thumb points to the N pole (Figure 4.32b).
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 4.32 a) Field due to a solenoid and b) the right − hand grip rule

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Skills
Plotting the magnetic field around a current-carrying wire and solenoid

Applications of the magnetic effect of a current

A solenoid wrapped around an iron core forms an electromagnet.
Electromagnets are used in cranes to lift iron objects and scrap iron, as
well as in many electrical devices.

Relay
A relay is a device that enables one electric circuit to control another. It
is often used when the first circuit carries only a small current (e.g. in an
electronic circuit) and the second circuit requires a much higher current.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 4.33 Magnetic relay

When the switch is closed in the low-current circuit in Figure 4.33,

current flows to the electromagnet, which attracts end A of the soft iron
armature. The armature pivots and end B moves up to close the contacts in
the high-current circuit. This circuit is now complete and the high current
flows through the device, e.g. a motor, a heater or an alarm bell.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 121

 Sample question

Loudspeaker
Figure 4.34 shows a loudspeaker. It consists of a circular permanent
magnet with a central pole and a ring pole. A coil of wire sits over the
ring pole and is attached to a paper cone.

a End-on view b
casing ring central
pole pole

coil
on
tube

 Figure 4.34 Moving-coil loudspeaker

There is an alternating current in the coil. The changing magnetic field

in this coil causes it to move up and down, making the cone vibrate and
produce a sound. As the frequency of the alternating current changes
so does the frequency of vibration, producing different frequency sound
waves.

Sample question
11 Figure 4.35 shows an electric bell.
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

 Figure 4.35

For the electric bell shown in Figure 4.35:

a Describe what happens when the bell push is pressed. [4]
b Explain why iron is used for the armature. [1]
c Choose a suitable material for the core of the electromagnet.
Give your reasons. [2]

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a

b
c

Correct answers
a

b
Revision activity
c

4.5.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor

Key objectives
l l

A wire or conductor carrying a current in a magnetic field experiences a

force. The direction of the force depends on the direction of the magnetic
field and the direction of the current.

Skills
Demonstrating force on a current-carrying wire
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 123

 Sample question


egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

124 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 4 Electricity and magnetism

Sample questions
12 Figure 4.39 shows a wire in a magnetic field. The current through the
wire is switched on.

b For each of the following changes, made one at a time, state

whether the magnitude of the force on the wire increases, stays the
same, decreases or decreases to zero:
i current changes direction [1]
ii current drops to zero [1]  Figure 4.39
iii current increases [1]
iv magnetic field increases [1]
v magnetic field changes direction [1]

Student’s answers
a

b i
ii
iii
iv
v

Teacher’s comments

i
ii
iii
iv
v
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answers
a

b i
ii
iii
iv
v

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 125

 Sample questions

13

Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

4.5.5 The d.c. motor

Key objectives
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Turning effect on a coil

A straight wire in a magnetic field feels a force. If you make the wire
into a rectangular coil and place it in a magnetic field, one side feels a
force upwards as the other feels a force downwards. This causes a turning
effect. Figure 4.41 shows a single coil in a magnetic field.

126 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 4 Electricity and magnetism

rotating
coil

b c

N S

 Figure 4.41 A single coil in a magnetic field

Revision activity
You can see the current flows in opposite directions either side of the coil.
The turning effect is increased by:
l increasing the number of turns on the coil
l increasing the current
l increasing the strength of the magnetic field

4.5.6 The transformer

Key objectives
l l
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 127

 Sample questions

A transformer transforms (changes) an alternating voltage from one value soft iron

to another of greater or smaller value. It consists of two coils wound on

the same soft iron core. The primary coil is supplied with an alternating
current and the secondary coil provides an alternating current to another
circuit.
primary secondary

 Figure 4.43 Primary and

secondary coils of a

transformer

Transformer equation
A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than the
primary coil and the Vs is greater than Vp. In a step-down transformer,
there are fewer turns on the secondary than the primary coil and Vs is less
than Vp.
The relationship between the number of coils on the primary (Np) and the
number of coils on the secondary (Ns) is given by the equation:
Vp N p
=
Vs N s

Transmission of electrical power

Electricity is transmitted over large distances at very high voltages, in
order to reduce the energy losses due to the resistance of the transmission
lines. This is achieved by having a step-up transformer at the power
station to increase the voltage to several hundred thousand volts. Where
the electricity is to be used, there is a series of step-down transformers to
reduce the voltage to values suitable for use in factories or homes.
The advantages of high voltage transmission are:
l less power loss in the cables as the heating effect in the cables is less
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l lower current in the cables means that thinner/cheaper cables can be used

128 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 4 Electricity and magnetism

Sample question
14 A transformer used by students in a school laboratory has 5500 turns
on the primary coil and is supplied with 110 V a.c. The secondary coil
has 500 turns.
a Calculate the output voltage. [3]

Student’s answers
a

Teacher’s comments
a

Correct answers
a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 129

 Sample question

Exam-style questions Revision activity

Answers available at: w w w.hoddereducation.co.uk/cambridgeextras Create a spider diagram

23 The wire in Figure 4.24 is moved upwards. about the transformer.

a Describe how to increase the e.m.f. induced in the wire. [3] Write down these words

and find links between

b them: transformer, step

up, step down, high-

24 voltage transmission,

power losses.

a
b
c

25

a ]

b ]

c ]

26

27

a ]

i
ii
iii
iv ]


egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

28
a
i
ii ]

i
ii
]

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 4 Electricity and magnetism

c The coil is rotated so that it is again horizontal with wire ab on the

right and wire cd on the left. State the direction of any forces now

acting on:

i wire ab

ii wire cd [2]

coil


29

30

31

a
b

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 131

 5 Nuclear physics

Key terms
Term Definition
Alpha-particle (α) 4 He )
Radiation consisting of helium ions with a double positive charge ( 2
Atom Tiny constituent of matter

Background Ever-present radiation resulting from cosmic rays from outer space and radioactive

radiation materials in rocks, the air, buildings

Beta-particle (β) Radiation consisting of high-speed electrons (

−1 e
0 )

Electron −1 e
Negatively charged elementar y par ticle (
0 )

Gamma-radiation (γ) High-frequency, ver y penetrating electromagnetic waves

Half-life The average time for half the nuclei in a radioactive sample to decay

Ion Charged atom or molecule that has lost or gained one or more electrons so that it is no

longer neutral

Isotope One form of an element that has the same number of protons but a different number of

neutrons in the nucleus from other isotopes of the same element

Neutron An uncharged subatomic par ticle found in the nucleus of an atom (except that of hydrogen)

Nucleon number, A Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

Proton Positively charged par ticle found in the nucleus of an atom

Proton number, Z Number of protons in the nucleus

Fission The break-up of a large nucleus into smaller par ts

Fusion The union of light nuclei into a heavier one

5.1 The nuclear model of the atom

5.1.1 The atom

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l l
l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

electrons in one
The atom or more orbits (all
The atom is the smallest particle of an element. It is made up of a negative charge)
central nucleus, with all the positive charge and nearly all the mass,
and negatively charged electrons in orbit. The nucleus is very much
smaller than the electron orbits, so the majority of every atom is central nucleus
empty space. (all positive
charge, nearly
all mass)

 Figure 5.1 The nuclear atom

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 5 Nuclear physics

Ions
Atoms are neutral. They contain an equal number of positively charged
protons and negatively charged electrons. An atom with a charge is called
an ion. If an atom gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is
called a negative ion. If an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively
charged and is called a positive ion.

5.1.2 The nucleus

Key objectives
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l l
l
l
l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 133

 5.1 The nuclear model of the atom

Protons and neutrons

A nucleus contains protons and neutrons which are known as the
nucleons. To compare the particles inside an atom, you consider their
mass and charge relative to each other. Table 5.1 shows relative mass,
relative charge and their position.
 Table 5.1 The relative mass, charge and position of the subatomic particles

Particle Relative mass Relative charge Position

Proton Approximately 2000 +1 Inside the nucleus

Neutron Approximately 2000 0 Inside the nucleus

Electron 1 −1 Outside the nucleus

Figure 5.3 shows a model of how the particles are arranged.

lithium
hydrogen helium ⫺

⫹ ⫹ ⫹⫹
⫹ ⫹
orbits
⫹ proton
neutron
electron

 Figure 5.3 Protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms

The number of protons in a nucleus is called the proton number (Z ) and is

the same as the number of electrons in orbit.
The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) is called the nucleon
number (A). The difference between the nucleon number A and the proton
number Z gives the number of neutrons in the nucleus (A – Z ).
The nuclide (type of nucleus) of an element can be written with the Skills
notation ZA X , where X is the chemical symbol for the element. Determining the number
of neutrons in a nucleus
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Isotopes and nuclides

Isotopes of the same element are different forms that have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus. An
element may have more than one naturally occurring isotope.
Some radioactive isotopes occur naturally, e.g. carbon-14 is produced in
the atmosphere by cosmic rays.
Many radioactive isotopes are produced artificially in nuclear reactors and
have a wide range of practical uses, e.g. as a source of radiation to kill
cancers (see p. 144) or as tracers in the human body or in a pipeline.

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 5 Nuclear physics

Energy from nuclear reactions

In fission, a heavy nucleus is split into smaller nuclei and some
neutrons. In fusion, smaller nuclei join together to make a larger
nucleus. In both processes, the mass of the starting atoms is greater
than the products. The missing mass or mass defect is converted into
energy.

Nuclear fission
In fission, a neutron strikes a large nucleus and it splits into two
smaller nuclei, approximately the same size, and two or three more
neutrons, for example,
235

92
U + 1

0
n 
→ 144

56
Ba + 90

36
Kr + 2
1

0
n

 Table 5.2 Nucleon and proton numbers of each nuclei in the fission reaction

A 235 1 = 236 144 90 2 = 236

Z 92 0 = 92 56 36 0 = 92

neutron
Notice that the total values of A and Z on both sides of the equation are
equal. As more neutrons are released in the reaction, these can go on to
fission other uranium nuclei and start a chain reaction (Figure 5.4). U-235
In an atomic bomb, the chain reaction is uncontrolled and leads to fission
fragment
an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, the number of neutrons is carefully fission
neutron
controlled. The lighter nuclei produced are themselves highly radioactive U-235 U-235
nuclear waste, which is difficult and expensive to dispose of.

Nuclear fusion
Fusion occurs under conditions of extremely high temperature and  Figure 5.4 Chain reaction
pressure when light nuclei can join together. The nuclei need enough
kinetic energy to overcome their electrostatic repulsion. Remember
nuclei are positively charged and so will repel strongly. Fusion releases a
large amount of energy.
The following reaction occurs in the Sun and other stars, as well as in
the hydrogen bomb:
H
1 + 2 → 3
1 1 H2 He
Research reactors are currently experimenting into ways of maintaining
controlled fusion reactions for possible power stations of the future

Sample question
1 The most common isotope of carbon is carbon-12, written 12 C in
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

6
nuclide notation.
a Write down the nucleon and proton numbers of carbon-12. [2]
b Write down the number of electrons in a neutral atom of
carbon-12. [1]
c Carbon-14 is a radioactive isotope that exists in small quantities
in the atmosphere. Write down the nucleon and proton numbers
of carbon-14. [1]
d Write down the nuclide notation for carbon-14. [2]
e Work out the number of neutrons in a nucleus of carbon-14 and
state the difference between the nuclei of carbon-12 and
carbon-14. [2]

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 135

 Sample question

Student’s answers Teacher’s comments

a a
b
b
c

d
e
c
d
Correct answers
a

b e
c

d
e

Exam-style questions
1

Isotope Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons

Revision activity

2
a
b

c
3 a
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

b
c
d
4

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 5 Nuclear physics

5.2 Radioactivity
5.2.1 Detection of radioactivity
Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l l
l

There is radiation all around you all of the time. This is called background
radiation. This is mainly due to natural sources such as radon gas in the
air, cosmic rays, rocks and buildings and from food and drink. The value
varies depending on where you live.
In collisions between radioactive particles and molecules in the air,
the radioactive particles knock electrons out of the atoms, leaving the
molecules positively charged. This is called ionisation. This ionising effect
is used to detect radiation.
In a Geiger–Müller tube, the ionising radiation causes a pulse of current
to flow between the electrodes. The tube is connected to a counter which
counts these pulses of current and gives the total in a set amount of time.
This is used to calculate the count rate which is measured in counts per
second or counts per minute.

5.2.2 The three types of nuclear emission

Key objectives
l l
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

l
l

Alpha, beta and gamma radiation

Radioactivity occurs when an unstable nucleus decays and emits one
or more of the three types of radiation: α (alpha)-particles, β (beta)-
particles or γ (gamma)-radiation. Radioactivity is a random process. It is
impossible to know when an individual radioactive nucleus will decay and
in what direction. It is also a spontaneous process. This means it happens
on its own and is not affected by factors such as temperature or pressure.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 137

 5.2 Radioactivity

Table 5.3 shows how you can identify the different types of radiation from
their properties
 Table 5.3 The properties of α , β and γ radiation

Emission Nature Charge Penetration Ionising

effect
α -par ticle Helium nucleus (two protons and

two neutrons)
+2
Stopped by thick paper or a few

centimetres of air
Ver y strong

β -par ticle High-speed electron –1 Stopped by a few millimetres of Weak

aluminium

γ -radiation Electromagnetic radiation None

Only stopped by many centimetres

of lead
Ver y weak
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 5 Nuclear physics

5.2.3 Radioactive decay

Key objectives
l l

l l

Radioactive decay is when an unstable nucleus emits radiation. When the

nuclei emit α-particles or β -particles, the nuclei change to a different
element. This element may also be unstable and emit radiation.

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 139

 5.2 Radioactivity

Skills
Writing a decay equation
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 5 Nuclear physics

Sample question
2

Student’s answer

Revision activity
Teacher’s comments
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Correct answer

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 141

 Sample question

5.2.4 Half-life

Key objectives
B he end of this section ou should be able to:

l l
l

Radioactive decay is a random process. It is impossible to predict when

an individual nucleus will decay. However, on average, there is a definite
decay rate for each isotope.
The decay rate is expressed as the half-life, which is the time for half the
nuclei in a sample to decay. As it is hard to count the number of nuclei,
you can determine the half-life by monitoring the disintegrations per
second (activity) from a radioactive source. In Figure 5.7 the half-life is
10 minutes. This is because the disintegrations per second halves every
10 minutes.

80
70
s / snoitargetnisid

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 time/mins

half-lives

 Figure 5.7 The half-life of a material can be found by using a graph (decay curve)
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

Skills
Plotting a decay curve

l
l
l
l

142 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 5 Nuclear physics

egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

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 Sample question

Sample question
3 A radioactive sample gives a detector reading of 700 counts per second.
The half-life of the sample is seven days.
a Work out the expected detector reading two weeks later. [2]

Student’s answer

Teacher’s comments
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144 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 5 Nuclear physics

Correct answers
a

Revision activity

5.2.5 Safety precautions

Key objectives
l l

Radioactive emissions are ionising radiation. Ionising radiation can be

very harmful to living things. It either kills cells outright or mutates
cells, which can lead to cancers. To reduce the risk of harm from ionising
radiation, a number of simple precautions can be taken.
The following safety precautions should therefore be taken:
l Whenever possible, radioactive samples are in sealed casings so that no
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radioactive material can escape.

l Samples are stored in lead-lined containers in locked storerooms.
l Samples are handled only by trained personnel and must always be
supervised when not in store.
l Radioactive samples are shielded and kept at as great a distance as
possible from people. In the laboratory, they are handled with long
tongs and students are kept at a distance. In industry, they are usually
handled by remote-controlled machines.
l Workers in industry are often protected by lead and concrete walls, and
wear film badges that record the amount of radiation received.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 145

 Sample question

l
l
l

Sample question
4 An extremely strong source of α-particles and γ -rays is used in an
experiment being demonstrated to a group of student observers. The
source is held and moved by a robot arm controlled by a technician who
is always at least 1 m away from the source. The observers are always at
least 3 m away from the source.
a These precautions are insufficient for the technician and for the
students. Explain this. [2]
b Suggest practicable improvements that would permit the
demonstration to continue and be observed in a safe way. [2]

Student’s answers
Teacher’s comments
a
a s no
en
b n.
f
pha-
Correct answers f air
a rom
e.
b
f the
b te
oes
sue of
ing.

Exam-style questions Revision activity

er

5 rs

nd

ove,
6
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ctive

y.

a
b

146 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 5 Nuclear physics

Copy the table and tick the appropriate boxes in the right-hand three

columns to show the type or types of emission from that sample. [3]

Sample CR (none) CR (card) CR (Al) CR (Pb) α β γ

1 6000 1000 1000 20

2 3000 3000 20 20

a
b
9

10
11

12

Time/min
Counts/s
a
b
13

Time/s
Count/s
a
b
14

Radioactive isotope Type of emission Half-life

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a
b

15

a
b

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 147

 6 Space physics
Key terms
Term Definition
Big Bang Theory Violent explosion of the Universe from a single point at the beginning of time
Comets Small objects that orbit the Sun in highly elliptical orbits
Dwarf planets Smaller objects and asteroids which orbit the Sun, e.g. Pluto
Earth Our planet, orbits round the Sun approximately every 365 days
Galaxy A group of billions of stars
Light-year Distance travelled in space by light in one year
Milky Way Our galaxy containing the Solar System
Moon Natural satellite orbiting the Earth in approximately 1 month
Natural satellites Moons which orbit planets
Orbital period Time for an object in space to complete one orbit
Phases of the Moon Changes in appearance of the Moon as it orbits the Earth
Planets Eight large objects, which orbit the Sun
Redshift Increase of wavelength of light from a receding star or galaxy
Solar System The Sun, the eight major planets, minor planets, asteroids and other bodies
Stars Consist mainly of hydrogen and helium, release energy from nuclear fusion reactions
Sun Our star at the centre of the Solar System
Universe Hundreds of billions of galaxies that make up all the matter that exists
CMBR Cosmic microwave background radiation
Hubble constant (H0) Symbol H0, ratio of the speed at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its
distance from the Earth
Red giant State of most stars near the end of their life
Red supergiant State of largest stars near the end of their life before they explode as supernovas

6.1 Earth and the Solar System

6.1.1 The Earth
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Key objectives
o:
l l know that the Moon orbits the Earth in about
l one month and use this to explain the Moon’s
phases.
l

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 6 Space physics

Motion of the Earth

The Earth is a planet which rotates on its axis once in approximately
24 hours. The Sun appears to move when observed from a point on the
Earth’s surface. Figure 6.1 is a simplified view, not to scale, from above
the North Pole of the Earth of how the Sun is seen at a point labelled
O at 6 am, noon, 6 pm and midnight.
Sun
Earth
6 am low Sun

12 noon full Sun

6 pm low Sun

midnight, darkness

 Figure 6.1 The Sun as seen from the Earth

When point O is on the side of the Earth facing the Sun, it is day. Then
point O moves to the side of the Earth away from the Sun and it is night.
The axis of the Earth’s rotation is not at right angles to the plane of its
rotation around the Sun but it is tilted at an angle of about 20°, as shown
by Figure 6.2.

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 Figure 6.2 The tilt of the Earth’s axis

It can be shown that because of this tilt, the lengths of day and night are
not equal and vary during the year.
The Earth orbits the Sun once in approximately 365 days. This together
with the tilt of the axis of rotation explains the seasons. Figure 6.3 shows
the seasons for the Southern hemisphere.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 149

 6.1 Earth and the Solar System

 Figure 6.3 Seasons for the Southern hemisphere

From autumn through winter to spring, the Southern hemisphere is tilted

away from the Sun so it receives daylight for a shorter time every day. It
receives less solar radiation so it is cooler.
Revision activity
Motion of the Moon
The Moon takes about one month to orbit the Earth. As the moon orbits
Draw the appearance of
the Earth, its appearance changes between full circle and thin crescent,
the Moon in two different
with other shapes in between. These are called the phases of the Moon.
phases.
full Moon
Moon’s motion

Moon as seen
from Earth
last first
quarter quarter
Earth

new Moon
Sun’s rays

 Figure 6.4 Phases of the moon

Figure 6.4 shows how parts of the Moon’s surface are illuminated by the
Sun to change the appearance of the Moon.
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orbital
period

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 6 Space physics

Revision activity
The phases of the Moon
You should prepare yourself to observe the Moon every day for a month.
Initially you will observe just after sunset and later it will have to be
shortly before dawn. It will not matter if you miss a few days. If you live
in a part of the Earth where the weather is cloudy, you will miss a few or
possibly several observations.
l Find out the date of the next new Moon from an app, the internet or
your teacher.
l One or two days after that, the Moon will be visible as a very thin
crescent shortly after sunset. Sketch the appearance of the Moon
and record the number of days after the new Moon you made the
observation.
l Continue to observe and record the appearance of the Moon every day
for a month if you can. You will have to be flexible with the time you
observe. When the Moon becomes fuller than a semicircle, it is often
possible to see it during daylight.
l By observing regularly, you will discover the pattern and timing of the
Moon’s phases. Maybe it will help to repeat for another month later
using your experience of the first attempt to time your observations
better.
l Compare your observations with Figure 6.4 and note any comments
you have about this comparison.

Skills
Rearranging the orbital speed equation
l
l

Sample questions
1 Draw a line from each description in the left column to one of the time
durations in the right column.
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Description Time duration

[4]

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 151

 Sample questions

Student’s answer
Description Time duration

Teacher’s comments

Correct answer
Description Time duration

Teacher’s comments
The student incorrectly
rearranged the equation
and substituted a time
in days not seconds.
The student should have
considered the answer
and realised that 13 m was
Correct answer quite impossible for the
radius of the Earth’s orbit.
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152 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

6.1.2 The Solar System

Key objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to:

l describe the Solar System as containing the l know how the strength of a gravitational field

Sun, the eight named planets including their of an object depends on the mass of the object

order from the Sun, minor planets and other and the distance from the object

bodies l calculate the time it takes for light to travel

l l

l
l
l

The Solar System

The Sun is a star at the centre of the Solar System.
The main objects of the Solar System orbiting the Sun are shown in
Figure 6.5.

 Figure 6.5 The Solar System (distances from the Sun not to scale)

The first four planets in order of distance from the Sun are rocky and
small: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The next four planets in order of distance from the Sun are gaseous and
large: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
There are also smaller Solar System bodies: asteroids, comets and dwarf
planets such as Pluto which may orbit in the asteroid belt or further from
the Sun than Neptune.
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Many of the planets have moons or natural satellites which orbit around
them.

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 153

 Sample questions

 Table 6.1 Data for the planets

Av Orbit
distance time
from around Gravitational
Sun/ Sun/ Surface field Number
million days or temperature/ Density/ Diameter/ strength/ of
Planet km years ºC kg/m3 103 km Mass/1024 kg N/kg moons
Mercury 57.9 88 d 350 5427 4.8 0.330 3.7 0
Venus 108.2 225 d 460 5243 12.1 4.87 8.9 0
Earth 149.6 365 d 20 5514 12.8 5.97 9.8 1
Mars 227.9 687 d –23 3933 6.8 0.642 3.7 2
Jupiter 778.6 11.9 y –120 1326 143 1898 23.1 79
Saturn 1433.5 29.5 y –180 687 120 568 9.0 82
Uranus 2872.5 84 y –210 1271 51 86.8 8.7 27
Neptune 4495.1 165 y –220 1638 50 102 11.0 14
The four planets closest to the Sun, Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Mars,
are rocky and smaller than the outer four planets. You can see in Table 6.1 Revision activity
their smaller diameter and higher density. The outer four planets are not Work in pairs. Choose a
only much larger but also have a lower density as they are gaseous. planet for your partner.
Your partner chooses a
The accretion model for the Solar System explains these differences. different planet for you.
l The Solar System was formed about 4.5 billion years ago from clouds Use Table 6.1 to look up
of hydrogen gas and dust and heavier elements produced from a the average distances
supernova which exploded. of your two planets
from the Sun. Each of
l Hydrogen and some helium were drawn together by gravitational you calculate the time it
attraction to form the Sun. would take for light from
l The remaining small particles joined together to form a disc in an the Sun to reach your
accretion process as the material rotated. planet. When you have
l All the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction and lie in roughly finished, compare your
answers and check for
the same plane, which is only likely if they were all in the accretion
disc.
consistency.
l As the Sun grew in size and temperature, light molecules such as
hydrogen could not exist in a solid state.
l Heavier elements gradually accreted by gravitational attraction to grow
into the inner planets.
l The lighter elements drifted further from the Sun and eventually grew
by gravitational attraction to be large enough to attract even the
lightest elements to form the gaseous outer planets.

Gravitational field strength of a planet

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Table 6.1 shows that the gravitational field strength at the surface of a
planet depends on the mass of the planet and its density.
The strength of the gravitational field of any object decreases as the
distance from the object increases. So the gravitational field around a
planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases. Most of the
mass of the Solar System is in the Sun, so planets orbit the Sun, kept in
orbit by gravitational attraction of the Sun.

154 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

orbit of
comet
The time it takes for light to travel between the objects can be Sun
calculated using the velocity equation from Topic 1 and the velocity of X Y
light 3.0 × 108 m/s from Topic 3.

 Figure 6.6 Elliptical orbit of a

comet

Revision activity

Sample questions
3 What are the main common characteristics of the composition and
size of the inner four planets? [2]
4 What are the main common characteristics of the composition and
size of the outer four planets? [2]
5 State two objects other than the eight main planets which orbit
the Sun. [2]
Teacher’s comments
Student’s answers 3
3
4
4
5

Correct answers 5
3
4
5

6 This question is about the accretion model for the formation of the
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Solar system.
a Which materials accreted to form the Solar System? [2] Teacher’s comments
b Which force caused this accretion? [1]
c Explain why it is likely that the material was in a rotating disc a
at one stage. [2]

Student’s answers b
c
a
b
c

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 155

 Sample questions

Correct answers
a
b
c

7 a State with a reason how the gravitational fields on the surface of

Mars and Neptune compare. [2]

c a

Student’s answers
a

b
c

Teacher’s comments
a

Correct answers
a
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156 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

8 a

c The average distance from the Earth to Neptune is 4500 million

km and the velocity of light is 3 × 108 m/s. Calculate the time in
hours light takes to travel from Neptune to the Earth. [2]

Student’s answers
a
b

Teacher’s comments
a

Correct answers
a
b

9
egap siht ypocotohp ot lagelli si tI

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 157

 Sample questions

Teacher’s comments

Correct answer

Revision activity

Revision activity
Observing planets in the night sky

l
l
l
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158 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

Exam-style questions
1 a
i
ii
b
2

Property of the Earth Property of Jupiter

4 a

i
ii
5
a

6 a

7
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8 a

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 159

 6.2 Stars and the Universe

6.2 Stars and the Universe

6.2.1 The Sun as a star
Key objectives
l
l
l

The Sun is a medium-sized star. It is made up almost entirely of hydrogen:

there is some helium and other elements. It radiates energy over the
whole electromagnetic spectrum but mostly in the infrared, visible and
ultraviolet regions.

Sample question
10 a What two elements are the main constituents of the Sun? [2]
b Name one of the main types of radiation from the Sun in addition
to visible light. [1]

Student’s answers
a
b

Teacher’s comments
a

b
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Correct answers
a
b

160 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

6.2.2 Stars

Key objectives
l
l l

Galaxies Skills
Galaxies are groups of hundreds of billions of stars. The Solar System is in
a galaxy called the Milky Way. The other stars of the Milky Way are much Calculating the value
further from the Solar System than the distances between the Sun and the
of the astronomical
distance 1 light-year in
planets of the Solar System.
metres
An astronomical unit of distance is the light-year, the distance travelled
in space by light in one year.

Revision activity

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
l

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 161

 Sample questions

l
l red giants
l

l red supergiants
l

Sample questions
11 Calculate the distance of a light-year in metres. The velocity of
electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s. [4]

Student’s answer
Teacher’s comments
The student used the
correct equation correctly,
but left out the factor 24
for the number of hours in
a day.

Correct answer

12
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13

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 6 Space physics

Teacher’s comments
12
12
13

Correct answers
12
13
13

6.2.3 The Universe

Key objectives
l
l
l

l l
l
l

The Universe
The Milky Way is one of hundreds of billions of galaxies in the Universe.
The Milky Way is one large disc with spiral arms of diameter about 100 000
light-years, containing hundreds of billions of stars. The Solar System is in
one of the minor spiral arms.

Figure 6.9 shows a simplified diagram of the Milky Way galaxy.

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 Figure 6.9 The Milky Way

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 163

 Sample questions

The expanding Universe and the Big Bang Theory

Nearly all the stars and galaxies of the Universe are moving away from
the Earth at high speed. This increases the wavelength of light and other
electromagnetic radiation observed on Earth emitted from receding stars
and galaxies, so the light appears redder than when emitted. This is called
redshift and is illustrated in Figure 6.10.
wavelength observer
source at rest
at rest

wavelength seems longer, so light appears redder

source
receding
frequency falls
 Figure 6.10 Redshift

Redshift of this light shows that the Universe is expanding. This is

consistent with the Big Bang Theory that the Universe was initially
packed in a single point, which exploded over 10 billion years ago.

CMBR

Hubble constant (H0)

Skills
Rearranging the equation with the Hubble constant

l l
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164 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 6 Space physics

Age of the Universe

Skills
Rearranging the equation for the age of the Universe
l

Teacher’s comments
Sample questions
14

Correct answer

15

Correct answer
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Teacher’s comments

Revision activity

© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 165

 Sample questions

Exam-style questions
9

Distance of other stars in the galaxy

Name of the Sun’s galaxy from the Sun

10 a

b
c
d
e
11

12 a
b

13

14 a
b

d
15 a

16 a
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17 a

b
c

166 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
Index
Note: page numbers in bold CMBR 148, 164 electrical safety 115–16
refer to the location where a key comets 148, 155 electrical working 106–08
definition is first defined.
compressions 56, 57, 88 electric bells 122–23
condensation 35, 48 electric charge 95–97
conduction (thermal) 35, 49–50, electric current 91, 99–101
A 52–53 electric fields 91, 97–98
absolute zero 35, 40 conductors, electrical 96, 97 electricity, dangers of 115
acceleration 1, 8, 9 conservation of energy, principle of electromagnetic induction 91,
and force 17 1, 26 117–18
acceleration of free fall (g) 1, 9 conservation of momentum, electromagnetic radiation / waves
accretion model 154, 155–56 principle of 1, 23 56, 57, 58
accuracy 1 convection 35, 50–51, 52 properties 83–84
a.c. generators 118–19 conventional current 91, 99 types of 84–85
air resistance 1 converging lenses 56, 76–77 electromagnetic spectrum 83–86
alpha-decay, nuclide notation 139 to correct long-sightedness 79 electromagnets 91, 94, 121
alpha-particles (α) 132 conversion of units electromotive force (e.m.f.) 91, 101
deflection in magnetic and density 14 induced 117–18
electric fields 138–39 volume 3 electrons 96, 132
properties 138 cosmic microwave background electroscopes 97
scattering by gold foil 133 radiation 148, 164 electrostatic energy 25
alternating current (a.c.) 91, 100 crests 56, 57, 58 energy 1, 24–27
ammeters 99 critical angle 72, 75 principle of conservation of 1, 26
amplitude 56, 58 current-carrying conductor in energy changes, in elliptical orbits
analogue signals 56, 85 magnetic field, force on 123, 155
angle of incidence 68, 71 125 energy resources 27–30
angle of reflection 68 current–voltage graphs 103 energy stores 24–25
angle of refraction 71, 74 current 91, 99–101 energy transfers 25–26
atoms 96, 132–33, 132 equilibrium 1, 20
audible range 87 errors
D systematic 1
d.c. motors 126–27 random 1
B decay curves, plotting 142–43 evaporation 35, 47–48
background radiation 132, 137 decay equations 140 and boiling 48
beta-decay, nuclide notation 140 deceleration 1, 8 expansion, thermal 43–45
beta-particles (β) 132 density 1, 13–15 extension 1
deflection in magnetic and conversion of units 14
electric fields 138–39 diffraction 61–62, 67 F
properties 138 digital signals 56, 85 filament lamps 103
Big Bang Theory 148, 164 diodes 103 fission 132, 135
biomass, as energy resource 29 see also light-emitting diodes
Fleming’s left-hand rule 124
black holes 161, 162 (LEDs) floating 14
boiling 35, 47 direct current (d.c.) 91, 100 flow diagrams, energy transfers
and evaporation 48 dispersion of light 81–82 25
Brownian motion 38 distance 9 focal length 56, 76, 78
distance–time graphs 7–8 focal point 56, 76, 78
C diverging lenses 56, 78 force(s)
cancer, treatment and diagnosis 144 to correct short-sightedness 78–80 and acceleration 17
Celsius degrees 35 double insulation 116 on beams of charged particles in
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to kelvin conversions 40 dwarf planets 148 magnetic field 124, 126

centre of gravity 1, 21–22 on current-carrying conductor in
chain reactions 135 E magnetic field 123, 125
charged particles in magnetic field, Earth 148–52, 148 effects of 15–19
force on 124, 126 motion of 149–50 and momentum 23
charge 95–97 seasons 149–50 resultant 2, 16–17, 23
chemical energy 24 earthing 116 turning effect of 19–20
circuit breakers 115 echoes 87 fossil fuels 28
circuit components, action and use efficiency 1, 29–30 freezing 35, 48
112–14 elastic (strain) energy 24 frequency 56, 58, 63–64
circuits, house and mains 115 electrical energy transfer 106 friction 1, 17
circuit symbols 109 electrical power 106 fuses 115
circular motion 17–18 transmission 128 fusion 132, 135
© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 167
 Index

G light-dependent resistor (LDRs) 91, nuclear model, of atom 132–36

galaxies 148, 161 112–13 nuclear reactions, energy from 135
gamma-radiation (γ ) 85, 132 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 91, 103, nuclear stability 140–41
deflection in magnetic and 114 nucleon number ( A) 132, 134,
electric fields 138–39 light-year 148 135–36
nuclide notation 140 conversion to metres 161, 162 nucleons 134
properties 138 limit of proportionality 1 nucleus 133–36
gases liquids relative charge 134
kinetic particle model of matter kinetic particle model of matter relative mass 134
37–38 37 nuclide notation 134, 135–36
pressure and volume at constant pressure in 33, 34 for alpha-decay 139
temperature 40 properties 35 for beta-decay 140
pressure 39–40 thermal expansion 43–44 for gamma-emission 140
properties 35 load–extension graphs 15–16
thermal expansion 44 longitudinal waves 56, 57–58 O
geothermal energy 28 long-sightedness 79 optical fibres 73, 84
gradient, of graph 8 loudness 87 orbital period 148, 150, 151
gravitational field strength 1, 12 loudspeakers 122 orbital speed 150, 151
planets 154–55, 156 orbits, Solar System 153
gravitational potential energy 24 M
magnetic fields 91, 93–94 P
H due to current in a solenoid parallel circuits 91, 110, 112
half-life 132, 142–45 120–21 particle diagrams 36, 37, 38
Hubble constant (H0) 148, 164 due to current in a straight wire particles 35
hydroelectric energy 28 120, 121 permanent magnets 91, 93, 94
hydroelectric power scheme, energy magnetic field strength 93, 94, 121 phases, of Moon 148, 150–51
transfers 25 magnetic materials 91, 92 pitch 87
magnetism 92–95 plane mirrors 69–70
magnets planetary nebulas 161, 162
I permanent 91, 93, 94 planets 148, 153, 155, 158
images properties 92 data for 154
characteristics / nature of 78 temporary 91, 93 gravitational field strength
real 56, 68 magnifying glasses 77 154–55, 156
virtual 56, 68–69 mass 1, 12 potential difference (p.d.) 91, 101
impulse 1, 23 measurement techniques 2–3 potential dividers 91, 113–14
induced e.m.f. 117–18 melting 35, 48 power 1, 31
induced magnetism 92–93 microwaves 84 electrical 106, 128
infrared radiation 84 Milky Way 148, 161, 163 power loss, in cables 128
insulators, electrical 96, 97 molecules 35 prefixes, and multipliers 100
internal energy see thermal energy moments 1, 19 pressure 1, 33–34
internal reflection 71, 73 principle of 1, 20 gases 39–40
ionisation 137 momentum 1, 22–24 liquids 33, 34
ions 132, 133 and force 23 principal focus 56, 76, 78
irradiation 143 principle of conservation of 1, 23 proton number (Z ) 132, 134, 135–36
isotopes 132, 134 monochromatic light 81 protons 96, 132, 134
Moon 148 protostars 161–62
K motion 150–51 P-waves 58
kelvin (K) 35 phases 148, 150–51
to degrees Celsius conversions motion R
40 from data 9 radiation, of thermal energy 35,
kilowatt-hour (kWh) 91, 106 from graphs 7–8, 9–11 51–52, 53
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kinetic energy 24 multipliers, and prefixes 100 radioactive decay 139–41

kinetic particle model of matter radioactive isotopes 134
35–43 N radioactivity 137–46
gases 37–38 neutrons 132, 134 detection 137
liquids 37 neutron stars 161, 162 process of 137
solids 36 non-magnetic materials 91, 92 safety precautions 145–46
non-renewable energy resources 1, uses 143–44
L 27–29 radio waves 84
length, measurement 2, 4–5 normal 70 rarefactions 56, 57, 88
lenses 76–80 north poles (N poles) 92 ray diagrams 76–77
light 68–83 nuclear energy 25, 28 real images 56, 68
reflection of 68–70, 71 nuclear fission 135 rearranging equations 40, 45
refraction of 70–72, 74 nuclear fusion 132, 135 red giants 148, 161, 162
168 Cambridge IGCSE Physics Study and Revision Guide Third Edition
 Index

redshift 148, 164 proper ties 35 trip switches 115

red supergiants 148, 162 thermal expansion 43, 44 troughs 56, 57, 58
reflection sonar 88

light 68–70, 71 sound waves 58, 87–90 U

water waves 59–60, 64–65 south poles (S poles) 92 ultrasound 87

refraction specific heat capacity 35, 45–47 ultraviolet radiation 84–85

of light 70–72, 74 spectrum 81, 82, 84 Universe 148, 163–66

water waves 60, 65–66 speed 1, 7–9 age estimate 165

refractive index 56, 71, 74 speed–time graphs 9

relays 91, 113, 121 spring constant 2, 16 V

renewable energy resources 1, stability 22
vaporisation 35
27–29 stars 148, 161–63 vectors 2, 3
resistance 91, 102–06 life cycles 161–63
resultant 2, 3–4, 5–6
parallel circuits 110 state, changes of 35
velocity 1, 7
series circuits 110 step-down transformer 128
vir tual images 56, 68–69
right-hand grip rule 120 step-up transformer 128
visible light / spectrum 81, 82, 84
right-hand screw rule 120 sterilisation 143
voltmeters 102
ripple tanks 59–62 Sun 148 volume
as energy resource 28–29
conversion of units 3

S gravitational field 155

as a star 160
measurement 2–3

W
Sankey diagrams 25
supernova 161, 162
satellite phones 84, 85

satellites, natural 148 S-waves 58

water, as energy resource 28

scalars 2, 3, 5–6 water waves 58–62, 64–65

seasons 149–50 T wave diagrams 59–62

seismic P-waves 58 temperature 35, 43 wave energy 28

seismic S-waves 58 temporar y magnets 91, 93 wavefronts 56, 59

series circuits 91, 109–10, 111 terminal velocity 2, 10 wavelength 56, 58
shor t-sightedness 78 thermal energy 25, 35, 43 waves

significant figures, use of 33 radiation of 35, 51–52, 53 proper ties 57–67

sinking 14 transfer 43, 49–54 speed 56, 58

smoke alarms 143 thermistors 91, 112–13 types of 58

solar furnaces 29 thickness monitoring 143 weight 1, 12

solar panels 29 tidal energy 28 white dwar f stars 161, 162

Solar System 148, 153–58, 163 time, measurement 3, 4–5 wind, as energy resource 29

solenoids 91 total internal reflection 72–73 work 1, 27

solidification 35, 48 transformer equation 128

solids transformers 91, 127–29 X

kinetic particle model of matter 36 transverse waves 56, 57, 63 X-rays 85

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© Mike Folland and Catherine Jones 2022 169

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