FINISHED VERSION

Таня The morphological systems of the English and Ukrainian languages are
characterised by a considerable number of isomorphic as well as of several
allomorphic features. The isomorphic features are due to the common Indo-European
origin of the two languages, while allomorphisms have been acquired by English and
Ukrainian in the course of their historical development and functioning as
independent national languages.
Isomorphic features are common features in languages under contrastive analysis.
Isomorphic in English and Ukrainian is assimilation, the categories of number,
person, tense, parts of speech (the exception of the article which is not found in
Ukrainian), the existence of sentences, etc.
Allomorphic features are observed in one language and missing in the other, for
example the gerund and analytical verb forms in English, which are missing in
Ukrainian.
Comparing of isomorphic features and phenomena can often be performed both with
the help of the deductive and the inductive methods. The deductive method is based
on logical calculation which suggests all admissive variants of realisation of a certain
feature in speech of one or of some contrasted languages.
And now we will discuss only the key points concerning the isomorphism and allomorphism in
English and Ukrainian parts of speech. And then we will focus more on the syntactic aspect of
the languages

Noun as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages

Both in Ukrainian and English the category of number is realized synthetically: the
use of zero and marked inflections. Singular in English is expressed only by the zero
inflection. E. g: child — children, book – books etc. Singular in Ukrainian is
expressed by the system of inflections characteristic of the nouns of different
declensions (four declensions in Ukrainian), which includes both zero inflection and
marked inflections. The major allomorphic feature in the system of noun categories is
the dual number in Ukrainian: дуб – дуби – два дуби. Completely allomorphic,
pertained only to the English language is the formation of plural number by way of
sound interchange (ablaut): foot — feet, tooth —teeth.
Typologically isomorphic is the existence in both languages of the classes of
singularia and pluralia tantum nouns. Singularia tantum: 1. Names of materials (iron,
milk, snow; срібло, пісок, сіль) 2. Collective nouns (brushwood, leafage; білизна,
листя) 3. Abstract notions (courage, knowledge; відвага, знання) Pluralia tantum: 1.
Summation plurals (scissors, tongs, trousers; терези, окуляри). 2. Nouns denoting
remnants after some processes (scraps, leavings, sweepings; висівки, помиї). 3.
Geographic names (the Netherlands, the Andes, Афіни, Лубни). 4. Nouns having the
meaning “finance and property” (savings, valuables; цінності, заощадження).
However, here are a lot of nouns not coinciding in the two languages. A number of
nouns may have plural meaning in English and singular meaning in Ukrainian
(goods, police, arms – товар, поліція, зброя and some Ukrainian plurals (меблі,
вершки, дрова, гроші) have singular equivalents in English (furniture, cream,
firewood money). Another important allomorphism is lexicalized plural forms, which
are more frequent in English and almost unknown in Ukrainian, Cf: custom – звичай,
customs –таможня, мито.
The category of case in English is represented by zero inflexion (common case):
positive inflexion ’s/’ (genitive case) which is added to a noun in singular (’s) or in
plural (’), cf. boy :: boy’s, boys :: boys’. In Ukrainian there are 7 cases, which have
different inflexions in singular and in plural depending on the gender, declension and
the consonant group of the noun. The cases are: nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative.
In terms of structure English has genitive forms unknown in Ukrainian: double
genitive, absolute genitive. The double genitive is sometimes called the
“postgenitive”. It’s extremely helpful, for instance, in distinguishing between “a
picture of my father” (in which we see the old man) and “a picture of my father’s”
(which he owns). Absolute genitive is used to avoid repetition of the noun (Tom’s is
a nice car.) or it can be used in the meanings of “dwelling place” (He spent the week-
end at his uncle’s.) and “establishment” (dentist’s).
Таня Adjective as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
According to their lexico-grammatical meaning, English and Ukrainian adjectives fall
into such isomorphic groups as qualitative which denote some quality of the object or
phenomenon, cf. cold/ холодний, small/ малий; relative which denote some relation
between the object, designated by the noun, and its characteristic expressed by the
modifying adjective, сf. wooden table/дерев’яний стіл, and possessive-relative
which denote some relation between the object, designated by the noun, and the
person or geographical name expressed by the modifying adjective with the suffixes -
ic, - іan та -івськ-/-овськ-, -зьк-, Shevchenkian/шевченківський. Allomorphic is the
group of possessive Ukrainian adjectives with the suffixes - ин/-ін-, -ів/-їв-, -ов/-ев-,
-ач-/-яч-, мамин/материн, журавлиний which are rendered in English by possessive
case or of-constructions.
Isomorphic in both languages is the formation of the degrees of comparison through
suppletivity, cf. good – better – best; добрий – кращий– найкращий. Some
qualitative adjectives in both languages do not form the degrees of comparison: (1)
those already expressing the highest degree of quality, cf. supreme, extreme;
супермодний, прегарний; (2) indicating some degree of quality, cf.
bluish/синюватий, reddish/червонуватий; (3) indicating qualities which are not
compatible with the idea of comparison, cf. blind/сліпий, deaf/глухий. The peculiar
form of Ukrainian adjectives is the strengthened superlative degree (підсилений
найвищий ступінь) formed by putting together of the superlative degree with the
strengthening particle якor що-: якнайкращий, якнайбільший, Allomorphism
between English and Ukrainian adjectives lies in the fact that Ukrainian adjectives,
unlike English, have gender, case and number inflexions. Most of the qualitative and
relative adjectives belong to the first declension and split into hard and soft consonant
groups. Possessive adjectives have their own inflections.
Verb as a part of speech in English and Ukrainian languages
Isomorphic general implicit meaning of the verb which serves to convey verbiality
(different kinds of activity) (go, read), various processes (boil, grow), the inner state
of a person (feel, bother), possession (have, possess), etc. The verb generally
functions in the sentence as predicate going into some combinations
a) with the nominal parts of speech performing the functions of the subject (or the
object) of the sentence
b) with verbs (to want to know, to want to read; хотіти вчитися/знати) and with
adverbs (to read well гарно читати)
с) with prepositions (to depend on smb/smth. залежати від когось) or with
conjunctions (neither read nor write, ні читали, ні писати).
Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (stand
up, read through).
Verbs in the contrasted languages may be a) of complete predication or b) of
incomplete predication. Verbs of complete predication on the basis of their implicit
dependent grammatical meanings, are: 1. Subjective verbs (always intransitive) like
to act, to sleep (діяти, спати). 2. Objective verbs (only transitive): to give, to take
(брати, давати). 3. Terminative verbs, expressing action having final aims (to close,
to come, зачиняти, приходити). 4. Durative verbs, expressing action with no final
aim: to like, to hope (подобатись, ненавидіти). 5. Mixed verbs, which can have both
terminative and durative meaning: to sit, to stand, (сидіти, знати).6. Reflexive verbs,
which are formed in English with the help of reflexive pronouns: oneself, myself, to
wash oneself. Regular equivalents to English verbs can be observed only in the group
of the so-called reflexive verbs proper (to wash oneself, to dress oneself), which have
also corresponding forms in Ukrainian (вмиватися, одягатися). Other groups of
Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English and form an allomorphic
feature in the contrasted languages. Verbs of incomplete predication are of
isomorphic nature. They are presented in English and Ukrainian in four common
groups:
1. Auxiliary verbs (to be, to do, to have)
2. Modal verbs: English: can, may, must, should. Ukrainian: могти, мусити,
слід/треба.
Linking verbs (дієслова-зв'язки) in both contrasted languages form a verbal, nominal
or mixed-type compound predicate. They fall into three main groups: 1. Linking
verbs of being 2. Linking verbs of becoming (not all of which have equivalents in
Ukrainian) 3. Linking verbs of remaining: He remained silent/satisfied. Він
залишився задоволений.
Absolute isomorphism is also observed in the means of realization of the following
morphological categories in the contrasted languages:
- The affirmative and some interrogative forms of the Indefinite group of tenses: I
work. I worked. Я працюю. Я працював.
- in the existence of tenses not correlating with the time of actions expressed in the
matrix/ main clause, eg: He will say that he knows/ knew, had known it. Він скаже,
що вона прийшла (приходила) приходила була
- in the existence of some identical forms expressing those same subjunctive mood
meanings referring to present or future or to some past action/event. (If I knew that
before, I would come. Якби я знав це раніше, я б прийшов.)
Таня The Sentence in English and Ukrainian
The character of formal means of rendering the syntactic relations is a determining
one for the language structure. That is why in this respect the Ukrainian language as a
flexional language differs strongly from the English language as an analytical one.
The structural types of sentences are common in the contrasted languages: Simple:
extended and unextended; one-member and two-member; complete and elliptical.
Composite: compound and complex.
The Simple sentence
English and Ukrainian structural types of sentences are two-member sentences and
one-member sentences. Binary sentence structures are more characteristic of English.
As a result, English two-member sentences are represented by a larger variety of
extended and expanded models, than Ukrainian two member sentences. The basic
kernel structure of two-member sentences constitutes the binary S - P (Subject -
Predicate) mode. The only two-member sentences, which are non-existent in
Ukrainian, are the following: 1. Impersonal sentences, which are introduced by the
impersonal pronoun/subject, it: It is thundering. 2. Indefinite personal sentences in
which the subject is expressed by the indefinite personal pronouns one, they, you,
e.g.: One says. They say. 3. Sentences with the above-mentioned introductory “it” or
“there” like: It is time to start. There is nothing to say. 4. Sentences with the implicit
agent and passive predicate verb followed by a preposition like: He was sent for. 5.
Sentences with the secondary predicative constructions: I thought him to be a teacher.
Such English two-member sentences have in Ukrainian either simple or complex
definite personal sentences for their semantic equivalents. Я думав, що він учитель.
One-member sentences
Unlike two-member sentences, which have a larger quantitative representation of
structural types in English, one-member sentences, on the contrary, have a larger
number of paradigmatic classes in Ukrainian. This is due to the morphological nature
of Ukrainian as a mainly synthetic structure language. Common in English and
Ukrainian are the following paradigmatic types of one-member sentences: 1. Nominal
sentences. Confidence for confidence. Довір'я за довір'я. 2. Imperative sentences:
Open the door! Відчиніть двері! 3. Exclamatory sentences: How funny! Як гарно!
4. Infinitival sentences: To be or not to be? Бути чи не бути? Thus, among these
Ukrainian types are the following not pertained to the English syntactic system: 1.
The definite personal sentences, which are widely used in literary and colloquial
Ukrainian speech. The finite verb and its personal ending correlating with the main
part of the sentence indicate the doer of the action: Люблю (я) пісні мойого краю.
Пам’ятаєш (ти) перший клас? 2.The indefinite personal sentences: Давніх друзів
не забувають. 3. Generalized personal sentence: Поживемо — побачимо! 4.
Impersonal sentences, e.g.: Світає. Не спалось.
The word order in the English sentence is fixed, for English as an analytic language
relies much on the order of sentence constituents to convey important grammatical
information. The meaning of a sentence in English often depends entirely on the
order in which the elements are placed (The man ate the fish and The fish ate the
man). Therefore, inversion in English is a powerful stylistic device. In Ukrainian,
with its non-fixed, flexible order of words, inversion is less conspicuous. Another
important difference between English and Ukrainian concerns ellipsis (omitting some
elements of the sentence to avoid repetition). Elliptical sentences are typical of both
English and Ukrainian, but Ukrainian as a synthetic language has far more
possibilities for missing out informatively redundant elements of the sentence.
English binary sentence structure and fixed word order makes it a problem to miss
out obligatory parts of the sentence. One cannot omit a word without supplying
another one instead. Therefore English makes extensive use of words called
substitutes (or pro-words). Here belong all the auxiliary and modal verbs, various
classes of pronouns, some adverbs (there, so), and particle to. The pro-words do not
have denotative meaning, they are absolutely contextual: She never gets confused
over her dates, and I always do. Вона при цьому не бентежиться так, як я. He
speaks French well, doesn’t he? Він добре говорить по-французьки, правда? Of
allomorphic nature are also English sentences containing the secondary predication
constructions (or complexes), e.g.: He felt fear mounting in him again. Sentences
containing secondary predication are treated as semicomplex sentences. Він відчув,
що ним опановує страх, the construction fear mounting in him becomes an object
clause. Absence of secondary predication constructions in Ukrainian makes it
impossible to obtain direct correlative transforms of some simple sentences. All parts
of the sentence in the contrasted languages have both isomorphic functional meaning
and lexical-grammatical nature. Common is also the traditional subdivision of them
into the main parts (the subject and predicate) and the secondary parts (the object,
attribute, adverbial modifier) of the sentence. Structurally, the parts of the sentence in
the contrasted languages are isomorphic. The common types of the parts of the
sentence are 1) simple, i.e. expressed by a single word-form (synthetic or analytical);
2) extended or expanded, expressed by a subordinate or co-ordinate word-group; 3)
clausal, expressed by a clause within a complex sentence. The English parts of the
sentence have two structural typed not found in Ukrainian, they are 1) complex parts
of the sentence, expressed by verbal and non-verbal predicative constructions; 2)
formal subject and object.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by
means of co-ordinate conjunctions, which provide parataxal relations between them.
Conjunctions joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are
practically of the same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal (in
English only). Equally common in the contrasted languages are various connectives
that join coordinate clauses. These are as follows: therefore, consequently,
accordingly, then, hence, so, while, as well as and some explanatory connective
words (that is to say, such as, like, let me say), which have corresponding functional
(and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (отже, та, а саме, тобто). As to their
structure, compound sentences in English and Ukrainian fall into two clearly
distinguishable groups: 1) compound sentences proper; 2) intermediaries between the
simple extended sentences and the compound sentences proper. They are
communicative units in which one (usually the first) clause is structurally complete
and the succeeding clause is incomplete: He couldn’t believe it and was a little scared
- Він не міг повірити цьому і був дещо наляканий.
Таня THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
There is mostly no structural identity between the English sentences containing some
secondary predication and passive voice constructions and their corresponding
Ukrainian syntactic units. This usually happens in the following cases: 1. When a
passive construction in the English simple sentence has no functional verb-form
equivalent in Ukrainian: It was a chance not to be missed – Це була нагода, яку я не
маю права упустити. 2. When in the English simple sentence there is an objective
with the infinitive construction: He had seen the world change. Він бачив, як на
його очах змінюється світ. 3. When in the English simple sentence there is an
objective with the participle or adjective construction/complex: I saw the bush
moving on. – Я побачив, як заворушився кущ. 4. When in the English simple
sentence there is a subjective with the infinitive/participle construction: Fleur is said
to resemble her mother. Кажуть, що Флер схожа на свою матір. 5. When there is a
gerund or a gerundial complex in some function in the simple English sentence: Do
you mind opening the window? Ви не будете заперечувати, якщо я відкрию
вікно? 6. When the English simple sentence contains a nominative absolute
participial construction in some adverbial function: The weather being fine, we went
for a walk. Оскільки погода була гарною, ми пішли на прогулянку.