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1300 Math Formulas

The document provides an extensive overview of mathematics topics including algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, and differential equations. It contains detailed explanations and examples across many areas of mathematics.

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)

170 views377 pages

1300 Math Formulas

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iv
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vii
Maths Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 6
Maths Formulas for Class 7
Maths Formulas for Class 8
Maths Formulas for Class 9
Maths Formulas for Class 10
Maths Formulas for Class 11
Maths Formulas for Class 12
3-Dimensional Coordinate Geometry Formulas
Addition of Vectors Formulas
Area Under The Curve Formulas
Binomial Theorem Formulas
Circle Formulas
Complex Number Formulas
Continuity Formulas
Correlation and Regression Formulas
Definite Integration Formulas
De-Moivre's Theorem and Euler Formulas
Determinants Formulas
Differential Equation Formulas
Differentiation Formulas
Ellipse Formulas
Exponential And Logarithmic Series Formulas
Function Formulas
Hyperbola Formulas
Hyperbolic Functions Formulas
Indefinite Integral Formulas
Limit Formulas
Linear Programming Problems Formulas
Logarithm and Modulus Function Formulas
Matrices Formulas
Maxima and Minima Formulas
Measure of Central Tendency and Dispersion
Formulas
Monotonicity Formulas
Numerical Methods Formulas
Parabola Formulas
Permutations and Combinations Formulas
Points Formulas
Probability Formulas
Product of Vectors Formulas
Progression and Series Formulas
Quadratic Equation and Expressions Formulas
Separation of Real and Imaginary Parts Formulas
Statics and dynamics Formulas
Straight Line Formulas
Tangent and Normal Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 6

Whole Numbers Class 6 Formulas
Symmetry Class 6 Formulas
Ratio and Proportion Class 6 Formulas
Mensuration Class 6 Formulas
Knowing Our Numbers Class 6 Formulas
Fractions Class 6 Formulas
Decimals Class 6 Formulas
Data Handling Class 6 Formulas
Basic Geometrical Ideas Class 6 Formulas
Algebra Class 6 Formulas
Understanding Elementary Shapes Class 6
Formulas
Practical Geometry Class 6 Formulas
Playing with Numbers Class 6 Formulas
Integers Class 6 Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 7

Maths Formulas for Class 8

Mensuration Class 8 Formulas
Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8
Formulas
Factorisation Class 8 Formulas
Exponents and Powers Class 8 Formulas
Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Formulas
Cubes and Cube Roots Class 8 Formulas
Comparing Quantities Class 8 Formulas
Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8
Formulas
Introduction To Graphs Class 8 Formulas
Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Formulas
Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Formulas
Data Handling Class 8 Formulas
Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Formulas
Rational Numbers Class 8 Formulas
Practical Geometry Class 8 Formulas
Playing with Numbers Class 8 Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 9

1
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

===== =
=
Figure 1.
=
6. `çããìí~íáîáíó=
^∪_ = _∪^=
=
7. ^ëëçÅá~íáîáíó=
^ ∪ (_ ∪ ` ) = (^ ∪ _ ) ∪ ` =
=
8. fåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=pÉíë=
` = ^ ∪ _ = {ñ ö ñ ∈ ^ ~åÇ ñ ∈ _} = =
=

===== =
=
Figure 2.
=
9. `çããìí~íáîáíó=
^∩_ = _∩^=
=
10. ^ëëçÅá~íáîáíó=
^ ∩ (_ ∩ ` ) = (^ ∩ _ ) ∩ ` =
=

2
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

11. aáëíêáÄìíáîáíó=
^ ∪ (_ ∩ ` ) = (^ ∪ _ ) ∩ (^ ∪ ` ) I=
^ ∩ (_ ∪ ` ) = (^ ∩ _ ) ∪ (^ ∩ ` ) K=
=
12. fÇÉãéçíÉåÅó=
^ ∩ ^ = ^ I==
^∪^ = ^=
=
13. açãáå~íáçå=
^ ∩ ∅ = ∅ I=
^∪f= f=
=
14. fÇÉåíáíó=
^ ∪ ∅ = ^ I==
^∩f= ^
=
15. `çãéäÉãÉåí=
^′ = {ñ ∈ f ö ñ ∉ ^}
=
16. `çãéäÉãÉåí=çÑ=fåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=~åÇ=råáçå
^ ∪ ^′ = f I==
^ ∩ ^′ = ∅ =
=
17. aÉ=jçêÖ~å∞ë=i~ïë
(^ ∪ _ )′ = ^′ ∩ _′ I==
(^ ∩ _ )′ = ^′ ∪ _′ =
=
18. aáÑÑÉêÉåÅÉ=çÑ=pÉíë
` = _ y ^ = {ñ ö ñ ∈ _ ~åÇ ñ ∉ ^} =
=

3
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

===== =
=
Figure 3.
=
19. _ y ^ = _ y (^ ∩ _ )
=
20. _ y ^ = _ ∩ ^′
=
21. ^y^=∅
=
22. ^ y _ = ^ =áÑ= ^ ∩ _ = ∅ .
=

===== =
=
Figure 4.
=
23. (^ y _) ∩ ` = (^ ∩ `) y (_ ∩ `)
24. ^′ = f y ^

25. `~êíÉëá~å=mêçÇìÅí
` = ^ × _ = {(ñ I ó ) ö ñ ∈ ^ ~åÇ ó ∈ _}
=
=

4
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

1.2 Sets of Numbers

=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=k=
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêëW= kM =
fåíÉÖÉêëW=w=
mçëáíáîÉ=áåíÉÖÉêëW= w + =
kÉÖ~íáîÉ=áåíÉÖÉêëW= w − =
o~íáçå~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=n=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=o==
`çãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêëW=`==
=
=
26. k~íìê~ä=kìãÄÉêë
`çìåíáåÖ=åìãÄÉêëW k = {NI OI PI K} K=

27. tÜçäÉ=kìãÄÉêë
`çìåíáåÖ=åìãÄÉêë=~åÇ=òÉêçW= k M = {MI NI OI PI K} K=
=
28. fåíÉÖÉêë
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêë=~åÇ=íÜÉáê=çééçëáíÉë=~åÇ=òÉêçW=
w + = k = {NI OI PI K}I=
w − = {KI − PI − OI − N} I=
w = w − ∪ {M} ∪ w + = {KI − PI − OI − NI MI NI OI PI K} K=
=
29. o~íáçå~ä=kìãÄÉêë
oÉéÉ~íáåÖ=çê=íÉêãáå~íáåÖ=ÇÉÅáã~äëW==
 ~ 
n = ñ ö ñ = ~åÇ ~ ∈ w ~åÇ Ä ∈ w ~åÇ Ä ≠ M K=
 Ä 
=
30. fêê~íáçå~ä=kìãÄÉêë
kçåêÉéÉ~íáåÖ=~åÇ=åçåíÉêãáå~íáåÖ=ÇÉÅáã~äëK
=

5
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

31. oÉ~ä=kìãÄÉêë==
råáçå=çÑ=ê~íáçå~ä=~åÇ=áêê~íáçå~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=oK=
=
32. `çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉêë
` = {ñ + áó ö ñ ∈ o ~åÇ ó ∈ o}I==
ïÜÉêÉ=á=áë=íÜÉ=áã~Öáå~êó=ìåáíK
=
33. k⊂ w⊂n⊂ o ⊂ `=
=

=== =
=
Figure 5.
=
=
=
=
=
=

6
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

1.3 Basic Identities

=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=Å=
=
=
34. ^ÇÇáíáîÉ=fÇÉåíáíó=
~+M=~ =
=
35. ^ÇÇáíáîÉ=fåîÉêëÉ=
~ + (− ~ ) = M =
=
36. `çããìí~íáîÉ=çÑ=^ÇÇáíáçå=
~ +Ä= Ä+~ =
=
37. ^ëëçÅá~íáîÉ=çÑ=^ÇÇáíáçå=
(~ + Ä) + Å = ~ + (Ä + Å ) =
=
38. aÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=pìÄíê~Åíáçå=
~ − Ä = ~ + (− Ä) =
=
39. jìäíáéäáÅ~íáîÉ=fÇÉåíáíó=
~ ⋅N = ~ =
=
40. jìäíáéäáÅ~íáîÉ=fåîÉêëÉ=
N
~ ⋅ = N I= ~ ≠ M
~
=
41. jìäíáéäáÅ~íáçå=qáãÉë=M
~ ⋅M = M
=
42. `çããìí~íáîÉ=çÑ=jìäíáéäáÅ~íáçå=
~ ⋅Ä = Ä⋅~
=
=

7
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

43. ^ëëçÅá~íáîÉ=çÑ=jìäíáéäáÅ~íáçå=
(~ ⋅ Ä)⋅ Å = ~ ⋅ (Ä ⋅ Å )
=
44. aáëíêáÄìíáîÉ=i~ï=
~ (Ä + Å ) = ~Ä + ~Å =
=
45. aÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=aáîáëáçå=
~ N
= ~⋅ =
Ä Ä
=
=
=
1.4 Complex Numbers
=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
fã~Öáå~êó=ìåáíW=á=
`çãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêW=ò=
oÉ~ä=é~êíW=~I=Å=
fã~Öáå~êó=é~êíW=ÄáI=Çá=
jçÇìäìë=çÑ=~=ÅçãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêW=êI= êN I= êO =
^êÖìãÉåí=çÑ=~=ÅçãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêW= ϕ I= ϕN I= ϕO =
=
=
46. áN = á = áR = á = á Q å +N = á =
á O = −N = á S = −N = á Q å+ O = −N =
á P = −á = á T = −á = á Q å + P = −á =
áQ = N= áU = N = á Qå = N =
=
47. ò = ~ + Äá =
=
48. `çãéäÉñ=mä~åÉ=
=

8
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

===== =
=
Figure 6.
=
49. (~ + Äá ) + (Å + Çá ) = (~ + Å ) + (Ä + Ç )á =
=
50. (~ + Äá ) − (Å + Çá ) = (~ − Å ) + (Ä − Ç)á =
=
51. (~ + Äá )(Å + Çá ) = (~Å − ÄÇ ) + (~Ç + ÄÅ )á =
=
~ + Äá ~Å + ÄÇ ÄÅ − ~Ç
52. = + ⋅á =
Å + Çá Å O + Ç O Å O + Ç O
=
53. `çåàìÖ~íÉ=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉêë=
|||||||
~ + Äá = ~ − Äá =
=
54. ~ = ê Åçë ϕ I= Ä = ê ëáå ϕ ==
=

9
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

=
=
Figure 7.
=
55. mçä~ê=mêÉëÉåí~íáçå=çÑ=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉêë=
~ + Äá = ê(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ) =
=
56. jçÇìäìë=~åÇ=^êÖìãÉåí=çÑ=~=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉê=
fÑ= ~ + Äá =áë=~=ÅçãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêI=íÜÉå=
ê = ~ O + ÄO =EãçÇìäìëFI==
Ä
ϕ = ~êÅí~å =E~êÖìãÉåíFK=
~
=
57. mêçÇìÅí=áå=mçä~ê=oÉéêÉëÉåí~íáçå=
ò N ⋅ ò O = êN (Åçë ϕN + á ëáå ϕN ) ⋅ êO (Åçë ϕO + á ëáå ϕO ) =
= êNêO [Åçë(ϕN + ϕO ) + á ëáå(ϕN + ϕO )] =
=
58. `çåàìÖ~íÉ=kìãÄÉêë=áå=mçä~ê=oÉéêÉëÉåí~íáçå=
|||||||||||||||||||||
ê(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ) = ê[Åçë(− ϕ) + á ëáå(− ϕ)] =
=
59. fåîÉêëÉ=çÑ=~=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉê=áå=mçä~ê=oÉéêÉëÉåí~íáçå=
N N
= [Åçë(− ϕ) + á ëáå(− ϕ)] =
ê(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ) ê

10
CHAPTER 1. NUMBER SETS

60. nìçíáÉåí=áå=mçä~ê=oÉéêÉëÉåí~íáçå=
ò N êN (Åçë ϕN + á ëáå ϕN ) êN
= = [Åçë(ϕN − ϕO ) + á ëáå(ϕN − ϕO )] =
ò O êO (Åçë ϕO + á ëáå ϕO ) êO
=
61. mçïÉê=çÑ=~=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉê=
ò å = [ê(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ)] = ê å [Åçë(åϕ) + á ëáå(åϕ)] =
å

=
62. cçêãìä~=±aÉ=jçáîêÉ≤=
(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ)å = Åçë(åϕ) + á ëáå(åϕ) =
=
63. kíÜ=oççí=çÑ=~=`çãéäÉñ=kìãÄÉê=
 ϕ + Oπâ ϕ + Oπâ 
å
ò = å ê(Åçë ϕ + á ëáå ϕ) = å ê  Åçë + á ëáå  I==
 å å 
ïÜÉêÉ==
â = MI NI OI KI å − N K==
=
64. bìäÉê∞ë=cçêãìä~=
É áñ = Åçë ñ + á ëáå ñ =
=
=

11
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Statistics and
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Chapter 2
Algebra
=
=
=
=
2.1 Factoring Formulas
=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=Å==
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
=
=
65. ~ O − ÄO = (~ + Ä)(~ − Ä) =
=
66. ~ P − ÄP = (~ − Ä)(~ O + ~Ä + ÄO ) =
=
67. ~ P + ÄP = (~ + Ä)(~ O − ~Ä + ÄO ) =
=
68. ~ Q − ÄQ = (~ O − ÄO )(~ O + ÄO ) = (~ − Ä)(~ + Ä)(~ O + ÄO ) =
=
69. ~ R − ÄR = (~ − Ä)(~ Q + ~ P Ä + ~ O ÄO + ~ÄP + ÄQ ) =
=
70. ~ R + ÄR = (~ + Ä)(~ Q − ~ P Ä + ~ O ÄO − ~ÄP + ÄQ ) =
=
71. fÑ=å=áë=çÇÇI=íÜÉå=
~ å + Äå = (~ + Ä)(~ å−N − ~ å −O Ä + ~ å −P ÄO − K − ~Äå −O + Äå −N ) K==
=
72. fÑ=å=áë=ÉîÉåI=íÜÉå==
~ å − Äå = (~ − Ä)(~ å −N + ~ å −O Ä + ~ å −P ÄO + K + ~Äå−O + Äå −N ) I==

12
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

~ å + Äå = (~ + Ä)(~ å−N − ~ å −O Ä + ~ å −P ÄO − K + ~Äå−O − Äå −N ) K=

=
=
=
2.2 Product Formulas
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=Å==
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêëW=åI=â=
=
=
73. (~ − Ä)O = ~ O − O~Ä + ÄO =
=
74. (~ + Ä)O = ~ O + O~Ä + ÄO =
=
75. (~ − Ä)P = ~ P − P~ O Ä + P~ÄO − ÄP =
=
76. (~ + Ä)P = ~ P + P~ OÄ + P~ÄO + ÄP =
=
77. (~ − Ä)Q = ~ Q − Q~ P Ä + S~ O ÄO − Q~ÄP + ÄQ =
=
78. (~ + Ä)Q = ~ Q + Q~ P Ä + S~ OÄO + Q~ÄP + ÄQ =
=
79. _áåçãá~ä=cçêãìä~=
(~ + Ä)å = å` M~ å + å`N~ å−NÄ + å` O~ å−OÄO + K + å` å−N~Äå−N + å` å Äå I
å>
ïÜÉêÉ= å ` â = =~êÉ=íÜÉ=Äáåçãá~ä=ÅçÉÑÑáÅáÉåíëK=
â> (å − â )>
=
80. (~ + Ä + Å )O = ~ O + ÄO + Å O + O~Ä + O~Å + OÄÅ =
=
81. (~ + Ä + Å + K + ì + î )O = ~ O + ÄO + Å O + K + ì O + î O + =
+ O(~Ä + ~Å + K + ~ì + ~î + ÄÅ + K + Äì + Äî + K + ìî ) =

13
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

2.3 Powers
=
_~ëÉë=EéçëáíáîÉ=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëFW=~I=Ä==
mçïÉêë=Eê~íáçå~ä=åìãÄÉêëFW=åI=ã=
=
=
82. ~ ã ~ å = ~ ã+å =
=
~ã
83. å
= ~ ã −å =
~
=
84. (~Ä)ã = ~ ã Äã =
=
ã
~ ~ã
85.   = ã =
 Ä Ä
=
86. (~ )
ã å
= ~ ãå =
=
87. ~ M = N I= ~ ≠ M =
=
88. ~N = N =
=
N
89. ~ −ã = =
~ã
=
ã
90. ~ = å ~ã =
å

=
=
=
=
=

14
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

2.4 Roots
=
_~ëÉëW=~I=Ä==
mçïÉêë=Eê~íáçå~ä=åìãÄÉêëFW=åI=ã=
~ I Ä ≥ M =Ñçê=ÉîÉå=êççíë=E å = Oâ I= â ∈ k F=
=
=
91. å
~Ä = å ~ å Ä =
=
92. å
~ ã Ä = åã ~ ã Äå =
=
~ å~
93. å = I= Ä ≠ M =
Ä åÄ
=
å
~ åã ~ ã åã ~ ã
94. = = I= Ä ≠ M K=
ã
Ä åã Äå Äå
=
95. (~ )
å ã
é
= å ~ ãé =
=
96. ( ~)
å
å
=~=
=
åé
97. å
~ã = ~ ãé =
=
ã
98. å
~ =~ =
ã å

=
99. ã å
~ = ãå ~ =
=
100. ( ~)
å
ã
= å ~ã =
=

15
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

N å ~ å −N
101. = I= ~ ≠ M K=
å
~ ~
=
~ + ~O − Ä ~ − ~O − Ä
102. ~± Ä = ± =
O O
=
N ~m Ä
103. = =
~± Ä ~−Ä
=
=
=
2.5 Logarithms
=
mçëáíáîÉ=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=ñI=óI=~I=ÅI=â=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å==
=
=
104. aÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=içÖ~êáíÜã=
ó = äçÖ ~ ñ =áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ= ñ = ~ ó I= ~ > M I= ~ ≠ N K=
=
105. äçÖ ~ N = M =
=
106. äçÖ ~ ~ = N =
=
− ∞ áÑ ~ > N
107. äçÖ ~ M =  =
+ ∞ áÑ ~ < N
=
108. äçÖ ~ (ñó ) = äçÖ ~ ñ + äçÖ ~ ó =
=
ñ
109. äçÖ ~ = äçÖ ~ ñ − äçÖ ~ ó =
ó

16
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

110. äçÖ ~ (ñ å ) = å äçÖ ~ ñ =

=
N
111. äçÖ ~ å ñ = äçÖ ~ ñ =
å
=
äçÖ Å ñ
112. äçÖ ~ ñ = = äçÖ Å ñ ⋅ äçÖ ~ Å I= Å > M I= Å ≠ N K=
äçÖ Å ~
=
N
113. äçÖ ~ Å = =
äçÖ Å ~
=
114. ñ = ~ äçÖ ~ ñ =
=
115. içÖ~êáíÜã=íç=_~ëÉ=NM=
äçÖ NM ñ = äçÖ ñ =
=
116. k~íìê~ä=içÖ~êáíÜã=
äçÖ É ñ = äå ñ I==
â
 N
ïÜÉêÉ= É = äáã N +  = OKTNUOUNUOUK =
â →∞
 â
=
N
117. äçÖ ñ = äå ñ = MKQPQOVQ äå ñ =
äå NM
=
N
118. äå ñ = äçÖ ñ = OKPMORUR äçÖ ñ =
äçÖ É
=
=
=
=
=

17
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

2.6 Equations
=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=éI=èI=ìI=î=
pçäìíáçåëW= ñ N I= ñ O I= ó N I= ó O I= ó P =
=
=
119. iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçå=áå=låÉ=s~êá~ÄäÉ=
Ä
~ñ + Ä = M I= ñ = − K==
~
=
120. nì~Çê~íáÅ=bèì~íáçå=
− Ä ± ÄO − Q~Å
~ñ + Äñ + Å = M I= ñ NI O =
O
K=
O~
=
121. aáëÅêáãáå~åí=
a = ÄO − Q~Å =
=
122. sáÉíÉ∞ë=cçêãìä~ë=
fÑ= ñ O + éñ + è = M I=íÜÉå==
ñ N + ñ O = −é
 K=
 ñ N ñ O = è
=
Ä
123. ~ñ O + Äñ = M I= ñ N = M I= ñ O = − K=
~
=
Å
124. ~ñ O + Å = M I= ñ NI O = ± − K=
~
=
125. `ìÄáÅ=bèì~íáçåK=`~êÇ~åç∞ë=cçêãìä~K==
ó P + éó + è = M I==

18
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

N
ó N = ì + î I= ó OI P = − (ì + î ) ± P (ì + î ) á I==
O O
ïÜÉêÉ==
O O O O
è è  é è  è  é
ì=P − +   +   I= î = P − −   +   K==
O  O P O  O P
=
=
2.7 Inequalities
s~êá~ÄäÉëW=ñI=óI=ò=
~ I ÄI ÅI Ç
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=  I=ãI=å=
~N I ~ O I ~ P I KI ~ å
aÉíÉêãáå~åíëW=aI= añ I= aó I= aò ==
=
=
126. fåÉèì~äáíáÉëI=fåíÉêî~ä=kçí~íáçåë=~åÇ=dê~éÜë==
=
fåÉèì~äáíó= fåíÉêî~ä=kçí~íáçå= dê~éÜ=
~ ≤ ñ ≤ Ä= [~I Ä]=
=
~ < ñ ≤ Ä= (~I Ä] =
=
~ ≤ ñ < Ä= [~I Ä) =
=
~ < ñ < Ä= (~I Ä) =
=
− ∞ < ñ ≤ Ä I= (− ∞I Ä] =
ñ≤Ä= =
− ∞ < ñ < Ä I= (− ∞I Ä) =
ñ<Ä= =
~ ≤ ñ < ∞ I= [~I ∞ ) =
ñ≥~= =
~ < ñ < ∞ I= (~I ∞ ) =
ñ >~= =

19
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

127. fÑ= ~ > Ä I=íÜÉå= Ä < ~ K=

=
128. fÑ= ~ > Ä I=íÜÉå= ~ − Ä > M =çê= Ä − ~ < M K=
=
129. fÑ= ~ > Ä I=íÜÉå= ~ + Å > Ä + Å K=
=
130. fÑ= ~ > Ä I=íÜÉå= ~ − Å > Ä − Å K=
=
131. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= Å > Ç I=íÜÉå= ~ + Å > Ä + Ç K=
=
132. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= Å > Ç I=íÜÉå= ~ − Ç > Ä − Å K=
=
133. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= ã > M I=íÜÉå= ã~ > ãÄ K=
=
~ Ä
134. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= ã > M I=íÜÉå= > K=
ã ã
=
135. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= ã < M I=íÜÉå= ã~ < ãÄ K=
=
~ Ä
136. fÑ= ~ > Ä =~åÇ= ã < M I=íÜÉå= < K=
ã ã
=
137. fÑ= M < ~ < Ä =~åÇ= å > M I=íÜÉå= ~ å < Äå K=
=
138. fÑ= M < ~ < Ä =~åÇ= å < M I=íÜÉå= ~ å > Äå K=
=
139. fÑ= M < ~ < Ä I=íÜÉå= å ~ < å Ä K=
=
~+Ä
140. ~Ä ≤ I==
O
ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M =I= Ä > M X=~å=Éèì~äáíó=áë=î~äáÇ=çåäó=áÑ= ~ = Ä K==
=
N
141. ~ + ≥ O I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M X=~å=Éèì~äáíó=í~âÉë=éä~ÅÉ=çåäó=~í= ~ = N K=
~

20
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

~N + ~ O + K + ~ å
142. å ~N~ O K~ å ≤ I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~N I ~ O I KI ~ å > M K=
å
=
Ä
143. fÑ= ~ñ + Ä > M =~åÇ= ~ > M I=íÜÉå= ñ > − K=
~
=
Ä
144. fÑ= ~ñ + Ä > M =~åÇ= ~ < M I=íÜÉå= ñ < − K==
~
=
145. ~ñ O + Äñ + Å > M =
=
= ~ > M= ~ <M=
= = =
=
=
a>M=
=
= =
ñ < ñ N I= ñ > ñ O = ñN < ñ < ñ O =
= =
=
=
a=M=
=
=
ñ N < ñ I= ñ > ñ N = ñ ∈∅ =
= =
=
=
a<M=
=
=
= =
−∞< ñ <∞= ñ ∈∅ =
=

21
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

146. ~+Ä ≤ ~ + Ä =
=
147. fÑ= ñ < ~ I=íÜÉå= − ~ < ñ < ~ I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M K=
=
148. fÑ= ñ > ~ I=íÜÉå= ñ < −~ =~åÇ= ñ > ~ I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M K=
=
149. fÑ= ñ O < ~ I=íÜÉå= ñ < ~ I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M K=
=
150. fÑ= ñ O > ~ I=íÜÉå= ñ > ~ I=ïÜÉêÉ= ~ > M K=
=
Ñ (ñ ) Ñ (ñ ) ⋅ Ö (ñ ) > M
151. fÑ= > M I=íÜÉå=  K=
Ö (ñ ) Ö (ñ ) ≠ M
=
Ñ (ñ ) Ñ (ñ ) ⋅ Ö (ñ ) < M
152. < M I=íÜÉå=  K=
Ö (ñ ) Ö (ñ ) ≠ M
=
=
=
2.8 Compound Interest Formulas
=
cìíìêÉ=î~äìÉW=^=
fåáíá~ä=ÇÉéçëáíW=`=
^ååì~ä=ê~íÉ=çÑ=áåíÉêÉëíW=ê=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=óÉ~êë=áåîÉëíÉÇW=í=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=íáãÉë=ÅçãéçìåÇÉÇ=éÉê=óÉ~êW=å=
=
=
153. dÉåÉê~ä=`çãéçìåÇ=fåíÉêÉëí=cçêãìä~=
åí
 ê
^ = ` N +  =
 å
=

22
CHAPTER 2. ALGEBRA

154. páãéäáÑáÉÇ=`çãéçìåÇ=fåíÉêÉëí=cçêãìä~=
fÑ=áåíÉêÉëí=áë=ÅçãéçìåÇÉÇ=çåÅÉ=éÉê=óÉ~êI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=éêÉîáçìë=
Ñçêãìä~=ëáãéäáÑáÉë=íçW=
^ = `(N + ê ) K=
í

=
155. `çåíáåìçìë=`çãéçìåÇ=fåíÉêÉëí=
fÑ=áåíÉêÉëí=áë=ÅçãéçìåÇÉÇ=Åçåíáåì~ääó=E å → ∞ FI=íÜÉå==
^ = `É êí K=
=
=

23
Class 9 Maths NCERT Solutions
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 1
 Number systems Class 9 Ex 1.1
 Number systems Class 9 Ex 1.2
 Number systems Class 9 Ch 1 Ex 1.3
 Number systems Class 9 Ch 1 Ex 1.4
 Number Systems Class 9 Chapter 1 Ex 1.5
 Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 1 Number Systems

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 2

 Polynomials Class 9 Ex 2.1
 Polynomials Class 9 Ex 2.2
 Polynomials Class 9 Ex 2.3
 Polynomials Class 9 Ch 2 Ex 2.4
 Polynomials Class 9 Ch 2 Ex 2.5
 Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Polynomials Chapter 2

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 3

 Coordinate Geometry Class 9 Ex 3.1
 Coordinate Geometry Class 9 Ch3 Ex 3.2
 Coordinate Geometry Class 9 Ch3 Ex 3.3
 Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 3 Coordinate Geometry

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 4

 Linear Equations in Two Variables Class 9 Ex 4.1
 Linear Equations in Two Variables Class 9 Ex 4.2
 Class 9 Linear Equations in Two Variables Ex 4.3
 Class 9 Linear Equations in Two Variables Ex 4.4
 Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 4 Linear Equations for Two Variables
 Linear Equations in Two Variables Class 9 Word Problems and Important Questions

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 5

 Introduction to Euclid Geometry Class 9 Ch 5 Ex 5.1
 Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 5 Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 6

 Lines and Angles Class 9 Ch 6 Ex 6.1
 Lines and Angles Class 9 Exercise 6.2
 Lines and Angles Class 9 Ch 6 Ex 6.3
 Lines and Angles for Class 9 Maths Extra Questions

CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 7
 Triangles Class 9 Ch 7 Exercise 7.1
 Triangles Class 9 Ch 7 Exercise 7.2
 Triangles Class 9 Chapter 7 Ex 7.3
 Triangles Class 9 Chapter 7 Ex 7.4
 Class 9 Maths Extra Questions Chapter 7 Triangles

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 8

 Quadrilaterals Class 9 Exercise 8.1
 Quadrilaterals Class 9 Ch 8 Ex 8.2
 Class 9 Maths Extra Questions Chapter 8 Quadrilaterals
 Quadrilaterals Class 9 Maths Important Questions

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 9

 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles Class 9 Ex 9.1
 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles Class 9 Ex 9.2
 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles Class 9 Ch 9 Ex 9.3
 Class 9 Maths Extra Questions Chapter 9 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 10

 Circles Class 9 Ex 10.1
 Circles Class 9 Ex 10.2
 Circles Class 9 Ch 10 Ex 10.3
 Circles Class 9 Ch 10 Ex 10.4
 Circles Class 9 Ch 10 Ex 10.5
 Extra Questions for CBSE Class 9 Maths Chapter 10 Circles
 Circles Class 9 Maths Important Questions with Answers

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 11

 Constructions Class 9 Ex 11.1
 Constructions Class 9 Ch 11 Ex 11.2
 Extra Questions for CBSE Class 9 Maths Chapter 11 Constructions
 Class 9 Maths Constructions Important Questions

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 12

 Heron’s Formula Class 9 Ex 12.1
 Heron’s Formula Class 9 Ch 12 Ex 12.2
 NCERT Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 12 Heron’s Formula
 Class 9 Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles Worksheets with Solutions

CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 13
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ex 13.1
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ex 13.2
 Class 9 Surface Areas and Volumes Exercise 13.3
 Class 9 Surface Areas and Volumes Exercise 13.4
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ch 13 Ex 13.5
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ch 13 Ex 13.6
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ch 13 Exercise 13.7
 Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Ch 13 Exercise 13.8
 NCERT Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 13 Surface Areas and Volumes
 Surface Areas and Volumes Word Problems and Important Questions

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 14

 Statistics Class 9 Ex 14.1
 Statistics Class 9 Ex 14.2
 Statistics Class 9 Exercise 14.3
 Statistics Class 9 Ch 14 Ex 14.4
 Maths Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 14 Statistics
 Maths Class 9 Statistics Important Questions with solutions

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 15

 Probability Class 9 Ch 15 Ex 15.1
 Maths Extra Questions for Class 9 Maths Chapter 15 Probability
 Class 9 Probability Important Questions

Important Questions for CBSE Class 9

Mathematics
1. Linear Equations in Two Variables
2. Quadrilaterals
3. Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles
4. Circles
5. Constructions
6. Surface Areas and Volumes
7. Statistics
8. Probability

RD Sharma Class 9 Solutions

Chapter 1 – Number Systems
Chapter 2 – Exponents of Real Numbers
Chapter 3 – Rationalisation
Chapter 4 – Algebraic Identities
Chapter 5 – Factorisation of Algebraic Expressions
Chapter 6 – Factorisation of Polynomials
Chapter 7 – Introduction to Euclid’s Geometry
Chapter 8 – Lines and Angles
CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in
Chapter 9 – Triangle and its Angles
Chapter 10 – Congruent Triangles
Chapter 11 – Co-ordinate Geometry
Chapter 12 – Heron’s Formula

Chapter 13 – Linear Equations in Two Variables

Chapter 14 – Quadrilaterals
Chapter 15 – Areas of Parallelograms and Triangles
Chapter 16 – Circles
Chapter 17 – Constructions
Chapter 18 – Surface Areas and Volume of a Cuboid and Cube
Chapter 19 – Surface Areas and Volume of a Circular Cylinder
Chapter 20 – Surface Areas and Volume of A Right Circular Cone
Chapter 21 – Surface Areas and Volume of a Sphere
Chapter 22 – Tabular Representation of Statistical Data
Chapter 23 – Graphical Representation of Statistical Data
Chapter 24 – Measures of Central Tendency
Chapter 25 – Probability

CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in

Chapter 3
Geometry
=
=
=
=
3.1 Right Triangle
=
iÉÖë=çÑ=~=êáÖÜí=íêá~åÖäÉW=~I=Ä=
eóéçíÉåìëÉW=Å=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
jÉÇá~åëW= ã ~ I= ã Ä I= ã Å =
^åÖäÉëW= α I β =
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 8.
=
156. α + β = VM° =
=

24
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

~
157. ëáå α = = Åçë β =
Å
=
Ä
158. Åçë α = = ëáå β =
Å
=
~
159. í~å α = = Åçí β =
Ä
=
Ä
160. Åçí α = = í~å β =
~
=
Å
161. ëÉÅ α = = Åçë ÉÅ β =
Ä
=
Å
162. Åçë ÉÅ α = = ëÉÅ β =
~
=
163. móíÜ~ÖçêÉ~å=qÜÉçêÉã=
~ O + ÄO = Å O =
=
164. ~ = ÑÅ I= Ä = ÖÅ I==
O O

ïÜÉêÉ= Ñ= ~åÇ= Å= ~êÉ= éêçàÉÅíáçåë= çÑ= íÜÉ= äÉÖë= ~= ~åÇ= ÄI= êÉëéÉÅ-
íáîÉäóI=çåíç=íÜÉ=ÜóéçíÉåìëÉ=ÅK=
=

===== =
=
Figure 9.
=

25
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

165. Ü O = ÑÖ I===
ïÜÉêÉ=Ü=áë=íÜÉ=~äíáíìÇÉ=Ñêçã=íÜÉ=êáÖÜí=~åÖäÉK==
=
O O
~ Ä
166. ã O~ = ÄO − I= ã OÄ = ~ O − I===
Q Q
ïÜÉêÉ= ã ~ =~åÇ= ã Ä =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ãÉÇá~åë=íç=íÜÉ=äÉÖë=~=~åÇ=ÄK==
=

=
=
Figure 10.
=
Å
167. ã Å = I==
O
ïÜÉêÉ= ã Å =áë=íÜÉ=ãÉÇá~å=íç=íÜÉ=ÜóéçíÉåìëÉ=ÅK=
=
Å
168. o = = ã Å =
O
=
~ +Ä−Å ~Ä
169. ê = = =
O ~ +Ä+Å
=
170. ~Ä = ÅÜ =
=
=

26
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

~Ä ÅÜ
171. p = = =
O O
=
=
=
3.2 Isosceles Triangle
=
_~ëÉW=~=
iÉÖëW=Ä=
_~ëÉ=~åÖäÉW= β =
sÉêíÉñ=~åÖäÉW= α =
^äíáíìÇÉ=íç=íÜÉ=Ä~ëÉW=Ü=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 11.
=
α
172. β = VM° − =
O
=
O
~
173. Ü O = ÄO − =
Q

27
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

174. i = ~ + OÄ =
=
O
~Ü Ä
175. p = = ëáå α =
O O
=
=
=
3.3 Equilateral Triangle
=
páÇÉ=çÑ=~=Éèìáä~íÉê~ä=íêá~åÖäÉW=~=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 12.
=
~ P
176. Ü = =
O
=

28
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

O ~ P
177. o = Ü = =
P P
=
N ~ P o
178. ê = Ü = = =
P S O
=
179. i = P~ =
=
O
~Ü ~ P
180. p = = =
O Q
=
=
=
3.4 Scalene Triangle
E^=íêá~åÖäÉ=ïáíÜ=åç=íïç=ëáÇÉë=Éèì~äF=
=
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=íêá~åÖäÉW=~I=ÄI=Å=
~ +Ä+Å
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉêW= é = ==
O
^åÖäÉë=çÑ=~=íêá~åÖäÉW= αI βI γ =
^äíáíìÇÉë=íç=íÜÉ=ëáÇÉë=~I=ÄI=ÅW= Ü ~ I Ü Ä I Ü Å =
jÉÇá~åë=íç=íÜÉ=ëáÇÉë=~I=ÄI=ÅW= ã ~ I ã Ä I ã Å =
_áëÉÅíçêë=çÑ=íÜÉ=~åÖäÉë= αI βI γ W= í ~ I í Ä I í Å =
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

29
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 13.
=
181. α + β + γ = NUM° =
=
182. ~ + Ä > Å I==
Ä + Å > ~ I==
~ + Å > Ä K=
=
183. ~ − Ä < Å I==
Ä − Å < ~ I==
~ − Å < Ä K=
=
184. jáÇäáåÉ=
~
è = I= è öö ~ K=
O
=

===== =
=
Figure 14.
=

30
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

185. i~ï=çÑ=`çëáåÉë=
~ O = ÄO + Å O − OÄÅ Åçë α I=
ÄO = ~ O + Å O − O~Å Åçë β I=
Å O = ~ O + ÄO − O~Ä Åçë γ K=
=
186. i~ï=çÑ=páåÉë=
~ Ä Å
= = = Oo I==
ëáå α ëáå β ëáå γ
ïÜÉêÉ=o=áë=íÜÉ=ê~Çáìë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉK==
=
~ Ä Å ÄÅ ~Å ~Ä ~ÄÅ
187. o = = = = = = = =
O ëáå α O ëáå β O ëáå γ OÜ ~ OÜ Ä OÜ Å Qp
=
188. ê O =
(é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å ) I==
é
N N N N
= + + K=
ê Ü~ ÜÄ ÜÅ
=

189. ëáå =
α (é − Ä)(é − Å ) I=
O ÄÅ
α é(é − ~ )
Åçë = I=
O ÄÅ

í~å
α
=
(é − Ä)(é − Å ) K=
O é(é − ~ )
=
O
190. Ü ~ = é(é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å ) I=
~
O
ÜÄ = é(é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å ) I=
Ä
O
ÜÅ = é(é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å ) K=
Å

31
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

191. Ü ~ = Ä ëáå γ = Å ëáå β I=

Ü Ä = ~ ëáå γ = Å ëáå α I=
Ü Å = ~ ëáå β = Ä ëáå α K=
=
Ä +Å ~
O O O
192. ã O~ = − I==
O Q
~ + Å ÄO
O O
ã OÄ = − I==
O Q
~ + Ä ÅO
O O
ãÅ =
O
− K=
O Q
=

===== =
=
Figure 15.
=
O O O
193. ^j = ã ~ I= _j = ã Ä I= `j = ã Å =EcáÖKNRFK=
P P P
=
QÄÅé(é − ~ )
194. í O~ = I==
(Ä + Å )O
Q~Åé(é − Ä)
í OÄ = I==
(~ + Å )O
Q~Äé(é − Å )
í OÅ = K=
(~ + Ä)O
=

32
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

~Ü ~ ÄÜ Ä ÅÜ Å
195. p = = = I==
O O O
~Ä ëáå γ ~Å ëáå β ÄÅ ëáå α
p= = = I==
O O O
p = é(é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å ) =EeÉêçå∞ë=cçêãìä~FI=
p = éê I==
~ÄÅ
p= I=
Qo
p = Oo O ëáå α ëáå β ëáå γ I=
α β γ
p = éO í~å í~å í~å K=
O O O
=
=
=
3.5 Square
páÇÉ=çÑ=~=ëèì~êÉW=~=
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=

=
=
Figure 16.

33
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

196. Ç = ~ O ==
=
Ç ~ O
197. o = = =
O O
=
~
198. ê = =
O
=
199. i = Q~ =
=
200. p = ~ =
O

=
=
=
3.6 Rectangle
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=êÉÅí~åÖäÉW=~I=Ä=
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 17.
=
201. Ç = ~ O + ÄO ==

34
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

Ç
202. o = =
O
=
203. i = O(~ + Ä) =
=
204. p = ~Ä =
=
=
=
3.7 Parallelogram
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=é~ê~ääÉäçÖê~ãW=~I=Ä=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
`çåëÉÅìíáîÉ=~åÖäÉëW= αI β =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=Çá~Öçå~äëW= ϕ =
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü==
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

===== =
=
Figure 18.
=
205. α + β = NUM° =
=
206. Ç + Ç = O(~ + Ä ) =
O
N
O
O
O O

35
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

207. Ü = Ä ëáå α = Ä ëáå β =

=
208. i = O(~ + Ä) =
=
209. p = ~Ü = ~Ä ëáå α I==
N
p = ÇNÇ O ëáå ϕ K=
O
=
=
=
3.8 Rhombus
=
páÇÉ=çÑ=~=êÜçãÄìëW=~=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
`çåëÉÅìíáîÉ=~åÖäÉëW= αI β =
^äíáíìÇÉW=e=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

===== =
=
Figure 19.
=

36
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

210. α + β = NUM° =
=
211. Ç + Ç = Q~ =
O
N
O
O
O

=
ÇNÇ O
212. Ü = ~ ëáå α = =
O~
=
Ü ÇÇ ~ ëáå α
213. ê = = N O = =
O Q~ O
=
214. i = Q~ =
=
215. p = ~Ü = ~ ëáå α I==
O

N
p = ÇNÇ O K=
O
=
=
=
3.9 Trapezoid
=
_~ëÉë=çÑ=~=íê~éÉòçáÇW=~I=Ä=
jáÇäáåÉW=è=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

37
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 20.
=
~+Ä
216. è = =
O
=
~+Ä
217. p = ⋅ Ü = èÜ =
O
=
=
=
3.10 Isosceles Trapezoid
=
_~ëÉë=çÑ=~=íê~éÉòçáÇW=~I=Ä=
iÉÖW=Å=
jáÇäáåÉW=è=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

38
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 21.
=
~+Ä
218. è = =
O
=
219. Ç = ~Ä + Å = O

=
N
220. Ü = Å O − (Ä − ~ ) =
O

Q
=
Å ~Ä + Å O
221. o = =
(OÅ − ~ + Ä)(OÅ + ~ − Ä)
=
~+Ä
222. p = ⋅ Ü = èÜ =
O
=
=
=
=
=
=

39
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.11 Isosceles Trapezoid with

Inscribed Circle
=
_~ëÉë=çÑ=~=íê~éÉòçáÇW=~I=Ä=
iÉÖW=Å=
jáÇäáåÉW=è=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 22.
=
223. ~ + Ä = OÅ =
=
~+Ä
224. è = =Å=
O
=
225. Ç = Ü + Å =
O O O

40
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

Ü ~Ä
226. ê = = =
O O
=
ÅÇ ÅÇ Å O
Å Å ~+Ä ~ Ä
227. o = = = N+ = ÜO + Å O = +S+ =
OÜ Qê O ~Ä OÜ U Ä ~
=
228. i = O(~ + Ä) = QÅ =
=

229. p =
~+Ä
⋅Ü =
(~ + Ä) ~Ä = èÜ = ÅÜ = iê ==
O O O
=
=
=
3.12 Trapezoid with Inscribed Circle
=
_~ëÉë=çÑ=~=íê~éÉòçáÇW=~I=Ä=
i~íÉê~ä=ëáÇÉëW=ÅI=Ç=
jáÇäáåÉW=è=
^äíáíìÇÉW=Ü=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=Çá~Öçå~äëW= ϕ =
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=

41
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 23.
=
230. ~ + Ä = Å + Ç =
=
~+Ä Å+Ç
231. è = = =
O O
=
232. i = O(~ + Ä) = O(Å + Ç ) =
=
~+Ä Å+Ç
233. p = ⋅Ü = ⋅ Ü = èÜ I==
O O
N
p = ÇNÇ O ëáå ϕ K=
O
=
=
=
3.13 Kite
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=âáíÉW=~I=Ä=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
^åÖäÉëW= αI βI γ =
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

42
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 24.
=
234. α + β + Oγ = PSM° =
=
235. i = O(~ + Ä) =
=
ÇNÇ O
236. p = =
O
=
=
=
3.14 Cyclic Quadrilateral
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=èì~Çêáä~íÉê~äW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=Ç=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=Çá~Öçå~äëW= ϕ =
fåíÉêå~ä=~åÖäÉëW= αI βI γ I δ =
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉêW=é==
^êÉ~W=p=

43
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 25.
=
237. α + γ = β + δ = NUM° =
=
238. míçäÉãó∞ë=qÜÉçêÉã=
~Å + ÄÇ = ÇNÇ O =
=
239. i = ~ + Ä + Å + Ç =
=
N (~Å + ÄÇ )(~Ç + ÄÅ )(~Ä + ÅÇ )
240. o = I==
Q (é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å )(é − Ç )
i
ïÜÉêÉ= é = K=
O
=
N
241. p = ÇNÇ O ëáå ϕ I==
O
p = (é − ~ )(é − Ä)(é − Å )(é − Ç ) I==
i
ïÜÉêÉ= é = K=
O
=
=
=

44
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.15 Tangential Quadrilateral

=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=èì~Çêáä~íÉê~äW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=Ç=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=Çá~Öçå~äëW= ϕ =
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉêW=é==
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 26.
=
242. ~ + Å = Ä + Ç =
=
243. i = ~ + Ä + Å + Ç = O(~ + Å ) = O(Ä + Ç ) =
=
ÇNOÇ OO − (~ − Ä) (~ + Ä − é )
O O

244. ê = I==
Oé
i
ïÜÉêÉ= é = K==
O
=

45
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

N
245. p = éê = ÇNÇ O ëáå ϕ =
O
=
=
=
3.16 General Quadrilateral
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=~=èì~Çêáä~íÉê~äW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=Ç=
aá~Öçå~äëW= ÇN I Ç O =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=Çá~Öçå~äëW= ϕ =
fåíÉêå~ä=~åÖäÉëW= αI βI γ I δ =
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

======= =
=
Figure 27.
=
246. α + β + γ + δ = PSM° =
=
247. i = ~ + Ä + Å + Ç =
=

46
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

N
248. p = ÇNÇ O ëáå ϕ =
O
=
=
=
3.17 Regular Hexagon
=
páÇÉW=~=
fåíÉêå~ä=~åÖäÉW= α =
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉêW=é==
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 28.
=
249. α = NOM° =
=
~ P
250. ê = ã = =
O

47
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

251. o = ~ =
=
252. i = S~ =
=
O
~ P P
253. p = éê = I==
O
i
ïÜÉêÉ= é = K=
O
=
=
=
3.18 Regular Polygon
=
páÇÉW=~=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=ëáÇÉëW=å=
fåíÉêå~ä=~åÖäÉW= α =
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉêW=é==
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

48
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 29.
=
å−O
254. α = ⋅ NUM° =
O
=
å−O
255. α = ⋅ NUM° =
O
=
~
256. o = =
π
O ëáå
å
=
~ ~O
257. ê = ã = = oO − =
π Q
O í~å
å
=
258. i = å~ =
=
åo O
Oπ
259. p = ëáå I==
O å
~O
p = éê = é o O − I==
Q

49
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

i
ïÜÉêÉ= é = K==
O
=
=
=
3.19 Circle
=
o~ÇáìëW=o=
aá~ãÉíÉêW=Ç=
`ÜçêÇW=~=
pÉÅ~åí=ëÉÖãÉåíëW=ÉI=Ñ=
q~åÖÉåí=ëÉÖãÉåíW=Ö=
`Éåíê~ä=~åÖäÉW= α =
fåëÅêáÄÉÇ=~åÖäÉW= β =
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=
α
260. ~ = Oo ëáå =
O
=

=
=
Figure 30.
=

50
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

261. ~N~ O = ÄNÄO =

=
=
Figure 31.
=
262. ÉÉN = ÑÑN =
=

===== =
=
Figure 32.
=
263. Ö O = ÑÑN =
=

51
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 33.
=
α
264. β = =
O
=

=
=
Figure 34.
=
265. i = Oπo = πÇ =
=
πÇO
io
266. p = πo O = = ==
Q O
=

52
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.20 Sector of a Circle

=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=~=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
^êÅ=äÉåÖíÜW=ë=
`Éåíê~ä=~åÖäÉ=Eáå=ê~Çá~åëFW=ñ=
`Éåíê~ä=~åÖäÉ=Eáå=ÇÉÖêÉÉëFW= α =
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 35.
=
267. ë = oñ =
=
πoα
268. ë = =
NUM°
=
269. i = ë + Oo =
=
oë o ñ πo α
O O
270. p = = = ==
O O PSM°
=
=

53
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.21 Segment of a Circle

=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=~=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
^êÅ=äÉåÖíÜW=ë=
`ÜçêÇW=~=
`Éåíê~ä=~åÖäÉ=Eáå=ê~Çá~åëFW=ñ=
`Éåíê~ä=~åÖäÉ=Eáå=ÇÉÖêÉÉëFW= α =
eÉáÖÜí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëÉÖãÉåíW=Ü=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=

=
=
Figure 36.
=
271. ~ = O OÜo − Ü O =
=
N
272. Ü = o − Qo O − ~ O I= Ü < o =
O
=
273. i = ë + ~ =
=

54
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

[ëo − ~(o − Ü )] = o  απ − ëáå α  = o (ñ − ëáå ñ ) I==

O O
N
274. p =
O O  NUM°  O
O
p ≈ Ü~ K=
P
=
=
=
3.22 Cube
=
bÇÖÉW=~==
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ëéÜÉêÉW=ê=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ëéÜÉêÉW=ê=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

=== =
=
Figure 37.
=
275. Ç = ~ P =
=
~
276. ê = =
O
=

55
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

~ P
277. o = =
O
=
278. p = S~ =O

=
279. s = ~ ==P

=
=
=
3.23 Rectangular Parallelepiped
=
bÇÖÉëW=~I=ÄI=Å==
aá~Öçå~äW=Ç=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

===== =
=
Figure 38.
=
280. Ç = ~ O + ÄO + Å O =
=
281. p = O(~Ä + ~Å + ÄÅ ) =
=
282. s = ~ÄÅ ==

56
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.24 Prism
=
i~íÉê~ä=ÉÇÖÉW=ä=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
i~íÉê~ä=~êÉ~W= p i =
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

===== =
=
Figure 39.
=
283. p = p i + Op_ K==
=
284. i~íÉê~ä=^êÉ~=çÑ=~=oáÖÜí=mêáëã=
p i = (~ N + ~ O + ~ P + K + ~ å )ä =
=
285. i~íÉê~ä=^êÉ~=çÑ=~å=lÄäáèìÉ=mêáëã=
p i = éä I==
ïÜÉêÉ=é=áë=íÜÉ=éÉêáãÉíÉê=çÑ=íÜÉ=Åêçëë=ëÉÅíáçåK=
=

57
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

286. s = p_ Ü =
=
287. `~î~äáÉêáDë=mêáåÅáéäÉ==
dáîÉå=íïç=ëçäáÇë=áåÅäìÇÉÇ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=é~ê~ääÉä=éä~åÉëK=fÑ=ÉîÉêó=
éä~åÉ=Åêçëë=ëÉÅíáçå=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ÖáîÉå=éä~åÉë=Ü~ë=íÜÉ=ë~ãÉ=
~êÉ~=áå=ÄçíÜ=ëçäáÇëI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=îçäìãÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëçäáÇë=~êÉ=Éèì~äK=
=
=
=
3.25 Regular Tetrahedron
=
qêá~åÖäÉ=ëáÇÉ=äÉåÖíÜW=~=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

=
=
Figure 40.
=
O
288. Ü = ~=
P
=

58
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

P~ O
289. p_ = =
Q
=
290. p = P~ =O

=
N ~P
291. s = p_ Ü = K==
P S O
=
=
=
3.26 Regular Pyramid
=
páÇÉ=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=~=
i~íÉê~ä=ÉÇÖÉW=Ä=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã==
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=ëáÇÉëW=å==
pÉãáéÉêáãÉíÉê=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=é=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ëéÜÉêÉ=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=ê=
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= pi =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

59
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 41.
=
~O
292. ã = ÄO − =
Q
=
π O
QÄO ëáå O −~
293. Ü = å =
π
O ëáå
å
=
N N
294. p i = å~ã = å~ QÄO − ~ O = éã =
O Q
=
295. p_ = éê =
=
296. p = p_ + p i =
=
N N
297. s = p_ Ü = éêÜ ==
P P
=
=
=

60
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.27 Frustum of a Regular Pyramid

=
~N I ~ O I ~ P IKI ~ å
_~ëÉ=~åÇ=íçé=ëáÇÉ=äÉåÖíÜëW=  =
ÄN I ÄO I ÄP IKI Äå
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã==
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉëW= pN I= pO =
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= p i =
mÉêáãÉíÉê=çÑ=Ä~ëÉëW= mN I= mO =
pÅ~äÉ=Ñ~ÅíçêW=â=
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

=
=
Figure 42.
=
ÄN ÄO ÄP Ä Ä
298. = = =K= å = = â =
~N ~ O ~ P ~å ~
=

61
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

pO
299. = âO =
pN
=
ã(mN + mO )
300. p i = =
O
=
301. p = p i + pN + pO =
=
Ü
(
302. s = pN + pNpO + pO =
P
)
=
Üp  Ä  Ä   Üp
O

303. s = N N + +    = N N + â + â O =
P  ~  ~   P
[ ]
=
=
=
3.28 Rectangular Right Wedge
=
páÇÉë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=~I=Ä=
qçé=ÉÇÖÉW=Å=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= p i =
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

62
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 43.
=
N
304. p i = (~ + Å ) QÜO + ÄO + Ä ÜO + (~ − Å )O =
O
=
305. p_ = ~Ä =
=
306. p = p_ + p i =
=
ÄÜ
307. s = (O~ + Å ) =
S
=
=
=
3.29 Platonic Solids
=
bÇÖÉW=~=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=áåëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=ê=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅáêÅìãëÅêáÄÉÇ=ÅáêÅäÉW=o=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

63
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

308. cáîÉ=mä~íçåáÅ=pçäáÇë=
qÜÉ= éä~íçåáÅ= ëçäáÇë= ~êÉ= ÅçåîÉñ= éçäóÜÉÇê~= ïáíÜ= Éèìáî~äÉåí=
Ñ~ÅÉë=ÅçãéçëÉÇ=çÑ=ÅçåÖêìÉåí=ÅçåîÉñ=êÉÖìä~ê=éçäóÖçåëK==
=
pçäáÇ= kìãÄÉê= kìãÄÉê= kìãÄÉê= pÉÅíáçå=
çÑ=sÉêíáÅÉë çÑ=bÇÖÉë= çÑ=c~ÅÉë=
qÉíê~ÜÉÇêçå== Q= S= Q= PKOR=
`ìÄÉ= U= NO= S= PKOO=
lÅí~ÜÉÇêçå= S= NO= U= PKOT=
fÅçë~ÜÉÇêçå= NO= PM= OM= PKOT=
açÇÉÅ~ÜÉÇêçå= OM= PM= NO= PKOT=
=
=
Octahedron
=

=
=
Figure 44.
=
~ S
309. ê = =
S
=
~ O
310. o = =
O
=

64
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

311. p = O~ O P =
=
~P O
312. s = =
P
=
=
Icosahedron
=

=
=
Figure 45.
=

313. ê =
(
~ P P+ R
=
)
NO
=
314. o =
~
Q
(
O R+ R = )
=
315. p = R~ O P =
=

316. s =
(
R~ P P + R
=
)
NO
=
=

65
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

Dodecahedron
=

=
=
Figure 46.
=

317. ê =
(
~ NM OR + NN R
=
)
O
=

318. o =
(
~ P N+ R
=
)
Q
=
(
319. p = P~ O R R + O R = )
=

320. s =
(
~ P NR + T R
=
)
Q
=
=
=
3.30 Right Circular Cylinder
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=o=
aá~ãÉíÉê=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=Ç=

66
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

eÉáÖÜíW=e=
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= p i =
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

===== =
=
Figure 47.
=
321. p i = Oπoe =
=
 Ç
322. p = p i + Op_ = Oπo(e + o ) = πÇ e +  =
 O
=
323. s = p_ e = πo O e =
=
=
=

67
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.31 Right Circular Cylinder with

an Oblique Plane Face
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=o=
qÜÉ=ÖêÉ~íÉëí=ÜÉáÖÜí=çÑ=~=ëáÇÉW= ÜN =
qÜÉ=ëÜçêíÉëí=ÜÉáÖÜí=çÑ=~=ëáÇÉW= Ü O =
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= p i =
^êÉ~=çÑ=éä~åÉ=ÉåÇ=Ñ~ÅÉëW= p_ =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

=
=
Figure 48.
=
324. p i = πo(ÜN + Ü O ) =
=
O
 Ü − ÜO 
325. p_ = πo + πo o +  N
O O
 =
 O 
=

68
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

  ÜN − Ü O  
O

326. p = p i + p_ = πo ÜN + Ü O + o + o + 
O
 =
  O  
=
πo O
327. s = (ÜN + ÜO ) =
O
=
=
=
3.32 Right Circular Cone
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=o=
aá~ãÉíÉê=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=Ç=
eÉáÖÜíW=e=
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã=
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= pi =
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW= p_ =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

=
=
Figure 49.

69
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

328. e = ã O − o O =
=
πãÇ
329. p i = πoã = =
O
=
330. p_ = πo O =
=
N  Ç
331. p = p i + p_ = πo (ã + o ) = πÇ ã +  =
O  O
=
N N
332. s = p_ e = πo O e =
P P
=
=
=
3.33 Frustum of a Right Circular Cone
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉëW=oI=ê=
eÉáÖÜíW=e=
pä~åí=ÜÉáÖÜíW=ã=
pÅ~äÉ=Ñ~ÅíçêW=â=
^êÉ~=çÑ=Ä~ëÉëW= pN I= pO =
i~íÉê~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W= p i =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

70
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 50.
=
333. e = ã O − (o − ê ) =
O

=
o
334. =â=
ê
=
p oO
335. O = O = â O =
pN ê
=
336. p i = πã(o + ê ) =
=
[ ]
337. p = pN + pO + p i = π o O + ê O + ã(o + ê ) =
=
Ü
(
338. s = pN + pNpO + pO =
P
)
=
ÜpN  o  o   ÜpN
O

339. s = N + +    =
P  ê  ê   P
[ ]
N+ â + âO =

=
=
=

71
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

3.34 Sphere
=
o~ÇáìëW=o=
aá~ãÉíÉêW=Ç=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=

=
=
Figure 51.
=
340. p = Qπo O =
=
Q N N
341. s = πo P e = πÇ P = po =
P S P
=
=
=
3.35 Spherical Cap
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ëéÜÉêÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉW=ê=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
^êÉ~=çÑ=éä~åÉ=Ñ~ÅÉW= p_ =
^êÉ~=çÑ=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=Å~éW= p` =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=

72
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 52.
=
ê O + ÜO
342. o = =
OÜ
=
343. p_ = πê O =
=
344. p` = π(Ü O + ê O )=
=
345. p = p_ + p` = π(Ü O + Oê O ) = π(OoÜ + ê O ) =
=
π π
346. s = Ü O (Po − Ü ) = Ü(Pê O + Ü O ) =
S S
=
=
=
3.36 Spherical Sector
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ëéÜÉêÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉ=çÑ=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=Å~éW=ê=
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=

73
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

====== === =
=
Figure 53.
=
347. p = πo(OÜ + ê ) =
=
O
348. s = πo O Ü =
P
=
kçíÉW= qÜÉ= ÖáîÉå= Ñçêãìä~ë= ~êÉ= ÅçêêÉÅí= ÄçíÜ= Ñçê= ±çéÉå≤= ~åÇ=
±ÅäçëÉÇ≤=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=ëÉÅíçêK=
=
=
=
3.37 Spherical Segment
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=ëéÜÉêÉW=o=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=Ä~ëÉëW= êN I= êO =
eÉáÖÜíW=Ü=
^êÉ~=çÑ=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉW= pp =
^êÉ~=çÑ=éä~åÉ=ÉåÇ=Ñ~ÅÉëW= pN I= pO =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=

74
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 54.
=
349. pp = OπoÜ =
=
350. p = pp + pN + pO = π(OoÜ + êNO + êOO ) =
=
351. s = πÜ(PêNO + PêOO + Ü O )=
N
S
=
=
=
3.38 Spherical Wedge
=
o~ÇáìëW=o=
aáÜÉÇê~ä=~åÖäÉ=áå=ÇÉÖêÉÉëW=ñ=
aáÜÉÇê~ä=~åÖäÉ=áå=ê~Çá~åëW= α =
^êÉ~=çÑ=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=äìåÉW= p i =
qçí~ä=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=

75
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 55.
=
πo O
352. p i = α = Oo O ñ =
VM
=
πo O
353. p = πo O + α = πo O + Oo O ñ =
VM
=
πoP O
354. s = α = oP ñ =
OTM P
=
=
=
3.39 Ellipsoid
=
pÉãá-~ñÉëW=~I=ÄI=Å=
sçäìãÉW=s=

76
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

======= =
=
Figure 56.
=
Q
355. s = π~ÄÅ =
P
=
=
=
Prolate Spheroid
=
pÉãá-~ñÉëW=~I=ÄI=Ä=E ~ > Ä F=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=
 ~ ~êÅëáå É 
356. p = OπÄ Ä +  I==
 É 
~ O − ÄO
ïÜÉêÉ= É = K=
~
=
Q
357. s = πÄO~ =
P
=

77
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

Oblate Spheroid
=
pÉãá-~ñÉëW=~I=ÄI=Ä=E ~ < Ä F=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=
=
  ÄÉ  
 ~ ~êÅëáåÜ   
358. p = OπÄ Ä +  ~   I==
 ÄÉ L ~ 
 
 
ÄO − ~ O
ïÜÉêÉ= É = K=
Ä
=
Q
359. s = πÄO~ =
P
=
=
=
3.40 Circular Torus
=
j~àçê=ê~ÇáìëW=o=
jáåçê=ê~ÇáìëW=ê=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=

78
CHAPTER 3. GEOMETRY

== =
Picture 57.
=
360. p = QπOoê =
=
361. s = OπOoê O =
=
=

79
NCERT Solutions For Class 7 Maths
Class 7 Maths Chapter 1 Integers
 Class 7 Integers Ex 1.1
 Class 7 Integers Ex 1.2
 Integers Class 7 Exercise 1.3
 Integers Class 7 Exercise 1.4

Class 7 Maths Chapter 2 Fractions and Decimals

 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Ex 2.1
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Ex 2.2
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Ex 2.3
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Ex 2.4
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Exercise 2.5
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Exercise 2.6
 Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Exercise 2.7

Class 7 Maths Chapter 3 Data Handling

 Data Handling Class 7 Ex 3.1
 Data Handling Class 7 Ex 3.2
 Data Handling Class 7 Exercise 3.3
 Data Handling Class 7 Exercise 3.4

Class 7 Maths Chapter 4 Simple Equations

 Simple Equations Class 7 Ex 4.1
 Simple Equations Class 7 Ex 4.2
 Simple Equations Class 7 Exercise 4.3
 Simple Equations Class 7 Exercise 4.4

Class 7 Maths Chapter 5 Lines and Angles

 Lines and Angles Class 7 Ex 5.1
 Lines and Angles Class 7 Exercise 5.2

Class 7 Maths Chapter 6 The Triangle and Its Properties

 The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Ex 6.1
 The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Ex 6.2
 The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Exercise 6.3
 The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Exercise 6.4
 The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Exercise 6.5

Class 7 Maths Chapter 7 Congruence of Triangles

 Congruence of Triangles Class 7 Ex 7.1
CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in
 Congruence of Triangles Class 7 Ex 7.2

Class 7 Maths Chapter 8 Comparing Quantities

 Comparing Quantities Class 7 Ex 8.1
 Comparing Quantities Class 7 Ex 8.2
 Comparing Quantities Class 7 Exercise 8.3

Class 7 Maths Chapter 9 Rational Numbers

 Rational Numbers Class 7 Ex 9.1
 Rational Numbers Class 7 Ex 9.2

Class 7 Maths Chapter 10 Practical Geometry

 Practical Geometry Class 7 Ex 10.1
 Practical Geometry Class 7 Ex 10.2
 Practical Geometry Class 7 Ex 10.3
 Practical Geometry Class 7 Exercise 10.4
 Practical Geometry Class 7 Exercise 10.5

Class 7 Maths Chapter 11 Perimeter and Area

 Perimeter and Area Class 7 Ex 11.1
 Perimeter and Area Class 7 Ex 11.2
 Perimeter and Area Class 7 Exercise 11.3
 Perimeter and Area Class 7 Exercise 11.4

Class 7 Maths Chapter 12 Algebraic Expressions

 Algebraic Expressions Class 7 Ex 12.1
 Algebraic Expressions Class 7 Ex 12.2
 Algebraic Expressions Class 7 Exercise 12.3
 Algebraic Expressions Class 7 Exercise 12.4

Class 7 Maths Chapter 13 Exponents and Powers

 Exponents and Powers Class 7 Ex 13.1
 Exponents and Powers Class 7 Ex 13.2
 Exponents and Powers Class 7 Exercise 13.3

Class 7 Maths Chapter 14 Symmetry

 Symmetry Class 7 Ex 14.1
 Symmetry Class 7 Ex 14.2
 Class 7 Symmetry Exercise 14.3

Class 7 Maths Chapter 15 Visualising Solid Shapes

CBSE Sample Papers NCERT Solutions LearnCBSE.in

 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 7 Ex 15.1
 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 7 Ex 15.2
 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 7 Exercise 15.3
 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 7 Exercise 15.4

RD Sharma Class 7 Solutions

Chapter 1: Integers
Chapter 2: Fractions
Chapter 3: Decimals
Chapter 4: Rational Numbers
Chapter 5: Operations on Rational Numbers
Chapter 6: Exponents
Chapter 7: Algebraic Expressions
Chapter 8: Linear Equations in One Variable
Chapter 9: Ration And Proportion
Chapter 10: Unitary Method
Chapter 11: Percentage
Chapter 12: Profit and Loss
Chapter 13: Simple Interest
Chapter 14: Lines and Angles
Chapter 15: Properties of Triangles
Chapter 16: Congruence
Chapter 17: Constructions
Chapter 18: Symmetry
Chapter 19: Visualising Solid Shapes
Chapter 20: Mensuration I
Chapter 21: Mensuration II
Chapter 22: Data Handling I (Collection and organisation of Data)
Chapter 23: Data Handling II (Central Values)
Chapter 24: Data Handling III (Construction of Bar Graphs)
Chapter 25: Data Handling IV (Probability)

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Class 8 Maths NCERT Solutions
NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 1
 Rational Numbers Class 8 Ex 1.1
 Rational Numbers Class 8 Exercise 1.2
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Rational Numbers

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 2

 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Ex 2.1
 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Ex 2.2
 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Ex 2.3
 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Exercise 2.4
 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Exercise 2.5
 Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8 Exercise 2.6
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Linear Equations in One Variable

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 3

 Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Ex 3.1
 Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Ex 3.2
 Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Ch 3 Exercise 3.3
 Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Chapter 3 Exercise 3.4
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Understanding Quadrilaterals

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 4

 Practical Geometry Class 8 Ex 4.1
 Practical Geometry Class 8 Ex 4.2
 Practical Geometry Class 8 Exercise 4.3
 Practical Geometry Class 8 Exercise 4.4
 Practical Geometry Class 8 Ch 4 Exercise 4.5
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Practical Geometry

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 5

 Data Handling Class 8 Ex 5.1
 Data Handling Class 8 Ex 5.2
 Data Handling Class 8 Ch 5 Ex 5.3
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Data Handling

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 6

 Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Ex 6.1
 Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Ex 6.2
 Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Exercise 6.3
 Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Ch 6 Ex 6.4
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Squares and Square Roots

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NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 7
 Cubes and Cube Roots Class 8 Ex 7.1
 Cubes and Cube Roots Class 8 Ex 7.2
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Cubes and Cube Roots

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 8

 Comparing Quantities Class 8 Ex 8.1
 Comparing Quantities Class 8 Ex 8.2
 Comparing Quantities Class 8 Ch 8 Ex 8.3
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Comparing Quantities

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 9

 Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Ex 9.1
 Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Ex 9.2
 Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Ex 9.3
 Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Exercise 9.4
 Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8 Exercise 9.5
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Chapter 10 Algebraic Expressions and Identities

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 10

 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Ex 10.1
 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Ex 10.2
 Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Exercise 10.3
 Extra Practice Questions Class 8 Maths Chapter 10 Visualising Solid Shapes

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 11

 Mensuration Class 8 Ex 11.1
 Mensuration Class 8 Ex 11.2
 Mensuration Class 8 Exercise 11.3
 Mensuration Class 8 Exercise 11.4
 Practice Questions Mensuration Class 8 Maths With solutions

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 12

 Exponents and Powers Class 8 Maths Ex 12.1
 Exponents and Powers Class 8 Maths Exercise 12.2
 Extra Practice Questions Exponents and Powers Class 8 Maths

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 13

 Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Ex 13.1
 Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Exercise 13.2
 Practice Questions Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Maths

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NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 14
 Factorisation Class 8 Exercise 14.1
 Factorisation Class 8 Exercise 14.2
 Factorisation Class 8 Chapter 14 Exercise 14.3

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 15

 Introduction to Graphs Ex 15.1
 Introduction to Graphs Ex 15.2
 Introduction to Graphs Exercise 15.3
 Extra Questions for Class 8 Maths Introduction to Graphs

NCERT Solutions for Class 8 Maths Chapter 16

 Playing with Numbers Class 8 Ex 16.1
 Playing with Numbers Class 8 Exercise 16.2
 Extra Questions for Class 8 Maths Playing with Numbers

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Chapter 4
Trigonometry
=
=
=
=
^åÖäÉëW= α I= β =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêë=EÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=~=éçáåíFW=ñI=ó==
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=â=
=
=
4.1 Radian and Degree Measures of Angles
=
NUM°
362. N ê~Ç = ≈ RT°NT DQR? =
π
=
π
363. N° = ê~Ç ≈ MKMNTQRP ê~Ç =
NUM
=
π
364. N D = ê~Ç ≈ MKMMMOVN ê~Ç =
NUM ⋅ SM
=
π
365. N ? = ê~Ç ≈ MKMMMMMR ê~Ç =
NUM ⋅ PSMM
=
366. = ^åÖäÉ=
M= PM= QR= SM= VM= NUM= OTM= PSM=
= EÇÉÖêÉÉëF=
^åÖäÉ= π π π π Pπ
Eê~Çá~åëF= M= = = = = π= = Oπ =
= S Q P O O
=
=

80
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.2 Definitions and Graphs of Trigonometric

Functions
=

= =
=
Figure 58.
=
ó
367. ëáå α = =
ê
=
ñ
368. Åçë α = =
ê
=
ó
369. í~å α = =
ñ
=
ñ
370. Åçí α = =
ó
=

81
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

ê
371. ëÉÅ α = =
ñ
=
ê
372. ÅçëÉÅ α = =
ó
=
373. páåÉ=cìåÅíáçå=
ó = ëáå ñ I= − N ≤ ëáå ñ ≤ N K=
=

=
Figure 59.
=
374. `çëáåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = Åçë ñ I= − N ≤ Åçë ñ ≤ N K=

82
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

=
=
Figure 60.
=
375. q~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå=
π
ó = í~å ñ I= ñ ≠ (Oâ + N) I= − ∞ ≤ í~å ñ ≤ ∞K =
O
=

=
=
Figure 61.
=

83
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

376. `çí~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = Åçí ñ I= ñ ≠ âπ I== − ∞ ≤ Åçí ñ ≤ ∞ K=
=

=
=
Figure 62.
=
377. pÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå=
π
ó = ëÉÅ ñ I= ñ ≠ (Oâ + N) K=
O
==

84
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

=
=
Figure 63.
=
378. `çëÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = Åçë ÉÅ ñ I= ñ ≠ âπ K=

=
Figure 64.

85
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.3. Signs of Trigonometric Functions

379. = páå `çë q~å `çí pÉÅ `çëÉÅ=

nì~Çê~åí=
= α= α= α= α= α= α=
f= H= H= H= H= H= H=
ff= H= = = = = H=
fff= = = H= H= = =
= fs= = H= = = H= =
=
=
380. =
=

Figure 65.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

86
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.4 Trigonometric Functions of Common

Angles
381. =
α° = α ê~Ç = ëáå α = Åçë α = í~å α = Åçí α ëÉÅ α = ÅçëÉÅ α =
M= M= M= N= M= ∞= N= ∞=
π N P N O
PM= = = = = P= = O=
S O O P P
π O O
QR= = = = N= N= O= O=
Q O O
π P N N O
SM= = = = P= = O= =
P O O P P
π
VM= = N= M= ∞= M= ∞= N=
O
Oπ P N N O
NOM= = = − = − P= − −O= =
P O O P P
NUM= π= M= − N= M= ∞= − N= ∞=
Pπ
OTM= = − N= M= ∞= M= ∞= − N=
O
PSM= Oπ = M= N= M= ∞= N= ∞=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

87
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

382. =
α° = α ê~Ç = ëáå α = Åçë α = í~å α = Åçí α =
π S− O S+ O
NR= = = = O− P = O+ P =
NO Q Q
π R −N NM + O R R−O R
NU= = = = R+O R =
NM Q Q R
R +N
π NM − O R R +N NM − O R
PS= = = NM − O R
R Q Q R +N
=

R +N NM − O R
Pπ R +N NM − O R
RQ= = = R +N
NM Q Q NM − O R
=
R−O R
Oπ NM + O R R −N
TO= = = R+O R = R
R Q Q
=
Rπ S+ O S− O
TR= = = = O+ P = O− P =
NO Q Q
=
=
=
4.5 Most Important Formulas
=
383. ëáå O α + Åçë O α = N =
=
384. ëÉÅ O α − í~å O α = N =
=
385. ÅëÅ O α − Åçí O α = N =
=
ëáå α
386. í~å α = =
Åçë α

88
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

Åçë α
387. Åçí α = =
ëáå α
=
388. í~å α ⋅ Åçí α = N =
=
N
389. ëÉÅ α = =
Åçë α
=
N
390. ÅçëÉÅ α = =
ëáå α
=
=
=
4.6 Reduction Formulas
=
391. = β= ëáå β = Åçë β = í~å β = Åçí β =
= −α= − ëáå α = + Åçë α = − í~å α = − Åçí α =
VM° − α = + Åçë α = + ëáå α = + Åçí α = + í~å α =
VM° + α = + Åçë α = − ëáå α = − Åçí α = − í~å α =
NUM° − α + ëáå α = − Åçë α = − í~å α = − Åçí α =
NUM° + α − ëáå α = − Åçë α = + í~å α = + Åçí α =
OTM° − α − Åçë α = − ëáå α = + Åçí α = + í~å α =
OTM° + α − Åçë α = + ëáå α = − Åçí α = − í~å α =
PSM° − α − ëáå α = + Åçë α = − í~å α = − Åçí α =
+ ëáå α = + Åçë α = + í~å α = + Åçí α =
= PSM° + α
=
=
=
=
=

89
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.7 Periodicity of Trigonometric Functions

=
392. ëáå(α ± Oπå ) = ëáå α I=éÉêáçÇ= Oπ =çê= PSM° K=
=
393. Åçë(α ± Oπå ) = Åçë α I=éÉêáçÇ= Oπ =çê= PSM° K=
=
394. í~å(α ± πå ) = í~å α I=éÉêáçÇ= π =çê= NUM° K=
=
395. Åçí(α ± πå ) = Åçí α I=éÉêáçÇ= π =çê= NUM° K=
=
=
=
4.8 Relations between Trigonometric
Functions
=

396. ëáå α = ± N − Åçë O α = ±

N
(N − Åçë Oα ) = O Åçë O  α − π  − N =
O  O Q
α
O í~å
= = O =
α
N + í~å O
O
=

397. Åçë α = ± N − ëáå O α = ±

N
(N + Åçë Oα ) = O Åçë O α − N =
O O
α
N − í~å O
= = O=
α
N + í~å O
O
=
ëáå α ëáå Oα N − Åçë Oα
398. í~å α = = ± ëÉÅ O α − N = = =
Åçë α N + Åçë Oα ëáå Oα

90
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

α
O í~å
N − Åçë Oα O =
= =± =
N + Åçë Oα O α
N + í~å
O
=
Åçë α N + Åçë Oα ëáå Oα
399. Åçí α = = ± ÅëÅ O α − N = = =
ëáå α ëáå Oα N − Åçë Oα
α
N − í~å O
N + Åçë Oα O=
= =± =
N − Åçë Oα α
O í~å
O
=
α
N + í~å O
N O=
400. ëÉÅ α = = ± N + í~å O α =
Åçë α α
N − í~å O
O
=
α
N + í~å O
N O=
401. ÅëÅ α = = ± N + Åçí O α =
ëáå α α
O í~å
O
=
=
=
4.9 Addition and Subtraction Formulas
=
402. ëáå(α + β) = ëáå α Åçë β + ëáå β Åçë α =
=
403. ëáå(α − ó ) = ëáå α Åçë β − ëáå β Åçë α =
=
404. Åçë(α + β ) = Åçë α Åçë β − ëáå α ëáå β =
=
405. Åçë(α − β ) = Åçë α Åçë β + ëáå α ëáå β =

91
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

í~å α + í~å β
406. í~å(α + β ) = =
N − í~å α í~å β
=
í~å α − í~å β
407. í~å(α − β ) = =
N + í~å α í~å β
=
N − í~å α í~å β
408. Åçí(α + β) = =
í~å α + í~å β
=
N + í~å α í~å β
409. Åçí(α − β) = =
í~å α − í~å β
=
=
=
4.10 Double Angle Formulas
=
410. ëáå Oα = O ëáå α ⋅ Åçë α =
=
411. Åçë Oα = Åçë O α − ëáå O α = N − O ëáå O α = O Åçë O α − N =
=
O í~å α O
412. í~å Oα = = =
N − í~å α Åçí α − í~å α
O

=
Åçí O α − N Åçí α − í~å α
413. Åçí Oα = = =
O Åçí α O
=
=
=
=
=
=

92
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.11 Multiple Angle Formulas

=
414. ëáå Pα = P ëáå α − Q ëáå P α = P Åçë O α ⋅ ëáå α − ëáåP α =
=
415. ëáå Qα = Q ëáå α ⋅ Åçë α − U ëáå P α ⋅ Åçë α =
=
416. ëáå Rα = R ëáå α − OM ëáå P α + NS ëáå R α =
=
417. Åçë Pα = Q ÅçëP α − P Åçë α = Åçë P α − P Åçë α ⋅ ëáå O α =
=
418. Åçë Qα = U Åçë Q α − U Åçë O α + N =
=
419. Åçë Rα = NS Åçë R α − OM Åçë P α + R Åçë α =
=
P í~å α − í~å P α
420. í~å Pα = =
N − P í~å O α
=
Q í~å α − Q í~å P α
421. í~å Qα = =
N − S í~å O α + í~å Q α
=
í~å R α − NM í~å P α + R í~å α
422. í~å Rα = =
N − NM í~å O α + R í~å Q α
=
Åçí P α − P Åçí α
423. Åçí Pα = =
P Åçí O α − N
=
N − S í~å O α + í~å Q α
424. Åçí Qα = ==
Q í~å α − Q í~å P α
=

93
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

N − NM í~å O α + R í~å Q α
425. Åçí Rα = =
í~å R α − NM í~å P α + R í~å α
=
=
=
4.12 Half Angle Formulas
=
α N − Åçë α
426. ëáå =± =
O O
=
α N + Åçë α
427. Åçë =± =
O O
=
α N − Åçë α ëáå α N − Åçë α
428. í~å =± = = = ÅëÅ α − Åçí α =
O N + Åçë α N + Åçë α ëáå α
=
α N + Åçë α ëáå α N + Åçë α
429. Åçí =± = = = ÅëÅ α + Åçí α =
O N − Åçë α N − Åçë α ëáå α
=
=
=
4.13 Half Angle Tangent Identities
=
α
O í~å
430. ëáå α = O =
α
N + í~å O
O
=

94
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

α
N − í~å O
431. Åçë α = O=
O α
N + í~å
O
=
α
O í~å
432. í~å α = O =
α
N − í~å O
O
=
α
N − í~å O
433. Åçí α = O=
α
O í~å
O
=
=
=
4.14 Transforming of Trigonometric
Expressions to Product
=
α+β α −β
434. ëáå α + ëáå β = O ëáå Åçë =
O O
=
α +β α −β
435. ëáå α − ëáå β = O Åçë ëáå =
O O
=
α+β α −β
436. Åçë α + Åçë β = O Åçë Åçë =
O O
=
α +β α −β
437. Åçë α − Åçë β = −O ëáå ëáå =
O O
=

95
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

ëáå(α + β )
438. í~å α + í~å β = =
Åçë α ⋅ Åçë β
=
ëáå(α − β )
439. í~å α − í~å β = =
Åçë α ⋅ Åçë β
=
ëáå(β + α )
440. Åçí α + Åçí β = =
ëáå α ⋅ ëáå β
=
ëáå(β − α )
441. Åçí α − Åçí β = =
ëáå α ⋅ ëáå β
=
π  π 
442. Åçë α + ëáå α = O Åçë − α  = O ëáå + α  =
Q  Q 
=
π  π 
443. Åçë α − ëáå α = O ëáå − α  = O Åçë + α  =
Q  Q 
=
Åçë(α − β)
444. í~å α + Åçí β = =
Åçë α ⋅ ëáå β
=
Åçë(α + β )
445. í~å α − Åçí β = − =
Åçë α ⋅ ëáå β
=
α
446. N + Åçë α = O Åçë O =
O
=
α
447. N − Åçë α = O ëáå O =
O
=

96
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

π α
448. N + ëáå α = O Åçë O  −  =
Q O
=
π α
449. N − ëáå α = O ëáå O  −  =
Q O
=
=
=
4.15 Transforming of Trigonometric
Expressions to Sum
=
Åçë(α − β) − Åçë(α + β )
450. ëáå α ⋅ ëáå β = =
O
=
Åçë(α − β ) + Åçë(α + β )
451. Åçë α ⋅ Åçë β = =
O
=
ëáå(α − β ) + ëáå(α + β )
452. ëáå α ⋅ Åçë β = =
O
=
í~å α + í~å β
453. í~å α ⋅ í~å β = =
Åçí α + Åçí β
=
Åçí α + Åçí β
454. Åçí α ⋅ Åçí β = =
í~å α + í~å β
=
í~å α + Åçí β
455. í~å α ⋅ Åçí β = =
Åçí α + í~å β
=
=
=

97
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.16 Powers of Trigonometric Functions

=
N − Åçë Oα
456. ëáå O α = =
O
=
P ëáå α − ëáå Pα
457. ëáå P α = =
Q
=
Åçë Qα − Q Åçë Oα + P
458. ëáå Q α = =
U
=
NM ëáå α − R ëáå Pα + ëáå Rα
459. ëáå R α = =
NS
=
NM − NR Åçë Oα + S Åçë Qα − Åçë Sα
460. ëáå S α = =
PO
=
N + Åçë Oα
461. Åçë O α = =
O
=
P Åçë α + Åçë Pα
462. Åçë P α = =
Q
=
Åçë Qα + Q Åçë Oα + P
463. Åçë Q α = =
U
=
NM Åçë α + R ëáå Pα + Åçë Rα
464. Åçë R α = =
NS
=
NM + NR Åçë Oα + S Åçë Qα + Åçë Sα
465. Åçë S α = =
PO
=

98
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.17 Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric

Functions
=
466. fåîÉêëÉ=páåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
π π
ó = ~êÅëáå ñ I= − N ≤ ñ ≤ N I= − ≤ ~êÅëáå ñ ≤ K=
O O
=

=
=
Figure 66.
=
467. fåîÉêëÉ=`çëáåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅÅçë ñ I= − N ≤ ñ ≤ N I= M ≤ ~êÅÅçë ñ ≤ π K=
=

99
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

=
=
Figure 67.
=
468. fåîÉêëÉ=q~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
π π
ó = ~êÅí~å ñ I= − ∞ ≤ ñ ≤ ∞ I= − < ~êÅí~å ñ < K=
O O
=

===== =
=
Figure 68.

100
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

469. fåîÉêëÉ=`çí~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅ Åçí ñ I= − ∞ ≤ ñ ≤ ∞ I= M < ~êÅ Åçí ñ < π K=

===== =
Figure 69.
=
470. fåîÉêëÉ=pÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
 π  π 
ó = ~êÅëÉÅ=ñ I ñ ∈ (− ∞I − N] ∪ [NI ∞ )I ~êÅ ëÉÅ ñ ∈ MI  ∪  I πK
 O  O 

=
Figure 70.

101
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

471. fåîÉêëÉ=`çëÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
 π   π
ó = ~êÅÅëÅ ñ I ñ ∈ (− ∞I − N] ∪ [NI ∞ )I ~êÅ ÅëÅ ñ ∈ − I M  ∪  MI K
 O   O

=
=
Figure 71.
=
=
4.18 Principal Values of Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
472. N O P
ñ= M= = = N=
O O O
~êÅëáå ñ = M° = PM° = QR° = SM° VM°
~êÅÅçë ñ = VM° SM° = QR° = PM° M° =
N O P
ñ= − − − − N= =
O O O
− PM° − VM°
~êÅëáå ñ = − QR° − SM° =
= =
NOM° NUM°
~êÅÅçë ñ = NPR° = NRM° = =
= =

102
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

473. P P
ñ= M= N= P= − − N= − P=
P P
− QR°
~êÅí~å ñ = M° = PM° QR° SM° − PM° − SM° =
=
NPR°
~êÅ Åçí ñ = VM° SM° QR° PM° NOM° = NRM° =
=
=
=
=
4.19 Relations between Inverse
Trigonometric Functions
=
474. ~êÅëáå(− ñ ) = − ~êÅëáå ñ =
=
π
475. ~êÅëáå ñ = − ~êÅÅçë ñ =
O
=
476. ~êÅëáå ñ = ~êÅÅçë N − ñ O I= M ≤ ñ ≤ N K=
=
477. ~êÅëáå ñ = − ~êÅÅçë N − ñ O I= − N ≤ ñ ≤ M K=
=
ñ
I= ñ < N K=
O
478. ~êÅëáå ñ = ~êÅí~å
N− ñ O

=
N− ñO
479. ~êÅëáå ñ = ~êÅ Åçí I= M < ñ ≤ N K=
ñ
=
N− ñO
480. ~êÅëáå ñ = ~êÅ Åçí − π I= − N ≤ ñ < M K=
ñ
=
481. ~êÅÅçë(− ñ ) = π − ~êÅÅçë ñ =

103
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

π
482. ~êÅÅçë ñ = − ~êÅëáå ñ =
O
=
483. ~êÅÅçë ñ = ~êÅëáå N − ñ O I= M ≤ ñ ≤ N K=
=
484. ~êÅÅçë ñ = π − ~êÅëáå N − ñ O I= − N ≤ ñ ≤ M K=
=
N− ñO
485. ~êÅÅçë ñ = ~êÅí~å I= M < ñ ≤ N K=
ñ
=
N− ñO
486. ~êÅÅçë ñ = π + ~êÅí~å I= − N ≤ ñ < M K=
ñ
=
ñ
487. ~êÅÅçë ñ = ~êÅ Åçí I= − N ≤ ñ ≤ N K=
N− ñO
=
488. ~êÅí~å(− ñ ) = − ~êÅí~å ñ =
=
π
489. ~êÅí~å ñ = − ~êÅ Åçí ñ =
O
=
ñ
490. ~êÅí~å ñ = ~êÅëáå =
N+ ñO
=
N
491. ~êÅí~å ñ = ~êÅÅçë I= ñ ≥ M K=
N+ ñO
=
N
492. ~êÅí~å ñ = − ~êÅÅçë I= ñ ≤ M K=
N+ ñO
=

104
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

π N
493. ~êÅí~å ñ = − ~êÅí~å I= ñ > M K=
O ñ
=
π N
494. ~êÅí~å ñ = − − ~êÅí~å I= ñ < M K=
O ñ
=
N
495. ~êÅí~å ñ = ~êÅ Åçí I= ñ > M K=
ñ
=
N
496. ~êÅí~å ñ = ~êÅ Åçí − π I= ñ < M K=
ñ
=
497. ~êÅ Åçí(− ñ ) = π − ~êÅ Åçí ñ =
=
π
498. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = − ~êÅí~å ñ =
O
=
N
499. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = ~êÅëáå I= ñ > M K=
N+ ñO
=
N
500. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = π − ~êÅëáå I= ñ < M K=
N+ ñO
=
ñ
501. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = ~êÅÅçë =
N+ ñO
=
N
502. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = ~êÅí~å I= ñ > M K=
ñ
=
N
503. ~êÅ Åçí ñ = π + ~êÅí~å I= ñ < M K=
ñ
=
=

105
CHAPTER 4. TRIGONOMETRY

4.20 Trigonometric Equations

=
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å=
=
=
ëáå ñ = ~ I= ñ = (− N) ~êÅëáå ~ + πå =
å
504.
=
505. Åçë ñ = ~ I= ñ = ± ~êÅÅçë ~ + Oπå =
=
506. í~å ñ = ~ I= ñ = ~êÅí~å ~ + πå =
=
507. Åçí ñ = ~ I= ñ = ~êÅ Åçí ~ + πå =
=
=
=
4.21 Relations to Hyperbolic Functions
=
fã~Öáå~êó=ìåáíW=á=
=
=
508. ëáå(áñ ) = á ëáåÜ ñ =
=
509. í~å(áñ ) = á í~åÜ ñ =
=
510. Åçí(áñ ) = −á ÅçíÜ ñ =
=
511. ëÉÅ(áñ ) = ëÉÅÜ ñ =
=
512. ÅëÅ(áñ ) = −á ÅëÅÜ ñ =
=
=
=

106
Chapter 5
Matrices and Determinants
=
=
=
=
j~íêáÅÉëW=^I=_I=`=
bäÉãÉåíë=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= ~ á I= Äá I= ~ áà I= Äáà I= Å áà =
aÉíÉêãáå~åí=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= ÇÉí ^ =
jáåçê=çÑ=~å=ÉäÉãÉåí= ~ áà W= j áà =
`çÑ~Åíçê=çÑ=~å=ÉäÉãÉåí= ~ áà W= ` áà =
ú
qê~åëéçëÉ=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= ^ q I= ^ =
^Çàçáåí=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= ~Çà ^ =
qê~ÅÉ=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= íê ^ =
fåîÉêëÉ=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñW= ^ −N =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW=â=
oÉ~ä=î~êá~ÄäÉëW= ñ á =
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=ãI=å===
=
=
5.1 Determinants
=
513. pÉÅçåÇ=lêÇÉê=aÉíÉêãáå~åí=
~ ÄN
ÇÉí ^ = N = ~ N Ä O − ~ O ÄN =
~ O ÄO
=
=
=
=
=

107
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

514. qÜáêÇ=lêÇÉê=aÉíÉêãáå~åí=
~NN ~NO ~NP
ÇÉí ^ = ~ ON ~ OO ~ OP = ~NN~ OO~ PP + ~NO~ OP~ PN + ~ NP~ ON~ PO − =
~ PN ~ PO ~ PP
− ~NN~ OP~ PO − ~NO~ ON~ PP − ~ NP~ OO~ PN =
=
515. p~êêìë=oìäÉ=E^êêçï=oìäÉF=

=
=
Figure 72.
=
516. k-íÜ=lêÇÉê=aÉíÉêãáå~åí=
~NN ~NO K ~Nà K ~Nå
~ ON ~ OO K ~ O à K ~ Oå
K K K K K K
ÇÉí ^ = =
~ áN ~ á O K ~ áà K ~ áå
K K K K K K
~ åN ~ å O K ~ åà K ~ åå
=
517. jáåçê=
qÜÉ=ãáåçê= j áà =~ëëçÅá~íÉÇ=ïáíÜ=íÜÉ=ÉäÉãÉåí= ~ áà =çÑ=å-íÜ=çêÇÉê=
ã~íêáñ= ^= áë= íÜÉ= (å − N) -íÜ= çêÇÉê= ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí= ÇÉêáîÉÇ= Ñêçã=
íÜÉ=ã~íêáñ=^=Äó=ÇÉäÉíáçå=çÑ=áíë=á-íÜ=êçï=~åÇ=à-íÜ=ÅçäìãåK===
=

108
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

518. `çÑ~Åíçê=
` áà = (− N) j áà =
á +à

=
519. i~éä~ÅÉ=bñé~åëáçå=çÑ=å-íÜ=lêÇÉê=aÉíÉêãáå~åí=
i~éä~ÅÉ=Éñé~åëáçå=Äó=ÉäÉãÉåíë=çÑ=íÜÉ=á-íÜ=êçï=
å
ÇÉí ^ = ∑ ~ áà` áà I= á = NI OI KI å K=
à=N

i~éä~ÅÉ=Éñé~åëáçå=Äó=ÉäÉãÉåíë=çÑ=íÜÉ=à-íÜ=Åçäìãå=
å
ÇÉí ^ = ∑ ~ áà` áà I= à = NI OI KI å K==
á =N
=
=
=
5.2 Properties of Determinants
=
520. qÜÉ==î~äìÉ==çÑ=~=ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí=êÉã~áåë==ìåÅÜ~åÖÉÇ=áÑ=êçïë=~êÉ=
ÅÜ~åÖÉÇ=íç=Åçäìãåë=~åÇ=Åçäìãåë=íç=êçïëK=
~ ~ O ~N ÄN
= N = ==
ÄN ÄO ~ O ÄO
=
521. fÑ=íïç==êçïë==Eçê=íïç=ÅçäìãåëF=~êÉ==áåíÉêÅÜ~åÖÉÇI=íÜÉ=ëáÖå=çÑ=
íÜÉ=ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí=áë=ÅÜ~åÖÉÇK=
~N ÄN ~ ÄO
=− O =
~ O ÄO ~N ÄN
=
522. fÑ=íïç=êçïë==Eçê=íïç=ÅçäìãåëF=~êÉ==áÇÉåíáÅ~äI=íÜÉ=î~äìÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=
ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí=áë=òÉêçK=
~N ~N
= M=
~O ~O
=

109
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

523. fÑ==íÜÉ===ÉäÉãÉåíë==çÑ==~åó=êçï==Eçê=ÅçäìãåF=~êÉ=ãìäíáéäáÉÇ=Äó=====
~==Åçããçå==Ñ~ÅíçêI==íÜÉ==ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí==áë==ãìäíáéäáÉÇ==Äó==íÜ~í=
Ñ~ÅíçêK=
â~ N âÄN ~ ÄN
=â N =
~ O ÄO ~ O ÄO
=
524. fÑ==íÜÉ==ÉäÉãÉåíë==çÑ==~åó==êçï==Eçê==ÅçäìãåF=~êÉ=áåÅêÉ~ëÉÇ=Eçê=
ÇÉÅêÉ~ëÉÇFÄó=Éèì~ä=ãìäíáéäÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅçêêÉëéçåÇáåÖ=ÉäÉãÉåíë=
çÑ=~åó=çíÜÉê=êçï==Eçê=ÅçäìãåFI==íÜÉ=î~äìÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí=
áë=ìåÅÜ~åÖÉÇK=
~N + âÄN ÄN ~N ÄN
= =
~ O + âÄO ÄO ~ O ÄO
=
=
=
5.3 Matrices
=
525. aÉÑáåáíáçå=
^å= ã × å =ã~íêáñ=^=áë=~=êÉÅí~åÖìä~ê=~êê~ó=çÑ=ÉäÉãÉåíë=Eåìã-
ÄÉêë=çê=ÑìåÅíáçåëF=ïáíÜ=ã=êçïë=~åÇ=å=ÅçäìãåëK==
 ~ NN ~ NO K ~ Nå 
~ ~ OO K ~ Oå 
[ ]
^ = ~ áà = 
 M
ON

M
 ==
M 
 
~ ãN ~ ã O K ~ ãå 
=
526. pèì~êÉ=ã~íêáñ=áë=~=ã~íêáñ=çÑ=çêÇÉê= å× å K==
=
[ ]
527. ^=ëèì~êÉ=ã~íêáñ== ~ áà ==áë==ëóããÉíêáÅ==áÑ== ~ áà = ~ àá I==áKÉK==áí==áë=
ëóããÉíêáÅ=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=äÉ~ÇáåÖ=Çá~Öçå~äK==
=
[ ]
528. ^=ëèì~êÉ=ã~íêáñ= ~ áà =áë=ëâÉï-ëóããÉíêáÅ=áÑ= ~ áà = −~ àá K==
=

110
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

529. aá~Öçå~ä=ã~íêáñ==áë==~=ëèì~êÉ==ã~íêáñ=ïáíÜ=~ää==ÉäÉãÉåíë==òÉêç=
ÉñÅÉéí=íÜçëÉ=çå=íÜÉ=äÉ~ÇáåÖ=Çá~Öçå~äK==
=
530. råáí=ã~íêáñ==áë==~=Çá~Öçå~ä==ã~íêáñ==áå=ïÜáÅÜ=íÜÉ=ÉäÉãÉåíë=çå=
íÜÉ=äÉ~ÇáåÖ=Çá~Öçå~ä=~êÉ=~ää=ìåáíóK=qÜÉ=ìåáí=ã~íêáñ=áë===========
ÇÉåçíÉÇ=Äó=fK==
=
531. ^=åìää=ã~íêáñ=áë=çåÉ=ïÜçëÉ=ÉäÉãÉåíë=~êÉ=~ää=òÉêçK=
=
=
=
5.4 Operations with Matrices
=
532. qïç=ã~íêáÅÉë=^=~åÇ=_=~êÉ=Éèì~ä=áÑI=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑI=íÜÉó=~êÉ=ÄçíÜ=
çÑ==íÜÉ==ë~ãÉ==ëÜ~éÉ== ã × å ==~åÇ=ÅçêêÉëéçåÇáåÖ=ÉäÉãÉåíë=~êÉ=
Éèì~äK=
=
533. qïç=ã~íêáÅÉë==^=~åÇ=_==Å~å=ÄÉ=~ÇÇÉÇ=Eçê=ëìÄíê~ÅíÉÇF=çÑI=~åÇ=
çåäó=áÑI=íÜÉó=Ü~îÉ=íÜÉ=ë~ãÉ=ëÜ~éÉ= ã × å K=fÑ==
 ~NN ~NO K ~Nå 
~ ~ OO K ~ Oå 
[ ]
^ = ~ áà =  ON
 M M
 I==
M 
 
~ ãN ~ ã O K ~ ãå 
 ÄNN ÄNO K ÄNå 
Ä ÄOO K ÄOå 
[ ]
_ = Äáà =  ON
 M M
 I==
M 
 
ÄãN Äã O K Äãå 
=
=
=
=
=

111
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

íÜÉå==
 ~NN + ÄNN ~NO + ÄNO K ~Nå + ÄNå 
~ +Ä ~ OO + ÄOO K ~ Oå + ÄOå 
^+_=  ON ON  K=
 M M M 
 
~ ãN + ÄãN ~ ã O + Äã O K ~ ãå + Äãå 
=
[ ]
534. fÑ=â=áë=~=ëÅ~ä~êI=~åÇ= ^ = ~ áà =áë=~=ã~íêáñI=íÜÉå=
 â~NN â~NO K â~Nå 
 â~ â~ OO K â~ Oå 
[ ]
â^ = â~ áà = 
 M
ON

M
 K=
M 
 
â~ ãN â~ ã O K â~ ãå 
=
535. jìäíáéäáÅ~íáçå=çÑ=qïç=j~íêáÅÉë=
qïç= ã~íêáÅÉë= Å~å= ÄÉ= ãìäíáéäáÉÇ= íçÖÉíÜÉê= çåäó= ïÜÉå= íÜÉ=
åìãÄÉê= çÑ= Åçäìãåë= áå= íÜÉ= Ñáêëí= áë= Éèì~ä= íç= íÜÉ= åìãÄÉê= çÑ=
êçïë=áå=íÜÉ=ëÉÅçåÇK==
=
fÑ=
 ~NN ~NO K ~Nå 
~ ~ OO K ~ Oå 
[ ]
^ = ~ áà =  ON
 M M M 
 I==
 
~ ãN ~ ã O K ~ ãå 
 ÄNN ÄNO K ÄNâ 
Ä ÄOO K ÄO â 
[ ]
_ = Äáà =  ON
 M M
 I=
M 
 
ÄåN Äå O K Äåâ 
=
=
=
=
=

112
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

íÜÉå==
 ÅNN ÅNO K ÅNâ 
Å Å OO K Å O â 
^_ = ` =  ON  I==
 M M M 
 
Ä ãN Å ã O K Å ãâ 
ïÜÉêÉ==
å
Å áà = ~ áNÄNà + ~ á O ÄO à + K + ~ áå Äåà = ∑ ~ á λ Äλ à =
λ =N
E á = NI OI KI ã X à = NI OI KI â FK==
=
qÜìë=áÑ=
 ÄN 
[ ] ~ NN
^ = ~ áà = 
~ NO ~ NP 
 I= _ = [Ä á ] = Ä O  I==
~ ON ~ OO ~ OP 
ÄP 
íÜÉå==
Ä 
~ NN ~ NO ~ NP   N  ~ NNÄN ~ NO Ä O ~ NP ÄP 
^_ =  ⋅ Ä = K==
~ ON ~ OO ~ OP   O  ~ ONÄN ~ OO Ä O ~ OP ÄP 
ÄP 
=
536. qê~åëéçëÉ=çÑ=~=j~íêáñ=
fÑ=íÜÉ=êçïë=~åÇ=Åçäìãåë=çÑ=~=ã~íêáñ=~êÉ=áåíÉêÅÜ~åÖÉÇI=íÜÉå=
íÜÉ=åÉï=ã~íêáñ=áë=Å~ääÉÇ=íÜÉ=íê~åëéçëÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=çêáÖáå~ä=ã~íêáñK===
fÑ= ^= áë= íÜÉ= çêáÖáå~ä= ã~íêáñI= áíë= íê~åëéçëÉ= áë= ÇÉåçíÉÇ= ^ q = çê=
ú
^ K==
=
537. qÜÉ=ã~íêáñ=^=áë=çêíÜçÖçå~ä=áÑ= ^^ q = f K==
=
538. fÑ=íÜÉ=ã~íêáñ=éêçÇìÅí=^_=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇI=íÜÉå==
(^_ )q = _ q ^ q K=
=
=

113
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

539. ^Çàçáåí=çÑ=j~íêáñ=
fÑ=^=áë=~=ëèì~êÉ= å× å ã~íêáñI=áíë=~ÇàçáåíI=ÇÉåçíÉÇ=Äó= ~Çà ^ I=
áë=íÜÉ=íê~åëéçëÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ã~íêáñ=çÑ=ÅçÑ~Åíçêë= ` áà =çÑ=^W=
[ ]
~Çà ^ = ` áà K==
q

=
540. qê~ÅÉ=çÑ=~=j~íêáñ=
fÑ= ^= áë= ~= ëèì~êÉ= å × å ã~íêáñI= áíë= íê~ÅÉI= ÇÉåçíÉÇ= Äó= íê ^ I= áë=
ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=íç=ÄÉ==íÜÉ=ëìã=çÑ==íÜÉ=íÉêãë=çå=íÜÉ=äÉ~ÇáåÖ=Çá~Öçå~äW=
íê ^ = ~NN + ~ OO + K + ~ åå K=
=
541. fåîÉêëÉ=çÑ=~=j~íêáñ=
fÑ=^=áë=~=ëèì~êÉ= å× å ã~íêáñ=ïáíÜ=~=åçåëáåÖìä~ê=ÇÉíÉêãáå~åí=
ÇÉí ^ I=íÜÉå=áíë=áåîÉêëÉ= ^ −N =áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=
~Çà ^
^ −N = K=
ÇÉí ^
=
542. fÑ=íÜÉ=ã~íêáñ=éêçÇìÅí=^_=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇI=íÜÉå==
(^_)−N = _ −N^ −N K=
=
543. fÑ==^==áë=~=ëèì~êÉ=== å × å ==ã~íêáñI==íÜÉ==ÉáÖÉåîÉÅíçêë==u===ë~íáëÑó=
íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå=
^u = λu I==
ïÜáäÉ=íÜÉ=ÉáÖÉåî~äìÉë= λ =ë~íáëÑó=íÜÉ=ÅÜ~ê~ÅíÉêáëíáÅ=Éèì~íáçå=
^ − λf = M K===
=
=
=
5.5 Systems of Linear Equations
=
=
s~êá~ÄäÉëW=ñI=óI=òI= ñ N I= ñ O I K =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW= ~ N I ~ O I ~ P I ÄN I ~ NN I ~ NO I K =

114
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

aÉíÉêãáå~åíëW=aI= añ I= aó I= aò ==
j~íêáÅÉëW=^I=_I=u=
=
=
~ ñ + ÄNó = ÇN
544.  N I==
~ O ñ + ÄO ó = Ç O
a aó
ñ = ñ I= ó = =E`ê~ãÉê∞ë=êìäÉFI==
a a
ïÜÉêÉ==
~ ÄN
a= N = ~NÄO − ~ O ÄN I==
~ O ÄO
Ç ÄN
añ = N = ÇNÄO − Ç O ÄN I==
Ç O ÄO
~ ÇN
aó = N = ~NÇ O − ~ OÇN K==
~ O ÇO
=
545. fÑ= a ≠ M I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ëóëíÉã=Ü~ë=~=ëáåÖäÉ=ëçäìíáçåW==
a aó
ñ = ñ I= ó = K=
a a
fÑ= a = M = ~åÇ= añ ≠ M Eçê= aó ≠ M FI= íÜÉå= íÜÉ= ëóëíÉã= Ü~ë= = åç==
ëçäìíáçåK=
fÑ= a = añ = aó = M I= íÜÉå= íÜÉ= ëóëíÉã= Ü~ë= = áåÑáåáíÉäó= = ã~åó==
ëçäìíáçåëK=
=
~Nñ + ÄNó + ÅNò = ÇN=

546. ~ O ñ + ÄO ó + Å Oò = Ç O I==
~ ñ + Ä ó + Å ò = Ç
 P P P P

añ aó a
ñ= I= ó = I= ò = ò =E`ê~ãÉê∞ë=êìäÉFI==
a a a
=

115
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

ïÜÉêÉ==
~N ÄN ÅN ÇN ÄN ÅN
a = ~ O ÄO Å O I= añ = Ç O ÄO Å O I=
~ P ÄP ÅP ÇP ÄP ÅP
~N ÇN ÅN ~N ÄN ÇN
aó = ~ O ÇO Å O I= aò = ~ O ÄO Ç O K==
~P ÇP ÅP ~P ÄP ÇP
=
547. fÑ= a ≠ M I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ëóëíÉã=Ü~ë=~=ëáåÖäÉ=ëçäìíáçåW==
a aó a
ñ = ñ I= ó = I= ò = ò K=
a a a
fÑ= a = M =~åÇ= añ ≠ M Eçê= aó ≠ M =çê= aò ≠ M FI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ëóëíÉã=
Ü~ë=åç=ëçäìíáçåK=
fÑ= a = añ = aó = aò = M I= íÜÉå= íÜÉ= ëóëíÉã= Ü~ë= áåÑáåáíÉäó=
ã~åó=ëçäìíáçåëK=
=
548. j~íêáñ=cçêã=çÑ=~=póëíÉã=çÑ=å=iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçåë=áå=================
å=råâåçïåë=
qÜÉ=ëÉí=çÑ=äáåÉ~ê=Éèì~íáçåë==
~NNñ N + ~ NO ñ O + K + ~ Nå ñ å = ÄN
~ ñ + ~ ñ + K + ~ ñ = Ä
 ON N OO O Oå å O
 =
 K K K K K K K K K K K K
~ åNñ N + ~ å O ñ O + K + ~ åå ñ å = Äå
Å~å=ÄÉ=ïêáííÉå=áå=ã~íêáñ=Ñçêã=
 ~ NN ~ NO K ~ Nå   ñ N   ÄN 
     
 ~ ON ~ OO K ~ Oå   ñ O   Ä O 
 M ⋅ = I==
M M   M   M 
     
~     
 åN ~ å O K ~ åå   ñ å   Ä å 
áKÉK==
^ ⋅ u = _ I==

116
CHAPTER 5. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

ïÜÉêÉ==
 ~ NN ~ NO K ~ Nå   ñN   ÄN 
     
~ ~ OO K ~ Oå   ñO   ÄO 
^ =  ON I= u = I= _ =  M  K==
M M M   M 
     
~ ~ å O K ~ åå  ñ  Ä 
 åN  å  å
=
549. pçäìíáçå=çÑ=~=pÉí=çÑ=iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçåë= å × å =
u = ^ −N ⋅ _ I==
ïÜÉêÉ= ^ −N =áë=íÜÉ=áåîÉêëÉ=çÑ=^K=
=
=

117
Chapter 6
Vectors
=
=
=
=
r r r r →
sÉÅíçêëW= ì I= î I= ï I= ê I= ^_ I=£=
r r
sÉÅíçê=äÉåÖíÜW= ì I= î I=£=
r r r
råáí=îÉÅíçêëW= á I= à I= â =
r
kìää=îÉÅíçêW= M =
r
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=îÉÅíçê= ì W= uN I vN I wN =
r
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=îÉÅíçê= î W= u O I vO I wO =
pÅ~ä~êëW= λ I µ =
aáêÉÅíáçå=ÅçëáåÉëW= Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=îÉÅíçêëW= θ =
=
=
6.1 Vector Coordinates
=
550. råáí=sÉÅíçêë=
r
á = (NI MI M) I=
r
à = (MI NI M) I=
r
â = (MI MI N) I=
r r r
á = à = â = N K=
=
r → r r r
551. ê = ^_ = (ñ N − ñ M ) á + (ó N − ó M ) à + (ò N − ò M ) â =
=

118
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

======= =
=
Figure 73.
=
→
r
552. ê = ^_ = (ñ N − ñ M )O + (óN − ó M )O + (òN − ò M )O =
=
→ →
r r
553. fÑ= ^_ = ê I=íÜÉå= _^ = − ê K=
=

=
=
Figure 74.
=
r
554. u = ê Åçë α I=
r
v = ê Åçë β I=
r
w = ê Åçë γ K=

119
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

===== =
=
Figure 75.
=
r r
555. fÑ= ê (uI v I w ) = êN (uN I vN I wN ) I=íÜÉå==
u = uN I= v = vN I= w = wN K==
==
=
6.2 Vector Addition
=
r r r
556. ï = ì + î =
=

== =
=
Figure 76.

120
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

== =
=
Figure 77.
=
r r r r r
557. ï = ìN + ì O + ìP + K + ì å =
=

== =
=
Figure 78.
=
558. `çããìí~íáîÉ=i~ï=
r r r r
ì+ î =î+ì=
=
559. ^ëëçÅá~íáîÉ=i~ï=
(ìr + îr ) + ïr = ìr + (îr + ïr ) =
=
r r
560. ì + î = (uN + u O I vN + vO I wN + wO ) =
=
=
=
=
=
=

121
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

6.3 Vector Subtraction

=
r r r r r r
561. ï = ì − î =áÑ= î + ï = ì K=
=

=
=
Figure 79.
=

== =
=
Figure 80.
=
r r r r
562. ì − î = ì + (− î ) =
=
r r r
563. ì − ì = M = (MI MI M ) =
=
r
564. M = M =
=
r r
565. ì − î = (uN − u O I vN − vO I wN − w O ) I==
=
=
=
6.4 Scaling Vectors
=
r r
566. ï = λì =

122
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

=
=
Figure 81.
=
r r
567. ï = λ⋅ì=
=
r
568. λì = (λuI λv I λw ) =
=
r r
569. λì = ìλ =
=
r r r
570. (λ + µ ) ì = λì + µì =
=
r r r
571. λ(µì ) = µ(λì ) = (λµ )ì =
=
r r r r
572. λ(ì + î ) = λì + λî =
=
=
=
6.5 Scalar Product
=
r r
573. pÅ~ä~ê=mêçÇìÅí=çÑ=sÉÅíçêë= ì =~åÇ î =
r r r r
ì ⋅ î = ì ⋅ î ⋅ Åçë θ I==
r r
ïÜÉêÉ= θ =áë=íÜÉ=~åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=îÉÅíçêë= ì =~åÇ î K====
=

123
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

= =
=
Figure 82.
=
574. pÅ~ä~ê=mêçÇìÅí=áå=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=cçêã=
r r
fÑ= ì = (uN I vN I wN ) I= î = (u O I vO I w O ) I=íÜÉå==
r r
ì ⋅ î = uNu O + vNvO + wNwO K=
=
575. ^åÖäÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=sÉÅíçêë==
r r
fÑ= ì = (uN I vN I wN ) I= î = (u O I vO I w O ) I=íÜÉå==
uNu O + vNvO + wNw O
Åçë θ = K=
uN + vN + wN u O + vO + w O
O O O O O O

=
576. `çããìí~íáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
r r r r
ì⋅î = î ⋅ì=
=
577. ^ëëçÅá~íáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
(λìr ) ⋅ (µîr ) = λµìr ⋅ îr =
=
578. aáëíêáÄìíáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
r r r r r r r
ì ⋅ (î + ï ) = ì ⋅ î + ì ⋅ ï =
=
r r r r π
579. ì ⋅ î = M =áÑ= ì I î =~êÉ=çêíÜçÖçå~ä=E θ = FK=
O
=
r r π
580. ì ⋅ î > M =áÑ= M < θ < K=
O
=

124
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

r r π
581. ì ⋅ î < M =áÑ= < θ < π K=
O
=
r r r r
582. ì ⋅ î ≤ ì ⋅ î =
=
r r r r r r
583. ì ⋅ î = ì ⋅ î =áÑ= ì I î =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=E θ = M FK=
=
r
584. fÑ= ì = (uN I vN I wN ) I=íÜÉå==
r r r rO
ì ⋅ ì = ì O = ì = uN + vN + wN K=
O O O

=
r r r r r r
585. á ⋅ á = à ⋅ à = â ⋅ â = N =
=
r r r r r r
586. á ⋅ à = à ⋅ â = â ⋅ á = M =
=
=
=
6.6 Vector Product
=
r r
587. sÉÅíçê=mêçÇìÅí=çÑ=sÉÅíçêë= ì =~åÇ î =
r r r
ì × î = ï I=ïÜÉêÉ==
r r r π
• ï = ì ⋅ î ⋅ ëáå θ I=ïÜÉêÉ= M ≤ θ ≤ X=
O
r r r r
• ï ⊥ì= ~åÇ= ï ⊥ î X=
r r r
• =sÉÅíçêë= ì I= î I= ï =Ñçêã=~=êáÖÜí-Ü~åÇÉÇ=ëÅêÉïK=
=

125
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

======= =
=
Figure 83.
=
r r r
á à â
r r r
588. ï = ì × î = u N vN wN =
uO vO wO
=
r r r  v wN uN wN uN vN 
589. ï = ì × î =  N I− I =

 vO w O u O w O u O vO 
=
r r r r
590. p = ì × î = ì ⋅ î ⋅ ëáå θ =EcáÖKUPF=
=
591. ^åÖäÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=sÉÅíçêë=EcáÖKUPF=
r r
ì× î
ëáå θ = r r =
ì⋅î
=
592. kçåÅçããìí~íáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
r r r r
ì × î = −(î × ì ) ==
=
593. ^ëëçÅá~íáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
(λìr )× (µîr ) = λµìr × îr =
=
=

126
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

594. aáëíêáÄìíáîÉ=mêçéÉêíó=
r r r r r r r
ì × (î + ï ) = ì × î + ì × ï =
=
r r r r r
595. ì × î = M =áÑ= ì =~åÇ= î =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=E θ = M FK=
=
r r r r r r r
596. á × á = à × à = â × â = M =
=
r r r r r r r r r
597. á × à = â I= à × â = á I= â × á = à =
=
=
=
6.7 Triple Product
=
598. pÅ~ä~ê=qêáéäÉ=mêçÇìÅí=
[ìr îrïr ] = ìr ⋅ (îr × ïr ) = îr ⋅ (ïr × ìr ) = ïr ⋅ (ìr × îr ) =
=
599. [ìr îrïr ] = [ïr ìr îr ] = [îrïr ìr ] = −[îrìr ïr ] = −[ïr îrìr ] = −[ìr ïr îr ] =
=
r r r rr r
600. âì ⋅ (î × ï ) = â[ìîï ] =
=
601. pÅ~ä~ê=qêáéäÉ=mêçÇìÅí=áå=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=cçêã=
uN vN wN
r r r
ì ⋅ (î × ï ) = u O vO w O I==
uP vP wP
ïÜÉêÉ==
r r r
ì = (uN I vN I wN ) I= î = (u O I vO I w O ) I= ï = (uP I vP I wP ) K==
=
602. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=m~ê~ääÉäÉéáéÉÇ=
r r r
s = ì ⋅ (î × ï ) =
=

127
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

============ =
=
Figure 84.
=
603. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=móê~ãáÇ=
Nr r r
s = ì ⋅ (î × ï ) =
S
=

=
=
Figure 85.
=
r r r r r r
604. fÑ== ì ⋅ (î × ï ) = M I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçêë== ì I= î I=~åÇ= ï =~êÉ=äáåÉ~êäó=
r r r
ÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=I=ëç= ï = λì + µî =Ñçê=ëçãÉ=ëÅ~ä~êë= λ =~åÇ= µ K==
=
r r r r r r
605. fÑ== ì ⋅ (î × ï ) ≠ M I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçêë== ì I= î I=~åÇ= ï =~êÉ=äáåÉ~êäó=
áåÇÉéÉåÇÉåíK=
=

128
CHAPTER 6. VECTORS

606. sÉÅíçê=qêáéäÉ=mêçÇìÅí=
r r r r r r r r r
ì × (î × ï ) = (ì ⋅ ï )î − (ì ⋅ î )ï ==
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

129
Chapter 7
Analytic Geometry
=
=
=
=
7.1 One-Dimensional Coordinate System
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ñ M I= ñ N I= ñ O I= ó M I= ó N I= ó O =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW= λ ==
aáëí~åÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=éçáåíëW=Ç=
=
=
607. aáëí~åÅÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=mçáåíë=
Ç = ^_ = ñ O − ñ N = ñ N − ñ O =
=

=
=
Figure 86.
=
608. aáîáÇáåÖ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=áå=íÜÉ=o~íáç= λ =
ñ + λñ O ^`
ñM = N I= λ = I= λ ≠ −N K=
N+ λ `_
=

======== =
=
Figure 87.

130
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

609. jáÇéçáåí=çÑ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=
ñ + ñO
ñM = N I= λ = N K=
O
=
=
=
7.2 Two-Dimensional Coordinate System
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ñ M I= ñ N I= ñ O I= ó M I= ó N I= ó O =
mçä~ê=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= êI ϕ =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW= λ ==
mçëáíáîÉ=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=ÅI==
aáëí~åÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=éçáåíëW=Ç=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=
610. aáëí~åÅÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=mçáåíë=
Ç = ^_ = (ñ O − ñ N )O + (ó O − óN )O =
=

=
=
Figure 88.

131
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

611. aáîáÇáåÖ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=áå=íÜÉ=o~íáç= λ =
ñ + λñ O ó + λó O
ñM = N I= ó M = N I==
N+ λ N+ λ
^`
λ= I= λ ≠ −N K=
`_
=

======= =
=
Figure 89.
=
=

132
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

======= =
=
Figure 90.
=
612. jáÇéçáåí=çÑ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=
ñ + ñO ó + óO
ñM = N I= ó M = N I= λ = N K=
O O
=
613. `ÉåíêçáÇ=EfåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=jÉÇá~åëF=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
ñ + ñ O + ñP ó + óO + óP
ñM = N I= ó M = N I==
P P
ïÜÉêÉ== ^(ñ N I ó N ) I== _(ñ O I ó O ) I==~åÇ== `(ñ P I ó P ) ==~êÉ=îÉêíáÅÉë=çÑ=
íÜÉ=íêá~åÖäÉ= ^_` K= =
=

133
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

========= =
=
Figure 91.
=
614. fåÅÉåíÉê=EfåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=^åÖäÉ=_áëÉÅíçêëF=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
~ñ + Äñ O + Åñ P ~ó + Äó O + Åó P
ñM = N I= ó M = N I==
~ +Ä+Å ~ +Ä+Å
ïÜÉêÉ= ~ = _` I= Ä = `^ I= Å = ^_ K==
=

======== =
=
Figure 92.

134
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

615. `áêÅìãÅÉåíÉê=EfåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=páÇÉ=mÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê======================
_áëÉÅíçêëF=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
ñ NO + ó NO ó N N ñ N ñ NO + ó NO N
ñ OO + ó OO ó O N ñ O ñ OO + ó OO N
ñ PO + ó PO ó P N ñ P ñ PO + ó PO N
ñM = I= ó M = =
ñN óN N ñN óN N
O ñO óO N O ñO óO N
ñP óP N ñP óP N
=

======== =
==
Figure 93.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

135
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

616. lêíÜçÅÉåíÉê=EfåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=^äíáíìÇÉëF=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
ó N ñ O ñ P + ó NO N ñ NO + ó O ó P ñ N N
ó O ñ P ñ N + ó OO N ñ OO + ó P ó N ñ O N
ó P ñ Nñ O + ó PO N ñ PO + ó Nó O ñ P N
ñM = I= ó M = =
ñN óN N ñN óN N
ñO óO N ñO óO N
ñP óP N ñP óP N
=

====== =
=
Figure 94.
=
617. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
ñ N óN N
N N ñ O − ñN ó O − óN
p = (± ) ñ O ó O N = (± ) =
O O ñ P − ñN ó P − óN
ñP óP N
=
=
=

136
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

618. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=nì~Çêáä~íÉê~ä=
N
p = (± ) [(ñ N − ñ O )(ó N + ó O ) + (ñ O − ñ P )(ó O + ó P ) + =
O
+ (ñ P − ñ Q )(ó P + ó Q ) + (ñ Q − ñ N )(ó Q + ó N )] =
=

=== =
=
Figure 95.
=
kçíÉW=få=Ñçêãìä~ë=SNTI=SNU=ïÉ=ÅÜççëÉ=íÜÉ=ëáÖå=EHF=çê=E¥F=ëç=
íÜ~í=íç=ÖÉí=~=éçëáíáîÉ=~åëïÉê=Ñçê=~êÉ~K==
=
619. aáëí~åÅÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=mçáåíë=áå=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
Ç = ^_ = êNO + êOO − OêNêO Åçë(ϕ O − ϕN ) =
=

137
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 96.
=
620. `çåîÉêíáåÖ=oÉÅí~åÖìä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=íç=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
ñ = ê Åçë ϕ I= ó = ê ëáå ϕ K=
=

=
=
Figure 97.
=
621. `çåîÉêíáåÖ=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=íç=oÉÅí~åÖìä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
ó
ê = ñ O + ó O I= í~å ϕ = K=
ñ

138
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

7.3 Straight Line in Plane

=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW=uI=vI=ñI= ñ M I= ñ N I== ó M I= ó N I= ~N I= ~ O I=£==
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=âI=~I=ÄI=éI=íI=Î=_I=Ì= ^N I= ^ O I=£=
^åÖäÉëW= α I= β =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=äáåÉëW= ϕ =
r
kçêã~ä=îÉÅíçêW= å =
r r r
mçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçêëW= ê I= ~ I= Ä =
=
=
622. dÉåÉê~ä=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉ=
^ñ + _ó + ` = M =
=
623. kçêã~ä=sÉÅíçê=íç=~=píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉ=
r
qÜÉ=îÉÅíçê= å(Î _ ) =áë=åçêã~ä=íç=íÜÉ=äáåÉ= ^ñ + _ó + ` = M K=
=

=
=
Figure 98.
=
624. bñéäáÅáí=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉ=EpäçéÉ-fåíÉêÅÉéí=cçêãF=
ó = âñ + Ä K==

139
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

qÜÉ=Öê~ÇáÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=áë= â = í~å α K=
=

=
=
Figure 99.
=
625. dê~ÇáÉåí=çÑ=~=iáåÉ==
ó − óN
â = í~å α = O =
ñ O − ñN
=

=
=
Figure 100.

140
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

626. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=iáåÉ=dáîÉå=~=mçáåí=~åÇ=íÜÉ=dê~ÇáÉåí=
ó = ó M + â (ñ − ñ M ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ=â=áë=íÜÉ=Öê~ÇáÉåíI= m(ñ M I ó M ) =áë=~=éçáåí=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉK=
=

=
=
Figure 101.
=
627. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=iáåÉ=qÜ~í=m~ëëÉë=qÜêçìÖÜ=qïç=mçáåíë=
ó − óN ñ − ñN
= ==
ó O − óN ñ O − ñN
çê=
ñ ó N
ñ N ó N N = M K=
ñO óO N
=

141
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 102.
=
628. fåíÉêÅÉéí=cçêã=
ñ ó
+ =N=
~ Ä
=

=
=
Figure 103.
=
=

142
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

629. kçêã~ä=cçêã=
ñ Åçë β + ó ëáå β − é = M =
=

=
=
Figure 104.
=
630. mçáåí=aáêÉÅíáçå=cçêã=
ñ − ñ N ó − óN
= I==
u v
ïÜÉêÉ= (uI v ) = áë= íÜÉ= ÇáêÉÅíáçå= çÑ= íÜÉ= äáåÉ= ~åÇ= mN (ñ N I ó N ) = äáÉë=
çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉK=
=

143
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 105.
=
631. sÉêíáÅ~ä=iáåÉ=
ñ =~=
=
632. eçêáòçåí~ä=iáåÉ=
ó=Ä=
=
633. sÉÅíçê=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉ=
r r r
ê = ~ + íÄ I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
l=áë=íÜÉ=çêáÖáå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëI=
u=áë=~åó=î~êá~ÄäÉ=éçáåí=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==
r
~ =áë=íÜÉ=éçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçê=çÑ=~=âåçïå=éçáåí=^=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=I=
r
Ä =áë=~=âåçïå=îÉÅíçê=çÑ=ÇáêÉÅíáçåI=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==
í=áë=~=é~ê~ãÉíÉêI==
r →
ê = lu =áë=íÜÉ=éçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçê=çÑ=~åó=éçáåí=u=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉK==
=

144
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 106.
=
634. píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉ=áå=m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=cçêã=
ñ = ~N + íÄN
 I==
ó = ~ O + íÄO
ïÜÉêÉ==
(ñ I ó ) ~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=~åó=ìåâåçïå=éçáåí=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==
(~N I ~ O ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=~=âåçïå=éçáåí=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==
(ÄN I ÄO ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==
í=áë=~=é~ê~ãÉíÉêK=
=

145
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
Figure 107.
=
635. aáëí~åÅÉ=cêçã=~=mçáåí=qç=~=iáåÉ=
qÜÉ=Çáëí~åÅÉ=Ñêçã=íÜÉ=éçáåí= m(~ I Ä) =íç=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=
^ñ + _ó + ` = M =áë==
^~ + _Ä + `
Ç= K=
^ O + _O
=

=
=
Figure 108.

146
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

636. m~ê~ääÉä=iáåÉë=
qïç=äáåÉë= ó = â Nñ + ÄN =~åÇ= ó = â O ñ + ÄO =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ==
â N = â O K=
qïç= äáåÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `N = M = ~åÇ= ^ O ñ + _O ó + ` O = M = ~êÉ=
é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ=
^N _N
= K=
^ O _O
=

=
=
Figure 109.
=
637. mÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=iáåÉë=
qïç=äáåÉë= ó = â Nñ + ÄN =~åÇ= ó = â O ñ + ÄO =~êÉ=éÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=áÑ==
N
â O = − =çêI=Éèìáî~äÉåíäóI= â Nâ O = −N K=
âN
qïç= äáåÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `N = M = ~åÇ= ^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` O = M = ~êÉ=
éÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=áÑ=
^N^ O + _N_ O = M K=
=

147
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 110.
=
638. ^åÖäÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=iáåÉë=
â − âN
í~å ϕ = O I==
N + â Nâ O
^N^ O + _N_ O
Åçë ϕ = K=
^NO + _NO ⋅ ^ OO + _ OO
=

148
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 111.
=
639. fåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=qïç=iáåÉë=
fÑ=íïç=äáåÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `N = M =~åÇ= ^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` O = M =áåíÉê-
ëÉÅíI=íÜÉ=áåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=éçáåí=Ü~ë=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=
− `N_ O + ` O_N − ^N` O + ^ O`N
ñM = I= ó M = K=
^N_ O − ^ O_N ^N_ O − ^ O_N
=
=
=
7.4 Circle
=
o~ÇáìëW=o=
`ÉåíÉê=çÑ=ÅáêÅäÉW= (~ I Ä) =
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW=ñI=óI= ñ N I= ó N I=£=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI=bI=cI=í=

149
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

640. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=`áêÅäÉ=`ÉåíÉêÉÇ=~í=íÜÉ=lêáÖáå=Epí~åÇ~êÇ=
cçêãF=
ñ O + ó O = oO =

====== =
=
Figure 112.
=
641. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=`áêÅäÉ=`ÉåíÉêÉÇ=~í=^åó=mçáåí= (~I Ä)
(ñ − ~ )O + (ó − Ä)O = o O

Figure 113.

150
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

642. qÜêÉÉ=mçáåí=cçêã
ñO + óO ñ ó N
ñ NO + ó NO ñ N ó N N
=M
ñ OO + ó OO ñ O ó O N
ñ PO + ó PO ñ P ó P N
=

=
=
Figure 114.
=
643. m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=cçêã
ñ = o Åçë í
 I= M ≤ í ≤ Oπ K
ó = o ëáå í
=
644. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã
^ñ O + ^ó O + añ + bó + c = M =E^=åçåòÉêçI= aO + b O > Q ^c FK==
qÜÉ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅáêÅäÉ=Ü~ë=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë= (~ I Ä) I=ïÜÉêÉ==
a b
~=− I= Ä = − K=
O^ O^
qÜÉ=ê~Çáìë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅáêÅäÉ=áë

151
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

aO + b O − Q ^c
o= K
O^
=
=
=
7.5 Ellipse
=
pÉãáã~àçê=~ñáëW=~=
pÉãáãáåçê=~ñáëW=Ä=
cçÅáW= cN (− ÅI M) I= cO (ÅI M) =
aáëí~åÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=ÑçÅáW=OÅ= =
bÅÅÉåíêáÅáíóW=É==
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI=bI=cI=í=
mÉêáãÉíÉêW=i=
^êÉ~W=p=
=
=
645. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~å=bääáéëÉ=Epí~åÇ~êÇ=cçêãF
ñO óO
+ =N
~ O ÄO

=
=
Figure 115.

152
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

646. êN + êO = O~ I=
ïÜÉêÉ== êN I== êO ==~êÉ==Çáëí~åÅÉë==Ñêçã==~åó==éçáåí== m(ñ I ó ) ==çå=
íÜÉ=ÉääáéëÉ=íç=íÜÉ=íïç=ÑçÅáK=
=

=
=
Figure 116.
=
647. ~ O = ÄO + Å O
=
648. bÅÅÉåíêáÅáíó
Å
É = <N=
~
=
649. bèì~íáçåë=çÑ=aáêÉÅíêáÅÉë
~ ~O
ñ=± =± =
É Å
=
650. m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=cçêã
ñ = ~ Åçë í
 I= M ≤ í ≤ Oπ K
ó = Ä ëáå í
=
=

153
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

651. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã
^ñ O + _ñó + `ó O + añ + bó + c = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ= _ O − Q ^` < M K=
=
652. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã=ïáíÜ=^ñÉë=m~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=^ñÉë
^ñ O + `ó O + añ + bó + c = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ= ^` > M K
=
653. `áêÅìãÑÉêÉåÅÉ
i = Q~b(É ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ==íÜÉ==ÑìåÅíáçå=b==áë==íÜÉ=ÅçãéäÉíÉ==ÉääáéíáÅ=áåíÉÖê~ä==çÑ=
íÜÉ=ëÉÅçåÇ=âáåÇK==
=
654. ^ééêçñáã~íÉ=cçêãìä~ë=çÑ=íÜÉ=`áêÅìãÑÉêÉåÅÉ
( )
i = π NKR(~ + Ä) − ~Ä I==
i = π O(~ O + ÄO ) K=
=
655. p = π~Ä =
=
=
=
7.6 Hyperbola
=
qê~åëîÉêëÉ=~ñáëW=~=
`çåàìÖ~íÉ=~ñáëW=Ä=
cçÅáW= cN (− ÅI M) I= cO (ÅI M) =
aáëí~åÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=ÑçÅáW=OÅ= =
bÅÅÉåíêáÅáíóW=É==
^ëóãéíçíÉëW=ëI=í=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI=bI=cI=íI=â=
=
=
=

154
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

656. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=eóéÉêÄçä~=Epí~åÇ~êÇ=cçêãF=
ñO óO
− = N=
~ O ÄO
=

=
=
Figure 117.
=
657. êN − êO = O~ I=
ïÜÉêÉ== êN I== êO ==~êÉ==Çáëí~åÅÉë==Ñêçã==~åó=éçáåí== m(ñ I ó ) ==çå=
íÜÉ=ÜóéÉêÄçä~=íç=íÜÉ=íïç=ÑçÅáK=
=

155
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 118.
=
658. bèì~íáçåë=çÑ=^ëóãéíçíÉë=
Ä
ó=± ñ=
~
=
659. Å O = ~ O + ÄO =
=
660. bÅÅÉåíêáÅáíó
Å
É = > N=
~
=
661. bèì~íáçåë=çÑ=aáêÉÅíêáÅÉë
~ ~O
ñ=± =± =
É Å
=
=
=

156
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

662. m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=bèì~íáçåë=çÑ=íÜÉ=oáÖÜí=_ê~åÅÜ=çÑ=~=eóéÉêÄçä~=
ñ = ~ ÅçëÜ í
 I= M ≤ í ≤ Oπ K
ó = Ä ëáåÜ í
=
663. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã
^ñ O + _ñó + `ó O + añ + bó + c = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ= _ O − Q ^` > M K=
=
664. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã=ïáíÜ=^ñÉë=m~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=^ñÉë
^ñ O + `ó O + añ + bó + c = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ= ^` < M K=

665. ^ëóãéíçíáÅ=cçêã=
ÉO
ñó = I==
Q
çê==
â ÉO
ó = I=ïÜÉêÉ= â = K=
ñ Q
få= íÜáë= Å~ëÉ= I= íÜÉ= ~ëóãéíçíÉë= Ü~îÉ= Éèì~íáçåë= ñ = M = ~åÇ=
ó = M K==
=

157
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 119.
=
=
=
7.7 Parabola
=
cçÅ~ä=é~ê~ãÉíÉêW=é=
cçÅìëW=c=
sÉêíÉñW= j(ñ M I ó M ) =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI=bI=cI=éI=~I=ÄI=Å=
=
=
666. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=m~ê~Äçä~=Epí~åÇ~êÇ=cçêãF
ó O = Oéñ
=

158
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

=
=
Figure 120.
=
bèì~íáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíêáñ
é
ñ = − I=
O
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÑçÅìë=
é 
c I M  I=
O 
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=îÉêíÉñ=
j(MI M) K=
=
667. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã
^ñ O + _ñó + `ó O + añ + bó + c = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ= _ O − Q ^` = M K=
=
N
668. ó = ~ñ O I= é = K=
O~
bèì~íáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíêáñ

159
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

é
ó = − I=
O
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÑçÅìë=
 é
c MI  I=
 O
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=îÉêíÉñ=
j(MI M) K=
=

=
=
Figure 121.
=
669. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêãI=^ñáë=m~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ó-~ñáë==
^ñ O + añ + bó + c = M =E^I=b=åçåòÉêçFI==
N
ó = ~ñ O + Äñ + Å I= é = K==
O~
bèì~íáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíêáñ
é
ó = ó M − I=
O
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÑçÅìë=

160
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

 é
c ñ M I ó M +  I=
 O
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=îÉêíÉñ=
Ä Q~Å − ÄO
ñ M = − I= ó M = ~ñ OM + Äñ M + Å = K=
O~ Q~
=

=
=
Figure 122.
=
=
=
7.8 Three-Dimensional Coordinate System
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ñ M I= ó M I= ò M I= ñ N I= ó N I= ò N I=£=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW= λ ==
aáëí~åÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=éçáåíëW=Ç=
^êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉW=s=
=

161
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

670. aáëí~åÅÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=mçáåíë=
Ç = ^_ = (ñ O − ñ N )O + (ó O − óN )O + (ò O − òN )O =
=

=== =
=
Figure 123.
=
671. aáîáÇáåÖ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=áå=íÜÉ=o~íáç= λ =
ñ + λñ O ó + λó O ò + λò O
ñM = N I= ó M = N I= ò M = N I==
N+ λ N+ λ N+ λ
ïÜÉêÉ=
^`
λ= I= λ ≠ −N K=
`_
=

162
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

======== =
=
Figure 124.
=

=
Figure 125.

163
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

672. jáÇéçáåí=çÑ=~=iáåÉ=pÉÖãÉåí=
ñ + ñO ó + óO ò +ò
ñM = N I= ó M = N I= ò M = N O I= λ = N K=
O O O
=
673. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=qêá~åÖäÉ=
qÜÉ=~êÉ~=çÑ=~=íêá~åÖäÉ=ïáíÜ=îÉêíáÅÉë= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) I=
mO (ñ O I ó O I ò O ) I=~åÇ= mP (ñ P I ó P I ò P ) =áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
O O O
óN òN N òN ñN N ñN óN N
N
p= óO òO N + òO ñO N + ñO ó O N K=
O
óP òP N òP ñP N ñP óP N
=
674. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=qÉíê~ÜÉÇêçå=
qÜÉ=îçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=íÉíê~ÜÉÇêçå=ïáíÜ=îÉêíáÅÉë= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) I=
mO (ñ O I ó O I ò O ) I= mP (ñ P I ó P I ò P ) I=~åÇ= mQ (ñ Q I ó Q I ò Q ) =áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
ñ N óN òN N
N ñO óO òO N
s=± I==
S ñ P óP òP N
ñQ óQ òQ N
çê=
ñ N − ñ Q óN − ó Q òN − ò Q
N
s = ± ñ O − ñ Q ó O − ó Q ò O − ò Q K=
S
ñP − ñ Q óP − ó Q òP − òQ
kçíÉW=tÉ=ÅÜççëÉ=íÜÉ=ëáÖå=EHF=çê=E¥F=ëç=íÜ~í=íç=ÖÉí=~=éçëáíáîÉ=
~åëïÉê=Ñçê=îçäìãÉK==
=

164
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

==== =
=
Figure 126.
=
=
=
7.9 Plane
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW=ñI=óI=òI= ñ M I= ó M I= ò M I= ñ N I= ó N I= ò N I=£=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI= ^N I= ^ O I=~I=ÄI=ÅI= ~N I= ~ O I= λ I=éI=íI=£==
r r r
kçêã~ä=îÉÅíçêëW= å I= åN I= å O =
aáêÉÅíáçå=ÅçëáåÉëW= Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ =
aáëí~åÅÉ=Ñêçã=éçáåí=íç=éä~åÉW=Ç=
=
=
675. dÉåÉê~ä=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=mä~åÉ=
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M =
=
=

165
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

676. kçêã~ä=sÉÅíçê=íç=~=mä~åÉ=
r
qÜÉ=îÉÅíçê= å (^I _I ` ) =áë=åçêã~ä=íç=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M K=
=

=== =
=
Figure 127.
=
677. m~êíáÅìä~ê=`~ëÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=mä~åÉ=
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M =
=
fÑ= ^ = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáëK=
fÑ= _ = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ó-~ñáëK=
fÑ= ` = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ò-~ñáëK=
fÑ= a = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=äáÉë=çå=íÜÉ=çêáÖáåK==
=
fÑ= ^ = _ = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉK=
fÑ= _ = ` = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=óò-éä~åÉK=
fÑ= ^ = ` = M I=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=áë=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=ñò-éä~åÉK=
=

166
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

678. mçáåí=aáêÉÅíáçå=cçêã=
^(ñ − ñ M ) + _(ó − ó M ) + `(ò − ò M ) = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=éçáåí= m(ñ M I ó M I ò M ) =äáÉë=áå=íÜÉ=éä~åÉI=~åÇ=íÜÉ=îÉÅ-
íçê= (^I _I ` ) =áë=åçêã~ä=íç=íÜÉ=éä~åÉK===
=

==== =
=
Figure 128.
=
679. fåíÉêÅÉéí=cçêã=
ñ ó ò
+ + = N=
~ Ä Å
=

167
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 129.
=
680. qÜêÉÉ=mçáåí=cçêã=
ñ − ñP ó − óP ò − òP
ñ N − ñ P ó N − ó P ò N − ò P = M I==
ñ O − ñ P ó O − óP ò O − òP
çê==
ñ ó ò N
ñN óN òN N
= M K=
ñO óO òO N
ñP óP òP N
=

168
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 130.
=
681. kçêã~ä=cçêã=
ñ Åçë α + ó Åçë β + ò Åçë γ − é = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ==é==áë==íÜÉ==éÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê==Çáëí~åÅÉ==Ñêçã==íÜÉ=çêáÖáå=íç=
íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=I=~åÇ= Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíáçå=ÅçëáåÉë=
çÑ=~åó=äáåÉ=åçêã~ä=íç=íÜÉ=éä~åÉK==
=

169
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

====== =
=
Figure 131.
=
682. m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=cçêã=
ñ = ñ N + ~Në + ~ O í

ó = ó N + ÄNë + ÄO í I==
ò = ò + Å ë + Å í
 N N O

ïÜÉêÉ= (ñ I ó I ò ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=~åó=ìåâåçïå=éçáåí=çå=
íÜÉ=äáåÉ=I=íÜÉ=éçáåí= m(ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =äáÉë=áå=íÜÉ=éä~åÉI=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçêë=
(~N I ÄN I ÅN ) =~åÇ= (~ O I ÄO I Å O ) =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=íç=íÜÉ=éä~åÉK=
=

170
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 132.
=
683. aáÜÉÇê~ä=^åÖäÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=mä~åÉë=
fÑ=íÜÉ=éä~åÉë=~êÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
^Nñ + _Nó + `Nò + aN = M I==
^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` Oò + aO = M I==
íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ÇáÜÉÇê~ä=~åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉã=áë==
r r
åN ⋅ å O ^N^ O + _N_ O + `N` O
Åçë ϕ = r r = K=
åN ⋅ å O ^NO + _NO + `NO ⋅ ^ OO + _ OO + ` OO
=

171
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

====== =
=
Figure 133.
=
684. m~ê~ääÉä=mä~åÉë=
qïç=éä~åÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `Nò + aN = M =~åÇ=
^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` Oò + aO = M =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ==
^N _N `N
= = K=
^ O _O `O
=
685. mÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=mä~åÉë=
qïç=éä~åÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `Nò + aN = M =~åÇ=
^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` Oò + aO = M =~êÉ=éÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=áÑ==
^N^ O + _N_ O + `N` O = M K=
=
686. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=mä~åÉ=qÜêçìÖÜ= m(ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =~åÇ=m~ê~ääÉä=qç=
íÜÉ=sÉÅíçêë= (~N I ÄN I ÅN ) =~åÇ= (~ O I ÄO I Å O ) =EcáÖKNPOF=

172
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

ñ − ñN ó − óN ò − òN
~N ÄN ÅN = M =
~O ÄO ÅO
=
687. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=mä~åÉ=qÜêçìÖÜ= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =~åÇ= mO (ñ O I ó O I ò O ) I=
~åÇ=m~ê~ääÉä=qç=íÜÉ=sÉÅíçê= (~ I ÄI Å ) =
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
ñ O − ñN ó O − óN ò O − òN = M =
~ Ä Å
=

=
Figure 134.
=
688. aáëí~åÅÉ=cêçã=~=mçáåí=qç=~=mä~åÉ=
qÜÉ=Çáëí~åÅÉ=Ñêçã=íÜÉ=éçáåí= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =íç=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M =áë==

173
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

^ñ N + _ó N + `òN + a
Ç= K=
^O + _O + `O
=

====== =
=
Figure 135.
=
689. fåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=qïç=mä~åÉë=
fÑ=íïç=éä~åÉë= ^Nñ + _Nó + `Nò + aN = M =~åÇ=
^ O ñ + _ O ó + ` Oò + aO = M = áåíÉêëÉÅíI= íÜÉ= áåíÉêëÉÅíáçå= ëíê~áÖÜí=
äáåÉ=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=
ñ = ñ N + ~í

ó = ó N + Äí I==
ò = ò + Åí
 N
çê==
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
= = I==
~ Ä Å
ïÜÉêÉ==

174
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

_N `N ` ^N ^ _N
~= I= Ä = N I= Å = N I==
_O Ò Ò Ô Ô _O
aN `N a _N
Ä −Å N
aO Ò aO _ O
ñN = I==
~ + Ä + ÅO
O O

aN ^N a `N
Å −~ N
aO ^O aO ` O
óN = I==
~ + Ä + ÅO
O O

aN _N a ^N
~ −Ä N
aO _O aO ^ O
òN = K==
~ + Ä + ÅO
O O

=
=
=
7.10 Straight Line in Space
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW=ñI=óI=òI= ñ N I= ó N I= ò N I=£=
aáêÉÅíáçå=ÅçëáåÉëW= Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=aI=~I=ÄI=ÅI= ~N I= ~ O I=íI=£==
r r r
aáêÉÅíáçå=îÉÅíçêë=çÑ=~=äáåÉW= ë I= ëN I= ëO =
r
kçêã~ä=îÉÅíçê=íç=~=éä~åÉW= å =
^åÖäÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=íïç=äáåÉëW= ϕ =
=
690. mçáåí=aáêÉÅíáçå=cçêã=çÑ=íÜÉ=bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=iáåÉ==
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
= = I==
~ Ä Å
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=éçáåí= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =äáÉë=çå=íÜÉ=äáåÉI=~åÇ= (~ I ÄI Å ) =áë=
íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíáçå=îÉÅíçê=çÑ=íÜÉ=äáåÉK==
=

175
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 136.
=
691. qïç=mçáåí=cçêã=
ñ − ñN ó − óN ò − òN
= = ==
ñ O − ñ N ó O − óN ò O − òN
=

===== =
Figure 137.

176
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

692. m~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=cçêã==
ñ = ñ N + í Åçë α

ó = ó N + í Åçë β I==
ò = ò + í Åçë γ
 N
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=éçáåí= mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) =äáÉë=çå=íÜÉ=ëíê~áÖÜí=äáåÉI=
Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíáçå=ÅçëáåÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíáçå=
îÉÅíçê=çÑ=íÜÉ=äáåÉI=íÜÉ=é~ê~ãÉíÉê=í=áë=~åó=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêK==
=

===== =
=
Figure 138.
=
693. ^åÖäÉ=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=píê~áÖÜí=iáåÉë=
r r
ë ⋅ë ~N~ O + ÄNÄO + ÅNÅ O
Åçë ϕ = r N rO = =
ëN ⋅ ëO ~N + ÄNO + ÅNO ⋅ ~ OO + ÄOO + Å OO
O

177
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 139.
=
694. m~ê~ääÉä=iáåÉë=
qïç=äáåÉë=~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ==
r r
ëN öö ëO I==
çê==
~ N ÄN ÅN
= = K=
~ O ÄO Å O
=
695. mÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=iáåÉë=
qïç=äáåÉë=~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ==
r r
ëN ⋅ ëO = M I==
çê==
~N~ O + ÄNÄO + ÅNÅ O = M K=
=
696. fåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=qïç=iáåÉë=
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
qïç=äáåÉë= = = =~åÇ=
~N ÄN ÅN

178
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

ñ − ñO ó − óO ò − òO
= = =áåíÉêëÉÅí=áÑ==
~O ÄO ÅO
ñ O − ñ N ó O − óN ò O − òN
~N ÄN ÅN = M K=
~O ÄO ÅO
=
697. m~ê~ääÉä=iáåÉ=~åÇ=mä~åÉ==
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
qÜÉ=ëíê~áÖÜí=äáåÉ= = = =~åÇ=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=
~ Ä Å
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M =~êÉ=é~ê~ääÉä=áÑ=
r r
å ⋅ ë = M I==
çê==
^~ + _Ä + `Å = M K=
=

===== =
=
Figure 140.
=
=

179
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

698. mÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=iáåÉ=~åÇ=mä~åÉ==
ñ − ñ N ó − óN ò − òN
qÜÉ=ëíê~áÖÜí=äáåÉ= = = =~åÇ=íÜÉ=éä~åÉ=
~ Ä Å
^ñ + _ó + `ò + a = M =~êÉ=éÉêéÉåÇáÅìä~ê=áÑ=
r r
å öö ë I==
çê==
^ _ `
= = K=
~ Ä Å
=

==== =
=
Figure 141.
=
=
7.11 Quadric Surfaces
=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=íÜÉ=èì~ÇêáÅ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉëW=ñI=óI=ò=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=_I=`I=~I=ÄI=ÅI= â N I â O I â P I=£=

180
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

699. dÉåÉê~ä=nì~Çê~íáÅ=bèì~íáçå=
^ñ O + _ó O + `ò O + Ocóò + Odòñ + Oeñó + Omñ + Onó + Ooò + a = M
=
700. `ä~ëëáÑáÅ~íáçå=çÑ=nì~ÇêáÅ=pìêÑ~ÅÉë=
=
`~ëÉ= o~åâEÉF= o~åâEbF= ∆= â=ëáÖåë= qóéÉ=çÑ=pìêÑ~ÅÉ=
N= P= Q= <M= p~ãÉ= oÉ~ä=bääáéëçáÇ=
O= P= Q= > M= p~ãÉ= fã~Öáå~êó=bääáéëçáÇ=
P= P= Q= > M = aáÑÑÉêÉåí= eóéÉêÄçäçáÇ=çÑ=N=pÜÉÉí=
Q= P= Q= < M = aáÑÑÉêÉåí= eóéÉêÄçäçáÇ=çÑ=O=pÜÉÉíë=
R= P= P= = aáÑÑÉêÉåí= oÉ~ä=nì~ÇêáÅ=`çåÉ=
S= P= P= = p~ãÉ= fã~Öáå~êó=nì~ÇêáÅ=`çåÉ=
T= O= Q= <M= p~ãÉ= bääáéíáÅ=m~ê~ÄçäçáÇ=
U= O= Q= > M= aáÑÑÉêÉåí= eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=m~ê~ÄçäçáÇ=
V= O= P= = p~ãÉ= oÉ~ä=bääáéíáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=
NM= O= P= = p~ãÉ= fã~Öáå~êó=bääáéíáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=
NN= O= P= = aáÑÑÉêÉåí= eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=
NO= O= O= = aáÑÑÉêÉåí= oÉ~ä=fåíÉêëÉÅíáåÖ=mä~åÉë=
NP= O= O= = p~ãÉ= fã~Öáå~êó=fåíÉêëÉÅíáåÖ=mä~åÉë=
NQ= N= P= = = m~ê~ÄçäáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=
NR= N= O= = = oÉ~ä=m~ê~ääÉä=mä~åÉë=
NS= N= O= = = fã~Öáå~êó=m~ê~ääÉä=mä~åÉë=
NT= N= N= = = `çáåÅáÇÉåí=mä~åÉë=
=
eÉêÉ==
^ e n m
 ^ e d  
   e _ c n
É =  e _ c  I= b =  I= ∆ = ÇÉí(b ) I==
 d c ` d c ` o
   
 m n o a
 
â N I â O I â P =~êÉ=íÜÉ=êççíë=çÑ=íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçåI==
^−ñ e d
e _−ñ c = M K=
d c `−ñ
=
=

181
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

701. oÉ~ä=bääáéëçáÇ=E`~ëÉ=NF=
ñO óO òO
+ + = N=
~ O ÄO Å O
=

===== =
=
Figure 142.
=
702. fã~Öáå~êó=bääáéëçáÇ=E`~ëÉ=OF=
ñO óO òO
+ + = −N =
~ O ÄO Å O
=
703. eóéÉêÄçäçáÇ=çÑ=N=pÜÉÉí=E`~ëÉ=PF=
ñO óO òO
+ − = N=
~ O ÄO Å O
=

182
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 143.
=
704. eóéÉêÄçäçáÇ=çÑ=O=pÜÉÉíë=E`~ëÉ=QF=
ñO óO òO
+ − = −N =
~ O ÄO Å O
=

= =
=
Figure 144.

183
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

705. oÉ~ä=nì~ÇêáÅ=`çåÉ=E`~ëÉ=RF=
ñO óO òO
+ − =M=
~ O ÄO Å O
=

== =
=
Figure 145.
=
706. fã~Öáå~êó=nì~ÇêáÅ=`çåÉ=E`~ëÉ=SF=
ñO óO òO
+ + =M=
~ O ÄO Å O
=
707. bääáéíáÅ=m~ê~ÄçäçáÇ=E`~ëÉ=TF=
ñO óO
+ −ò = M=
~ O ÄO
=

184
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

====== =
Figure 146.

708. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=m~ê~ÄçäçáÇ=E`~ëÉ=UF=
ñO óO
− −ò = M=
~ O ÄO

==== =
Figure 147.

185
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

709. oÉ~ä=bääáéíáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=E`~ëÉ=VF=
ñO óO
+ = N=
~ O ÄO
=

===== =
=
Figure 148.
=
710. fã~Öáå~êó=bääáéíáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=E`~ëÉ=NMF=
ñO óO
+ = −N =
~ O ÄO
=
711. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=E`~ëÉ=NNF=
ñO óO
− = N=
~ O ÄO
=

186
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

====== =
=
Figure 149.
=
712. oÉ~ä=fåíÉêëÉÅíáåÖ=mä~åÉë=E`~ëÉ=NOF=
ñO óO
− =M=
~ O ÄO
=
713. fã~Öáå~êó=fåíÉêëÉÅíáåÖ=mä~åÉë=E`~ëÉ=NPF=
ñO óO
+ = M=
~ O ÄO
=
714. m~ê~ÄçäáÅ=`óäáåÇÉê=E`~ëÉ=NQF=
ñO
−ó =M=
~O
=

187
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

===== =
=
Figure 150.
=
715. oÉ~ä=m~ê~ääÉä=mä~åÉë=E`~ëÉ=NRF=
ñO
= N=
~O
=
716. fã~Öáå~êó=m~ê~ääÉä=mä~åÉë=E`~ëÉ=NSF=
ñO
= −N =
~O
=
717. `çáåÅáÇÉåí=mä~åÉë=E`~ëÉ=NTF=
ñO = M =
=
=
=
=
=

188
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

7.12 Sphere
=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=~=ëéÜÉêÉW=o=
mçáåí=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW=ñI=óI=òI= ñ N I= ó N I= ò N I=£=
`ÉåíÉê=çÑ=~=ëéÜÉêÉW= (~ I ÄI Å ) =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=^I=aI=bI=cI=j=
=
=
718. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=péÜÉêÉ=`ÉåíÉêÉÇ=~í=íÜÉ=lêáÖáå=Epí~åÇ~êÇ=
cçêãF=
ñ O + ó O + ò O = oO =
=

====== =
=
Figure 151.
=
719. bèì~íáçå=çÑ=~=`áêÅäÉ=`ÉåíÉêÉÇ=~í=^åó=mçáåí= (~ I ÄI Å )
(ñ − ~ )O + (ó − Ä)O + (ò − Å )O = o O
720. aá~ãÉíÉê=cçêã
(ñ − ñ N )(ñ − ñ O ) + (ó − óN )(ó − ó O ) + (ò − òN )(ò − ò O ) = M I==

189
CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

ïÜÉêÉ==
mN (ñ N I ó N I ò N ) I= mO (ñ O I ó O I ò O ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÉåÇë=çÑ=~=Çá~ãÉíÉêK==
=
721. cçìê=mçáåí=cçêã=
ñO + óO + òO ñ ó ò N
ñ NO + ó NO + ñ NO ñ N ó N ò N N
ñ OO + ó OO + ñ OO ñ O ó O ò O N = M =
ñ PO + ó PO + ñ PO ñ P ó P ò P N
ñ OQ + ó OQ + ñ OQ ñ Q ó Q ò Q N
=
722. dÉåÉê~ä=cçêã
^ñ O + ^ó O + ^ò O + añ + bó + cò + j = M =E^=áë=åçåòÉêçFK==
qÜÉ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëéÜÉêÉ=Ü~ë=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë= (~ I ÄI Å ) I=ïÜÉêÉ==
a b c
~=− I= Ä = − I= Å = − K=
O^ O^ O^
qÜÉ=ê~Çáìë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëéÜÉêÉ=áë
aO + b O + c O − Q ^ O j
o= K
O^
=
=

190
Chapter 8
Differential Calculus
=
=
=
=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=ÖI=óI=ìI=î=
^êÖìãÉåí=EáåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉFW=ñ=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=Ç=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
^åÖäÉW= α =
fåîÉêëÉ=ÑìåÅíáçåW= Ñ −N =
=
=
8.1 Functions and Their Graphs
=
723. bîÉå=cìåÅíáçå=
Ñ (− ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) =
=
724. lÇÇ=cìåÅíáçå=
Ñ (− ñ ) = −Ñ (ñ ) =
=
725. mÉêáçÇáÅ=cìåÅíáçå=
Ñ (ñ + åq ) = Ñ (ñ ) =
=
726. fåîÉêëÉ=cìåÅíáçå=
ó = Ñ (ñ ) =áë=~åó=ÑìåÅíáçåI= ñ = Ö(ó ) =çê= ó = Ñ −N (ñ ) =áë=áíë=áåîÉêëÉ=
ÑìåÅíáçåK==
=

191
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

===== =
=
Figure 152.
=
727. `çãéçëáíÉ=cìåÅíáçå=
ó = Ñ (ì ) I= ì = Ö(ñ ) I= ó = Ñ (Ö(ñ )) =áë=~=ÅçãéçëáíÉ=ÑìåÅíáçåK=
=
728. iáåÉ~ê=cìåÅíáçå=
ó = ~ñ + Ä I== ñ ∈ o I== ~ = í~å α ==áë=íÜÉ=ëäçéÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=äáåÉI==Ä==áë=
íÜÉ=ó-áåíÉêÅÉéíK=
=

192
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

====== =
=
Figure 153.
=
729. nì~Çê~íáÅ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ñ O I= ñ ∈ o K=
=

====== =
=
Figure 154.
=

193
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

730. ó = ~ñ O + Äñ + Å I= ñ ∈ o K=
=

=== =
=
Figure 155.
=
731. `ìÄáÅ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ñ P I= ñ ∈ o K=
=

194
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

= =
=
Figure 156.
=
732. ó = ~ñ P + Äñ O + Åñ + Ç I= ñ ∈ o K=
=

195
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

== =
=
Figure 157.
=
733. mçïÉê=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ñ å I= å∈ k K=
=

196
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

====== =
Figure 158.
=

=
Figure 159.
=

197
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

734. pèì~êÉ=oççí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ñ I= ñ ∈ [MI ∞ ) K=
=

======= =
Figure 160.
=
735. bñéçåÉåíá~ä=cìåÅíáçåë=
ó = ~ ñ I= ~ > M I= ~ ≠ N I=
ó = É ñ =áÑ= ~ = É I= É = OKTNUOUNUOUQSK =
=

= =
=
Figure 161.

198
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

736. içÖ~êáíÜãáÅ=cìåÅíáçåë=
ó = äçÖ ~ ñ I= ñ ∈ (MI ∞ ) I= ~ > M I= ~ ≠ N I=
ó = äå ñ =áÑ= ~ = É I= ñ > M K=
=

=
=
Figure 162.
=
737. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=páåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
Éñ − É−ñ
ó = ëáåÜ ñ I= ëáåÜ ñ = I= ñ ∈ o K=
O
=

199
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

==== =
=
Figure 163.
=
738. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çëáåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
Éñ + É−ñ
ó = Åçë Ü ñ I= Åçë Ü ñ = I= ñ ∈ o K=
O

====== =
=
Figure 164.

200
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

739. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=q~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ëáåÜ ñ É ñ − É − ñ
ó = í~åÜ ñ I= ó = í~åÜ ñ = = I= ñ ∈ o K=
ÅçëÜ ñ É ñ + É − ñ
=

====== =
=
Figure 165.
=
740. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çí~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ÅçëÜ ñ É ñ + É − ñ
ó = Åçí Ü ñ I= ó = Åçí Ü ñ = = I= ñ ∈ o I= ñ ≠ M K=
ëáåÜ ñ É ñ − É − ñ
=

201
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

====== =
=
Figure 166.
=
741. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=pÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
N O
ó = ëÉÅ Ü ñ I= ó = ëÉÅ Ü ñ = = ñ − ñ I= ñ ∈ o K=
ÅçëÜ ñ É + É

=
Figure 167.

202
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

742. eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çëÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
N O
ó = ÅëÅÜ ñ I= ó = ÅëÅÜ ñ = = ñ − ñ I= ñ ∈ o I= ñ ≠ M K=
ëáåÜ ñ É − É
=

====== =
=
Figure 168.
=
743. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=páåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅëáåÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ o K=
=

203
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

===== =
=
Figure 169.
=
744. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çëáåÉ=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅÅçëÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ [NI ∞ ) K=
=

===== =
=
Figure 170.
=
745. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=q~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅí~åÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ (− NI N) K=
=

204
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

===== =
=
Figure 171.
=
746. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çí~åÖÉåí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅÅçíÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ (− ∞I − N) ∪ (NI ∞ ) K==
=

205
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

===== =
=
Figure 172.
=
747. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=pÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅëÉÅÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ (MI N] K=
=

206
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

=
Figure 173.
=
748. fåîÉêëÉ=eóéÉêÄçäáÅ=`çëÉÅ~åí=cìåÅíáçå==
ó = ~êÅÅëÅÜ ñ I= ñ ∈ o I= ñ ≠ M K==

=
Figure 174.
=

207
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

8.2 Limits of Functions

=
cìåÅíáçåëW= Ñ (ñ ) I= Ö(ñ ) =
^êÖìãÉåíW=ñ=
oÉ~ä=Åçåëí~åíëW=~I=â=
=
=
749. äáã[Ñ (ñ ) + Ö(ñ )] = äáã Ñ (ñ ) + äáã Ö (ñ ) =
ñ →~ ñ →~ ñ →~
=
750. äáã[Ñ (ñ ) − Ö (ñ )] = äáã Ñ (ñ ) − äáã Ö (ñ ) =
ñ →~ ñ →~ ñ →~
=
751. äáã[Ñ (ñ ) ⋅ Ö (ñ )] = äáã Ñ (ñ ) ⋅ äáã Ö (ñ ) =
ñ →~ ñ →~ ñ →~

=
Ñ (ñ ) äáã Ñ (ñ )
752. äáã = ñ →~ I=áÑ= äáã Ö(ñ ) ≠ M K=
ñ → ~ Ö (ñ ) äáã Ö(ñ ) ñ →~
ñ →~
=
753. äáã[âÑ (ñ )] = â äáã Ñ (ñ ) =
ñ →~ ñ →~

( )
=
754. äáã Ñ (Ö (ñ )) = Ñ äáã Ö (ñ ) =
ñ →~ ñ →~
=
755. äáã Ñ (ñ ) = Ñ (~ ) I=áÑ=íÜÉ=ÑìåÅíáçå= Ñ (ñ ) =áë=Åçåíáåìçìë=~í= ñ = ~ K=
ñ →~
=
ëáå ñ
756. äáã = N=
ñ →M ñ
=
í~å ñ
757. äáã =N=
ñ →M ñ
=
ëáå −N ñ
758. äáã = N=
ñ →M ñ

208
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

í~å −N ñ
759. äáã = N=
ñ →M ñ
=
äå(N + ñ )
760. äáã = N=
ñ →M ñ
=
ñ
 N
761. äáã N +  = É =
ñ →∞
 ñ
=
ñ
 â
762. äáã N +  = É â =
ñ →∞
 ñ
=
763. äáã ~ ñ = N =
ñ →M

=
=
=
8.3 Definition and Properties of the Derivative
=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=ÖI=óI=ìI=î=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉW=ñ=
oÉ~ä=Åçåëí~åíW=â=
^åÖäÉW= α =
=
=
Ñ (ñ + ∆ñ ) − Ñ (ñ ) ∆ó Çó
764. ó′(ñ ) = äáã = äáã = ==
∆ñ → M ∆ñ ∆ñ →M ∆ñ Çñ
=

209
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

== =
=
Figure 175.
=
Çó
765. = í~å α ==
Çñ
=
Ç(ì + î ) Çì Çî
766. = + =
Çñ Çñ Çñ
=
Ç(ì − î ) Çì Çî
767. = − =
Çñ Çñ Çñ
=
Ç(âì ) Çì
768. =â =
Çñ Çñ
=
769. mêçÇìÅí=oìäÉ=
Ç(ì ⋅ î ) Çì Çî
= ⋅ î + ì ⋅ ==
Çñ Çñ Çñ
=
=

210
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

770. nìçíáÉåí=oìäÉ=
Çì Çî
⋅î −ì⋅
Ç  ì  Çñ Çñ =
 = O
Çñ  î  î
=
771. `Ü~áå=oìäÉ=
ó = Ñ (Ö(ñ )) I= ì = Ö(ñ ) I==
Çó Çó Çì
= ⋅ K=
Çñ Çì Çñ
=
772. aÉêáî~íáîÉ=çÑ=fåîÉêëÉ=cìåÅíáçå=
Çó N
= I==
Çñ Çñ
Çó
ïÜÉêÉ= ñ (ó ) áë=íÜÉ=áåîÉêëÉ=ÑìåÅíáçå=çÑ= ó (ñ ) K==
=
773. oÉÅáéêçÅ~ä=oìäÉ=
Çó
Ç  N
  = − ÇñO =
Çñ  ó  ó
=
774. içÖ~êáíÜãáÅ=aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~íáçå=
ó = Ñ (ñ ) I= äå ó = äå Ñ (ñ ) I==
Çó Ç
= Ñ (ñ ) ⋅ [äå Ñ (ñ )] K=
Çñ Çñ
=
=
8.4 Table of Derivatives
=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉW=ñ=
oÉ~ä=Åçåëí~åíëW=`I=~I=ÄI=Å=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=

211
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Ç
775. (` ) = M =
Çñ
=
Ç
776. (ñ ) = N =
Çñ
=
Ç
777. (~ñ + Ä) = ~ =
Çñ
=
778.
Ç
Çñ
(~ñ O + Äñ + Å ) = ~ñ + Ä =
=
779.
Ç å
Çñ
(ñ ) = åñ å −N =
=
780.
Çñ
(
Ç −å
ñ ) = − å +N =
ñ
å

=
Ç N N
781.  =− O =
Çñ  ñ  ñ
=
782.
Ç
Çñ
( ñ ) = O Nñ =
=
783.
Ç
( ñ )=
å N
=
Çñ å å ñ å −N
=
Ç
784. (äå ñ ) = N =
Çñ ñ
=
Ç
785. (äçÖ ~ ñ ) = N I= ~ > M I= ~ ≠ N K=
Çñ ñ äå ~
=

212
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

786.
Ç ñ
Çñ
(~ ) = ~ ñ äå ~ I= ~ > M I= ~ ≠ N K=
=
787.
Ç ñ
Çñ
(É ) = Éñ =
=
Ç
788. (ëáå ñ ) = Åçë ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
789. (Åçë ñ ) = − ëáå ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
790. (í~å ñ ) = NO = ëÉÅ O ñ =
Çñ Åçë ñ
=
Ç
791. (Åçí ñ ) = − NO = − ÅëÅ O ñ =
Çñ ëáå ñ
=
Ç
792. (ëÉÅ ñ ) = í~å ñ ⋅ ëÉÅ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
793. (ÅëÅ ñ ) = − Åçí ñ ⋅ ÅëÅ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
794. (~êÅëáå ñ ) = N O =
Çñ N− ñ
=
Ç
795. (~êÅÅçë ñ ) = − N O =
Çñ N− ñ
=
Ç
796. (~êÅí~å ñ ) = N O =
Çñ N+ ñ
=

213
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Ç
797. (~êÅ Åçí ñ ) = − N O =
Çñ N+ ñ
=
Ç
798. (~êÅ ëÉÅ ñ ) = NO =
Çñ ñ ñ −N
=
Ç
799. (~êÅ ÅëÅ ñ ) = − NO =
Çñ ñ ñ −N
=
Ç
800. (ëáåÜ ñ ) = ÅçëÜ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
801. (ÅçëÜ ñ ) = ëáåÜ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
802. (í~åÜ ñ ) = N O = ëÉÅÜ O ñ =
Çñ ÅçëÜ ñ
=
Ç
803. (ÅçíÜ ñ ) = − N O = −ÅëÅÜ O ñ =
Çñ ëáåÜ ñ
=
Ç
804. (ëÉÅÜ ñ ) = −ëÉÅÜ ñ ⋅ í~åÜ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
805. (ÅëÅÜ ñ ) = −ÅëÅÜ ñ ⋅ ÅçíÜ ñ =
Çñ
=
Ç
806. (~êÅëáåÜ=ñ ) = NO =
Çñ ñ +N
=
Ç
807. (~êÅÅçëÜ=ñ ) = ON =
Çñ ñ −N

214
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

Ç
808. (~êÅí~åÜ=ñ ) = N O I= ñ < N K=
Çñ N− ñ
=
Ç
809. (~êÅÅçíÜ=ñ ) = − ON I= ñ > N K=
Çñ ñ −N
=
810.
Ç î
Çñ
(ì ) = îì î −N ⋅
Çì
Çñ
Çî
+ ì î äå ì ⋅ =
Çñ
=
=
=
8.5 Higher Order Derivatives
=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=óI=ìI=î=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉW=ñ=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
=
=
811. pÉÅçåÇ=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ=
O
′  Çó  ′ Ç  Çó  Ç ó
Ñ ′′ = (Ñ ′) =   =  = O =
 Çñ  Çñ  Çñ  Çñ
=
812. eáÖÜÉê-lêÇÉê=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ=

Ñ = å = ó (å ) = (Ñ (å −N) ) ′ =
(å ) Çå ó
Çñ
=
813. (ì + î )(å ) = ì (å ) + î (å ) =
=
814. (ì − î )(å ) = ì(å ) − î (å ) =
=
815. iÉáÄåáíò∞ë=cçêãìä~ë=
(ìî )′′ = ì′′î + Oì′î′ + ìî′′ =

215
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

(ìî )′′′ = ì′′′î + Pì′′î′ + Pì′î′′ + ìî′′′ =

(ìî )(å ) = ì (å ) î + åì (å−N) î ′ + å(å − N) ì (å−O) î ′′ + K + ìî (å ) =
N⋅ O
=
816. (ñ )( ) = (ãã−>å)> ñ
ã å ã −å
=

=
817. (ñ )( ) = å> =
å å

818. (äçÖ ~ ñ ) = (− N) (å − N)>

å −N
(å )
=
å
ñ äå ~
=
(äå ñ )(å ) = (− N) (åå − N)> =
å −N
819.
ñ
=
820. (~ )( ) = ~
ñ å ñ
äå å ~ =
=
821. (É )( ) = É
ñ å ñ
=
=
822. (~ )( ) = ã ~
ãñ å å ãñ
äå å ~ =
=
823. (ëáå ñ )(å ) = ëáå ñ + åπ  =
 O 
=
824. (Åçë ñ )(å ) = Åçë ñ + åπ  =
 O 
=
=
=

216
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

8.6 Applications of Derivative

=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=ÖI=ó=
mçëáíáçå=çÑ=~å=çÄàÉÅíW=ë==
sÉäçÅáíóW=î=
^ÅÅÉäÉê~íáçåW=ï=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉW=ñ=
qáãÉW=í=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
=
=
825. sÉäçÅáíó=~åÇ=^ÅÅÉäÉê~íáçå=
ë = Ñ (í ) =áë=íÜÉ=éçëáíáçå=çÑ=~å=çÄàÉÅí=êÉä~íáîÉ=íç=~=ÑáñÉÇ=
ÅççêÇáå~íÉ=ëóëíÉã=~í=~=íáãÉ=íI==
î = ë′ = Ñ ′(í ) =áë=íÜÉ=áåëí~åí~åÉçìë=îÉäçÅáíó=çÑ=íÜÉ=çÄàÉÅíI=
ï = î′ = ë′′ = Ñ ′′(í ) =áë=íÜÉ=áåëí~åí~åÉçìë=~ÅÅÉäÉê~íáçå=çÑ=
íÜÉ=çÄàÉÅíK==
=
826. q~åÖÉåí=iáåÉ=
ó − ó M = Ñ ′(ñ M )(ñ − ñ M ) =
=

217
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 176.
=
827. kçêã~ä=iáåÉ=
N
ó − óM = − (ñ − ñ M ) =EcáÖ=NTSF=
Ñ ′(ñ M )
=
828. fåÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=~åÇ=aÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=cìåÅíáçåëK==
fÑ= Ñ ′(ñ M ) > M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=áë=áåÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=~í= ñ M K=EcáÖ=NTTI= ñ < ñ N I=
ñ O < ñ FI=
fÑ= Ñ ′(ñ M ) < M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=áë=ÇÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=~í= ñ M K=EcáÖ=NTTI=
ñ N < ñ < ñ O FI=
fÑ= Ñ ′ (ñ M ) =ÇçÉë=åçí=Éñáëí=çê=áë=òÉêçI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=íÉëí=Ñ~áäëK==
=

218
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 177.
=
829. içÅ~ä=ÉñíêÉã~=
^=ÑìåÅíáçå=ÑEñF=Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ã~ñáãìã=~í= ñ N =áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ=
íÜÉêÉ=Éñáëíë=ëçãÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=Åçåí~áåáåÖ= ñ N =ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
Ñ (ñ N ) ≥ Ñ (ñ ) =Ñçê=~ää=ñ=áå=íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=EcáÖKNTTFK==
=
^=ÑìåÅíáçå=ÑEñF=Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáãìã=~í= ñ O =áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ=
íÜÉêÉ=Éñáëíë=ëçãÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=Åçåí~áåáåÖ= ñ O =ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
Ñ (ñ O ) ≤ Ñ (ñ ) =Ñçê=~ää=ñ=áå=íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=EcáÖKNTTFK=
=
830. `êáíáÅ~ä=mçáåíë=
^=ÅêáíáÅ~ä=éçáåí=çå=ÑEñF=çÅÅìêë=~í= ñ M =áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ=ÉáíÜÉê=
Ñ ′ (ñ M ) =áë=òÉêç=çê=íÜÉ=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ=ÇçÉëå∞í=ÉñáëíK=
=
831. cáêëí=aÉêáî~íáîÉ=qÉëí=Ñçê=içÅ~ä=bñíêÉã~K=
fÑ=ÑEñF=áë==áåÅêÉ~ëáåÖ==E Ñ ′ (ñ ) > M F=Ñçê==~ää==ñ==áå==ëçãÉ==áåíÉêî~ä=
(~I ñ N ] ==~åÇ==ÑEñF==áë==ÇÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ==E Ñ ′ (ñ ) < M F==Ñçê=~ää==ñ=áå=ëçãÉ=
áåíÉêî~ä= = [ñ N I Ä) I= = íÜÉå= ÑEñF= Ü~ë= ~= = äçÅ~ä= ã~ñáãìã= = ~í= = ñ N =
EcáÖKNTTFK==

219
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

832. fÑ=ÑEñF=áë=ÇÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=E Ñ ′ (ñ ) < M F=Ñçê=~ää=ñ=áå=ëçãÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=

(~I ñ O ]=~åÇ=ÑEñF=áë=áåÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=E Ñ ′ (ñ ) > M F=Ñçê=~ää=ñ=áå=ëçãÉ=
áåíÉêî~ä= [ñ O I Ä) I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáãìã=~í= ñ O K==
EcáÖKNTTFK=
=
833. pÉÅçåÇ=aÉêáî~íáîÉ=qÉëí=Ñçê=içÅ~ä=bñíêÉã~K=
fÑ= Ñ ′ (ñ N ) = M =~åÇ= Ñ ′′(ñ N ) < M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ã~ñáãìã=
~í== ñ N K=
fÑ= Ñ ′ (ñ O ) = M =~åÇ= Ñ ′′(ñ O ) > M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáãìã=
~í= ñ O K=EcáÖKNTTF=
=
834. `çåÅ~îáíóK==
ÑEñF= áë= = ÅçåÅ~îÉ= ìéï~êÇ= ~í= = ñ M = = áÑ= = ~åÇ= = çåäó= = áÑ= = Ñ ′ (ñ ) = áë============
áåÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=~í= ñ M =EcáÖKNTTI= ñ P < ñ FK===
ÑEñF=áë==ÅçåÅ~îÉ==Ççïåï~êÇ=~í== ñ M ==áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ== Ñ ′ (ñ ) ==áë===============
ÇÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=~í= ñ M K=EcáÖKNTTI= ñ < ñ P FK===
=
835. pÉÅçåÇ=aÉêáî~íáîÉ=qÉëí=Ñçê=`çåÅ~îáíóK==
fÑ= Ñ ′′(ñ M ) > M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=áë=ÅçåÅ~îÉ=ìéï~êÇ=~í= ñ M K==
fÑ= Ñ ′′(ñ M ) < M I=íÜÉå=ÑEñF=áë=ÅçåÅ~îÉ=Ççïåï~êÇ=~í= ñ M K=
fÑ= Ñ ′′(ñ ) =ÇçÉë=åçí=Éñáëí=çê=áë=òÉêçI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=íÉëí=Ñ~áäëK=
=
836. fåÑäÉÅíáçå=mçáåíë=
fÑ== Ñ ′ (ñ P ) ==Éñáëíë==~åÇ== Ñ ′′(ñ ) ==ÅÜ~åÖÉë=ëáÖå=~í= ñ = ñ P I==íÜÉå=
íÜÉ= éçáåí= (ñ P I Ñ (ñ P )) = áë= ~å= áåÑäÉÅíáçå= éçáåí= çÑ= íÜÉ= Öê~éÜ= çÑ=
Ñ (ñ ) K=fÑ= Ñ ′′(ñ P ) =Éñáëíë=~í=íÜÉ=áåÑäÉÅíáçå=éçáåíI=íÜÉå= Ñ ′′(ñ P ) = M =
EcáÖKNTTFK=
=
837. i∞eçéáí~ä∞ë=oìäÉ=
Ñ (ñ ) Ñ ′(ñ ) M
äáã = äáã =áÑ= äáã Ñ (ñ ) = äáã Ö (ñ ) =  K==
ñ → Å Ö (ñ ) ñ →Å Ö ′(ñ ) ñ →Å ñ →Å
∞
=

220
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

8.7 Differential
=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=ìI=î=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉW=ñ=
aÉêáî~íáîÉ=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçåW= ó′(ñ ) I= Ñ ′(ñ ) =
oÉ~ä=Åçåëí~åíW=`=
aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=çÑ=ÑìåÅíáçå= ó = Ñ (ñ ) W=Çó=
aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=çÑ=ñW=Çñ=
pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉ=áå=ñW= ∆ñ =
pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉ=áå=óW= ∆ó =
=
=
838. Çó = ó′Çñ =
=
839. Ñ (ñ + ∆ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) + Ñ ′(ñ )∆ñ =
=

=
=
Figure 178.

221
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

840. pã~ää=`Ü~åÖÉ=áå=ó=
∆ó = Ñ (ñ + ∆ñ ) − Ñ (ñ ) =
=
841. Ç(ì + î ) = Çì + Çî =
=
842. Ç(ì − î ) = Çì − Çî =
=
843. Ç(`ì ) = `Çì =
=
844. Ç(ìî ) = îÇì + ìÇî =
=
 ì  îÇì − ìÇî
845. Ç  = =
î îO
=
=
=
8.8 Multivariable Functions
=
cìåÅíáçåë=çÑ=íïç=î~êá~ÄäÉëW= ò (ñ I ó ) I= Ñ (ñ I ó ) I= Ö (ñ I ó ) I= Ü(ñ I ó ) ==
^êÖìãÉåíëW=ñI=óI=í=
pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉë=áå=ñI=óI=òI=êÉëéÉÅíáîÉäóW= ∆ñ I= ∆ó I= ∆ò K=
=
=
846. cáêëí=lêÇÉê=m~êíá~ä=aÉêáî~íáîÉë=
qÜÉ=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ=ïáíÜ=êÉëéÉÅí=íç=ñ=
∂Ñ ∂ò
= Ñ ñ =E~äëç= = ò ñ FI=
∂ñ ∂ñ
qÜÉ=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ=ïáíÜ=êÉëéÉÅí=íç=ó=
∂Ñ ∂ò
= Ñ ó =E~äëç= = ò ó FK=
∂ó ∂ó
=
=

222
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

847. pÉÅçåÇ=lêÇÉê=m~êíá~ä=aÉêáî~íáîÉë=
∂  ∂Ñ  ∂ OÑ
 = = Ñ ññ I==
∂ñ  ∂ñ  ∂ñ O
∂  ∂Ñ  ∂ OÑ
 = = Ñ óó I==
∂ó  ∂ó  ∂ó O
∂  ∂Ñ  ∂ OÑ
 = = Ñ ñó I==
∂ó  ∂ñ  ∂ó∂ñ
∂  ∂Ñ  ∂ OÑ
 = = Ñ óñ K==
∂ñ  ∂ó  ∂ñ∂ó
fÑ=íÜÉ=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉë=~êÉ=ÅçåíáåìçìëI=íÜÉå==
∂ OÑ ∂ OÑ
= K==
∂ó∂ñ ∂ñ∂ó
=
848. `Ü~áå=oìäÉë==
fÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) = Ö(Ü(ñ I ó )) =EÖ=áë=~=ÑìåÅíáçå=çÑ=çåÉ=î~êá~ÄäÉ=ÜFI=íÜÉå==
∂Ñ ∂Ü ∂Ñ ∂Ü
= Ö′(Ü(ñ I ó )) I= = Ö′(Ü(ñ I ó )) K==
∂ñ ∂ñ ∂ó ∂ó
=
∂Ñ Çñ ∂Ñ Çó
fÑ= Ü(í ) = Ñ (ñ (í )I ó (í )) I=íÜÉå= Ü′(í ) = + K==
∂ñ Çí ∂ó Çí
=
fÑ= ò = Ñ (ñ (ìI î )I ó (ìI î )) I=íÜÉå==
∂ò ∂Ñ ∂ñ ∂Ñ ∂ó ∂ò ∂Ñ ∂ñ ∂Ñ ∂ó
= + I= = + K==
∂ì ∂ñ ∂ì ∂ó ∂ì ∂î ∂ñ ∂î ∂ó ∂î
=
849. pã~ää=`Ü~åÖÉë=
∂Ñ ∂Ñ
∆ò ≈ ∆ñ + ∆ó =
∂ñ ∂ó
=
=

223
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

850. içÅ~ä=j~ñáã~=~åÇ=jáåáã~=
Ñ (ñ I ó ) =Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ã~ñáãìã=~í= (ñ M I ó M ) =áÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≤ Ñ (ñ M I ó M ) =
Ñçê=~ää= (ñ I ó ) =ëìÑÑáÅáÉåíäó=ÅäçëÉ=íç= (ñ M I ó M ) K==
=
Ñ (ñ I ó ) =Ü~ë=~=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáãìã=~í= (ñ M I ó M ) =áÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≥ Ñ (ñ M I ó M ) =
Ñçê=~ää= (ñ I ó ) =ëìÑÑáÅáÉåíäó=ÅäçëÉ=íç= (ñ M I ó M ) K=
=
851. pí~íáçå~êó=mçáåíë=
∂Ñ ∂Ñ
= = M K=
∂ñ ∂ó
içÅ~ä=ã~ñáã~=~åÇ=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáã~=çÅÅìê=~í=ëí~íáçå~êó=éçáåíëK=
==
852. p~ÇÇäÉ=mçáåí=
^=ëí~íáçå~êó==éçáåí==ïÜáÅÜ==áë==åÉáíÜÉê==~==äçÅ~ä==ã~ñáãìã=
åçê=~=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáãìã=
=
853. pÉÅçåÇ=aÉêáî~íáîÉ=qÉëí=Ñçê=pí~íáçå~êó=mçáåíë=
∂Ñ ∂Ñ
iÉí= (ñ M I ó M ) =ÄÉ=~=ëí~íáçå~êó=éçáåí=E = = M FK==
∂ñ ∂ó
Ñ ññ (ñ M I ó M ) Ñ ñó (ñ M I ó M )
a= K==
Ñ óñ (ñ M I ó M ) Ñ óó (ñ M I ó M )
=
fÑ= a > M I= Ñ ññ (ñ M I ó M ) > M I== (ñ M I ó M ) ==áë=~=éçáåí=çÑ=äçÅ~ä=ãáåáã~K=
fÑ= a > M I= Ñ ññ (ñ M I ó M ) < M I== (ñ M I ó M ) ==áë=~=éçáåí=çÑ=äçÅ~ä=ã~ñáã~K=
fÑ= a < M I= (ñ M I ó M ) =áë=~=ë~ÇÇäÉ=éçáåíK=
fÑ= a = M I=íÜÉ=íÉëí=Ñ~áäëK=
=
854. q~åÖÉåí=mä~åÉ=
qÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=í~åÖÉåí=éä~åÉ=íç=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ= ò = Ñ (ñ I ó ) =
~í= (ñ M I ó M I ò M ) =áë==
ò − ò M = Ñ ñ (ñ M I ó M )(ñ − ñ M ) + Ñ ó (ñ M I ó M )(ó − ó M ) K=
=

224
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

855. kçêã~ä=íç=pìêÑ~ÅÉ=
qÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=åçêã~ä=íç=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ= ò = Ñ (ñ I ó ) =~í=
(ñ M I ó M I ò M ) =áë==
ñ − ñM ó − óM ò − òM
= = K=
Ñ ñ ( ñ M I ó M ) Ñ ó (ñ M I ó M ) −N
=
=
=
8.9 Differential Operators
=
r r r
råáí=îÉÅíçêë=~äçåÖ=íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉ=~ñÉëW= á I= à I= â =
pÅ~ä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçåë=EëÅ~ä~ê=ÑáÉäÇëFW= Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) I= ì(ñ N I ñ O I KI ñ å ) =
dê~ÇáÉåí=çÑ=~=ëÅ~ä~ê=ÑáÉäÇW= Öê~Ç ì I= ∇ì =
∂Ñ
aáêÉÅíáçå~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉW= =
∂ä
r
sÉÅíçê=ÑìåÅíáçå=EîÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇFW= c (mI nI o ) =
r r
aáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= Çáî c I= ∇ ⋅ c =
r r
`ìêä=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= Åìêä c I= ∇ × c =
i~éä~Åá~å=çéÉê~íçêW= ∇ O =
=
=
856. dê~ÇáÉåí=çÑ=~=pÅ~ä~ê=cìåÅíáçå=
 ∂Ñ ∂Ñ ∂Ñ 
Öê~Ç Ñ = ∇Ñ =  I I  I==
 ∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò 
 ∂ì ∂ì ∂ì 
Öê~Ç ì = ∇ì =  I IKI  K=
 ∂ñ N ∂ñ O ∂ñ å 
=
857. aáêÉÅíáçå~ä=aÉêáî~íáîÉ=
∂Ñ ∂Ñ ∂Ñ ∂Ñ
= Åçë α + Åçë β + Åçë γ I==
∂ä ∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò

225
CHAPTER 8. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=ÇáêÉÅíáçå=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=
r
ä (Åçë αI Åçë βI Åçë γ ) I= Åçë O α + Åçë O β + Åçë O γ = N K==
=
858. aáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=çÑ=~=sÉÅíçê=cáÉäÇ=
r r ∂m ∂n ∂o
Çáî c = ∇ ⋅ c = + + =
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
=
859. `ìêä=çÑ=~=sÉÅíçê=cáÉäÇ=
r r r
á à â
r r ∂ ∂ ∂
Åìêä c = ∇ × c = =
∂ñ ∂ñ ∂ñ
m n o

 ∂o ∂n  r  ∂m ∂o  r  ∂n ∂m  r
=  −  á +  −  à +  − â =
 ∂ó ∂ò   ∂ò ∂ñ   ∂ñ ∂ó 
=
860. i~éä~Åá~å=léÉê~íçê=
∂ OÑ ∂ OÑ ∂ OÑ
∇ OÑ = O + O + O =
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
=
( ) ( )
r r
861. Çáî Åìêä c = ∇ ⋅ ∇ × c ≡ M =
=
862. Åìêä(Öê~Ç Ñ ) = ∇ × (∇Ñ ) ≡ M =
=
863. Çáî (Öê~Ç Ñ ) = ∇ ⋅ (∇Ñ ) = ∇ OÑ =
=
( ) ( ) ( )
r r r r r
864. Åìêä Åìêä c = Öê~Ç Çáî c − ∇ Oc = ∇ ∇ ⋅ c − ∇ Oc =
=
=

226
Chapter 9
Integral Calculus
=
=
=
=
cìåÅíáçåëW=ÑI=ÖI=ìI=î=
fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉëW=ñI=íI= ξ =
fåÇÉÑáåáíÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçåW= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ I= ∫ Ö (ñ )Çñ I=£=
aÉêáî~íáîÉ=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçåW= ó′(ñ ) I= Ñ ′(ñ ) I= c′(ñ ) I=£=
oÉ~ä=Åçåëí~åíëW=`I=~I=ÄI=ÅI=ÇI=â=
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=ãI=åI=áI=à=
=
=
9.1 Indefinite Integral
=
865. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = c(ñ ) + ` =áÑ= c′(ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) K=
=
866. (∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ ) ′= Ñ (ñ ) =
=
867. ∫ âÑ (ñ )Çñ = â ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =
=
868. ∫ [Ñ (ñ ) + Ö(ñ )]Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ + ∫ Ö(ñ )Çñ =
=
869. ∫ [Ñ (ñ ) − Ö(ñ )]Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ − ∫ Ö(ñ )Çñ =
=
N
870. ∫ Ñ (~ñ )Çñ = ~ c(~ñ ) + ` =

227
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

N
871. ∫ Ñ (~ñ + Ä)Çñ = ~ c(~ñ + Ä) + ` =
=
N
∫ Ñ (ñ )Ñ ′(ñ )Çñ = O Ñ (ñ ) + ` =
O
872.
=
Ñ ′(ñ )
873. ∫ Ñ (ñ ) Çñ = äå Ñ (ñ ) + ` =
=
874. jÉíÜçÇ=çÑ=pìÄëíáíìíáçå=
∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ì(í ))ì′(í )Çí =áÑ= ñ = ì(í ) K=
=
875. fåíÉÖê~íáçå=Äó=m~êíë=
∫ ìÇî = ìî − ∫ îÇì I==
ïÜÉêÉ= ì(ñ ) I= î (ñ ) =~êÉ=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ÄäÉ=ÑìåÅíáçåëK==
=
=
=
9.2 Integrals of Rational Functions
=
876. ∫ ~Çñ = ~ñ + ` =
=
ñO
877. ∫ ñÇñ = O
+`=
=
ñP
∫ ñ Çñ = +`=
O
878.
P
=
ñ é +N
∫ ñ Çñ = + ` I= é ≠ −N K=
é
879.
é+N
=

228
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

(~ñ + Ä)
å +N

∫ (~ñ + Ä) Çñ = ~(å + N) + ` I= å ≠ −N K=
å
880.

=
Çñ
881. ∫ ñ
= äå ñ + ` =
=
Çñ N
882. ∫ ~ñ + Ä = ~ äå ~ñ + Ä + ` =
=
~ñ + Ä ~ ÄÅ − ~Ç
883. ∫ Åñ + Ç Çñ = Å ñ + ÅO
äå Åñ + Ç + ` =
=
Çñ N ñ+Ä
884. ∫ (ñ + ~ )(ñ + Ä) = ~ − Ä äå ñ + ~ + ` I= ~ ≠ Ä K=
=

∫ ~ + Äñ = Ä (~ + Äñ − ~ äå ~ + Äñ ) + ` =
ñÇñ N
885. O

=
ñ OÇñ N N 
∫ ~ + Äñ = ÄP  O (~ + Äñ ) − O~(~ + Äñ ) + ~ äå ~ + Äñ  + ` =
O O
886.

=
Çñ N ~ + Äñ
887. ∫ ñ (~ + Äñ ) = ~ äå ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N Ä ~ + Äñ
888. ∫ ñ (~ + Äñ ) = − ~ñ + ~
O O
äå
ñ
+`=

=
ñÇñ N ~ 
889. ∫ (~ + Äñ ) O
= O 
Ä 
äå ~ + Äñ + +`=
~ + Äñ 
=

229
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ñ OÇñ N ~O 
890. ∫ (~ + Äñ )O ÄP 
=  ~ + Äñ − O~ äå ~ + Äñ − +`=
~ + Äñ 
=
Çñ N N ~ + Äñ
891. ∫ ñ (~ + Äñ ) O
= + O äå
~ (~ + Äñ ) ~ ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N ñ −N
892. ∫ñ O
= äå
−N O ñ +N
+`=

=
Çñ N N+ ñ
893. ∫ N− ñ O
= äå
O N− ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N ~+ñ
894. ∫~ O
−ñ O
= äå
O~ ~ − ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N ñ−~
895. ∫ñ O
−~ O
= äå
O~ ñ + ~
+`=

=
Çñ
896. ∫ N+ ñ O
= í~å −N ñ + ` =
=
Çñ N ñ
897. ∫~ O
+ñ O
= í~å −N + ` =
~ ~
=
= äå(ñ O + ~ O ) + ` =
ñÇñ N
898. ∫ñ O
+~ O
O
=
Çñ N  Ä
899. ∫ ~ + Äñ O
=
~Ä
~êÅí~å ñ
 ~
 + ` I= ~Ä > M K=


=

230
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ñÇñ N ~
900. ∫ ~ + Äñ O
=
OÄ
äå ñ O + + ` =
Ä
=
Çñ N ñO
901. ∫ ñ (~ + Äñ O ) O~ ~ + Äñ O + ` =
= äå

=
Çñ N ~ + Äñ
902. ∫~ O
−Ä ñ
O O
= äå
O~Ä ~ − Äñ
+`=

=
Çñ N O~ñ + Ä − ÄO − Q~Å
903. ∫ O = äå + ` I=
~ñ + Äñ + Å ÄO − Q~Å O~ñ + Ä + ÄO − Q~Å
ÄO − Q~Å > M K=
=
Çñ O O~ñ + Ä
904. ∫ ~ñ + Äñ + Å
O
=
Q~Å − ÄO
~êÅí~å
Q~Å − ÄO
+ ` I=

ÄO − Q~Å < M K=
=
=
=
9.3 Integrals of Irrational Functions
=
Çñ O
905. ∫ =
~ñ + Ä ~
~ñ + Ä + ` =

=
O
∫ (~ñ + Ä) O + ` =
P
906. ~ñ + Ä Çñ =
P~
=
ñÇñ O(~ñ − OÄ)
907. ∫ ~ñ + Ä
=
P~ O
~ñ + Ä + ` =

231
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

O(P~ñ − OÄ)
∫ñ (~ñ + Ä) O + ` =
P
908. ~ñ + Ä Çñ = O
NR~
=
Çñ N ~ñ + Ä − Ä − ~Å
909. ∫ (ñ + Å ) ~ñ + Ä
=
Ä − ~Å
äå
~ñ + Ä + Ä − ~Å
+ ` I==

Ä − ~Å > M K=
=
Çñ N ~ñ + Ä
910. ∫ (ñ + Å ) ~ñ + Ä
=
~Å − Ä
~êÅí~å
~Å − Ä
+ ` I==

Ä − ~Å < M K=
=
~ñ + Ä N
911. ∫ Çñ = (~ñ + Ä)(Åñ + Ç ) − =
Åñ + Ç Å
~Ç − ÄÅ
− äå ~ (Åñ + Ç ) + Å(~ñ + Ä) + ` I= ~ > M K=
Å ~Å
=
~ñ + Ä N
912. ∫ Çñ = (~ñ + Ä)(Åñ + Ç ) − =
Åñ + Ç Å
~Ç − ÄÅ ~ (Åñ + Ç )
− ~êÅí~å + ` I=E ~ < M I= Å > M FK==
Å ~Å Å(~ñ + Ä)
=
O(U~ O − NO~Äñ + NRÄO ñ O )
913. ∫ ñ ~ + Äñ Çñ =
O
(~ + Äñ )P + ` =
NMRÄP
=
ñ OÇñ O(U~ O − Q~Äñ + PÄO ñ O )
914. ∫ ~ + Äñ
=
NRÄP
~ + Äñ + ` =

=
Çñ N ~ + Äñ − ~
915. ∫ñ ~ + Äñ
=
~
äå
~ + Äñ + ~
+ ` I= ~ > M K=

232
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Çñ O ~ + Äñ
916. ∫ñ ~ + Äñ
=
−~
~êÅí~å
−~
+ ` I= ~ < M K=

=
~−ñ ñ+Ä
917. ∫ Çñ = (~ − ñ )(Ä + ñ ) + (~ + Ä)~êÅëáå +`=
Ä+ ñ ~+Ä
=
~+ñ Ä−ñ
918. ∫ Çñ = − (~ + ñ )(Ä − ñ ) − (~ + Ä)~êÅëáå +`=
Ä−ñ ~+Ä
=
N+ ñ
919. ∫ N− ñ
Çñ = − N − ñ O + ~êÅëáå ñ + ` =

=
Çñ ñ −~
920. ∫ (ñ − ~ )(Ä − ~ ) = O ~êÅëáå Ä−~
+` =

=
OÅñ − Ä
921. ∫ ~ + Äñ − Åñ O Çñ =
QÅ
~ + Äñ − Åñ O + =

ÄO − Q~Å OÅñ − Ä
+ ~êÅëáå +`=
U ÅP ÄO + Q~Å
=
äå O~ñ + Ä + O ~ (~ñ O + Äñ + Å ) + ` I==
Çñ N
922. ∫ ~ñ O + Äñ + Å
=
~
~ > M K=
=
Çñ N O~ñ + Ä O
923. ∫ ~ñ + Äñ + Å
O
=−
~
~êÅëáå
Q~
Ä − Q~Å + ` I= ~ < M K=

=
ñ O O ~O
924. ∫ ñ O + ~ O Çñ =
O
ñ + ~ + äå ñ + ñ O + ~ O + ` =
O
=

233
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

925. ∫ñ ñ O + ~ O Çñ =
P
(ñ + ~ ) + ` =
N O O PO

=
926. ∫ñ
O
ñ O + ~ O Çñ =
ñ
U
(Oñ O + ~ O ) ñ O + ~ O − =

~Q
− äå ñ + ñ O + ~ O + ` =
U
=
ñO + ~O ñO + ~O
927. ∫ ñO
Çñ = −
ñ
+ äå ñ + ñ O + ~ O + ` =
=
Çñ
928. ∫ ñ +~ O O
= äå ñ + ñ O + ~ O + ` =

=
ñ O + ~O ñ
929. ∫ ñ
Çñ = ñ O + ~ O + ~ äå
~ + ñ O + ~O
+`=

=
ñÇñ
930. ∫ ñ +~ O O
= ñ O + ~O + ` =

=
ñ OÇñ ñ O O ~O
931. ∫ ñ O + ~O
=
O
ñ + ~ − äå ñ + ñ O + ~ O + ` =
O
=
Çñ N ñ
932. ∫ñ = äå
ñ O + ~O ~ ~ + ñ O + ~O
+`=

=
ñ O O ~O
933. ∫ ñ O − ~ O Çñ =
O
ñ − ~ − äå ñ + ñ O − ~ O + ` =
O
=
934. ∫ñ ñ O − ~ O Çñ =
P
(ñ − ~ ) + ` =
N O O PO

234
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ñO − ~O ~
935. ∫ ñ
Çñ = ñ O − ~ O + ~ ~êÅëáå + ` =
ñ
=
ñO − ~O ñ O − ~O
936. ∫ ñ O
Çñ =−
ñ
+ äå ñ + ñ O − ~ O + ` =
=
Çñ
937. ∫ ñ −~ O O
= äå ñ + ñ O − ~ O + ` =

=
ñÇñ
938. ∫ ñ −~ O O
= ñ O − ~O + ` =

=
ñ OÇñ ñ O O ~O
939. ∫ ñ −~
O O
=
O
ñ − ~ + äå ñ + ñ O − ~ O + ` =
O
=
Çñ N ~
940. ∫ñ ñ −~O
= − ~êÅëáå + ` =
~ O ñ
=
Çñ N ñ −~
941. ∫ (ñ + ~ ) ñ O − ~O
=
~ ñ+~
+`=

=
Çñ N ñ+~
942. ∫ (ñ − ~ ) ñ −~ O O
=−
~ ñ −~
+`=

=
Çñ ñ O − ~O
943. ∫ñ O
ñ O − ~O
=
~Oñ
+`=

=
Çñ ñ
944. ∫ (ñ O
− ~O ) O
P
=−
~O ñ O − ~O
+`=

235
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

∫ (ñ − ~ O ) O Çñ = − (Oñ O − R~ O ) ñ O − ~ O + =
O
P ñ
945.
U
P~ Q
+ äå ñ + ñ O − ~ O + ` =
U
=
ñ O ~O ñ
946. ∫ ~ O − ñ O Çñ =
O
~ − ñ O + ~êÅëáå + ` =
O ~
=
947. ∫ ñ ~ − ñ Çñ = −
O O

P
(
N O
~ − ñO ) O + ` =
P

948. ∫ ñ ~ − ñ Çñ =
O O O ñ
U
(Oñ O − ~ O ) ~ O − ñ O + ~êÅëáå + ` =
~Q
U
ñ
~
=
~O − ñ O ñ
949. ∫ ñ
Çñ = ~ O − ñ O + ~ äå
~ + ~O − ñ O
+`=

=
~O − ñO ~O − ñO ñ
950. ∫ ñ O
Çñ = −
ñ
− ~êÅëáå + ` =
~
=
Çñ
951. ∫ N− ñO
= ~êÅëáå ñ + ` =

=
Çñ ñ
952. ∫ ~O − ñO
= ëáå
~
+`=

=
ñÇñ
953. ∫ ~ −ñ O O
= − ~O − ñ O + ` =

=
ñ OÇñ ñ O ~O ñ
954. ∫ ~O − ñ O
=−
O
~ − ñ O + ~êÅëáå + ` =
O ~

236
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Çñ N ~−ñ
955. ∫ (ñ + ~ ) ~O − ñ O
=−
O ~+ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N ~+ñ
956. ∫ (ñ − ~ ) ~O − ñ O
=−
O ~−ñ
+`=

=
Çñ N Äñ + ~ O
957. ∫ (ñ + Ä ) ~O − ñ O
=
ÄO − ~ O
~êÅëáå
~ (ñ + Ä )
+ ` I= Ä > ~ K=

=
Çñ N ñ+Ä
958. ∫ (ñ + Ä ) ~ −ñO O
=
~ −Ä
O O
äå
~ −Ä
O O
~ O − ñ O + ~ O + Äñ
+ `I =

Ä < ~ K=
=
Çñ ~O − ñO
959. ∫ñ O
~O − ñO
=−
~Oñ
+`=

∫ (~ − ñ O ) O Çñ = (R~ − Oñ O ) ~ O − ñ O +
P ñ O P~ Q ñ
960. O
~êÅëáå + ` =
U U ~
=
Çñ ñ
961. ∫ (~ O
−ñ O
)
P
O
=
~O ~O − ñ O
+`=

=
=
=
9.4 Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
=
962. ∫ ëáå ñÇñ = − Åçë ñ + ` =
=
963. ∫ Åçë ñÇñ = ëáå ñ + ` =

237
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ñ N
∫ ëáå ñ Çñ = − ëáå Oñ + ` =
O
964.
O Q
=
ñ N
∫ Åçë ñ Çñ = + ëáå Oñ + ` =
O
965.
O Q
=
N N P
∫ ëáå ñ Çñ = Åçë P ñ − Åçë ñ + ` = Åçë Pñ − Åçë ñ + ` =
P
966.
P NO Q
=
N N P
∫ Åçë ñ Çñ = ëáå ñ − ëáå P ñ + ` = ëáå Pñ + ëáå ñ + ` =
P
967.
P NO Q
=
Çñ ñ
968. ∫ ëáå ñ = ∫ ÅëÅ ñ Çñ = äå í~å O + ` =
=
Çñ ñ π
969. ∫ Åçë ñ = ∫ ëÉÅ ñ Çñ = äå í~å O + Q  + ` =
=
Çñ
970. ∫ ëáå O
ñ
= ∫ ÅëÅ O ñ Çñ = − Åçí ñ + ` =
=
Çñ
971. ∫ Åçë O
ñ
= ∫ ëÉÅ O ñ Çñ = í~å ñ + ` =
=
Çñ Åçë ñ N ñ
972. ∫ ëáå P
ñ
= ∫ ÅëÅ P ñ Çñ = − O
+ äå í~å + ` =
O ëáå ñ O O
=
Çñ ëáå ñ N  ñ π
973. ∫ Åçë P
ñ
= ∫ ëÉÅP ñ Çñ = O
+ äå í~å +  + ` =
O Åçë ñ O O Q
=
N
974. ∫ ëáå ñ Åçë ñ Çñ = − Q Åçë Oñ + ` =

238
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

N
∫ ëáå ñ Åçë ñ Çñ = ëáå P ñ + ` =
O
975.
P
=
N
∫ ëáå ñ Åçë ñ Çñ = − ÅçëP ñ + ` =
O
976.
P
=
ñ N
∫ ëáå ñ Åçë O ñ Çñ = − ëáå Q ñ + ` =
O
977.
U PO
=
978. ∫ í~å ñÇñ = − äå Åçë ñ + ` =
=
ëáå ñ N
979. ∫ ÅçëO
ñ
Çñ =
Åçë ñ
+ ` = ëÉÅ ñ + ` =
=
ëáå O ñ  ñ π
980. ∫ Åçë ñ Çñ = äå í~å O + Q  − ëáå ñ + ` =
=
∫ í~å ñ Çñ = í~å ñ − ñ + ` =
O
981.
=
982. ∫ Åçí ñÇñ = äå ëáå ñ + ` =
=
Åçë ñ N
983. ∫ ëáå
O
ñ
Çñ = −
ëáå ñ
+ ` = − ÅëÅ ñ + ` =
=
Åçë O ñ ñ
984. ∫ Çñ = äå í~å + Åçë ñ + ` =
ëáå ñ O
=
985. ∫ Åçí O ñ Çñ = − Åçí ñ − ñ + ` =
=
Çñ
986. ∫ Åçë ñ ëáå ñ = äå í~å ñ + ` =

239
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Çñ N  ñ π
987. ∫ ëáå O
ñ Åçë ñ
=−
ëáå ñ
+ äå í~å +  + ` =
O Q
=
Çñ N ñ
988. ∫ ëáå ñ Åçë O
ñ
=
Åçë ñ
+ äå í~å + ` =
O
=
Çñ
989. ∫ ëáå O
ñ Åçë O ñ
= í~å ñ − Åçí ñ + ` =
=
ëáå(ã + å )ñ ëáå(ã − å )ñ
990. ∫ ëáå ãñ ëáå åñ Çñ = − O(ã + å) +
O(ã − å )
+ ` I=

ã O ≠ å O K=
=
Åçë(ã + å )ñ Åçë(ã − å )ñ
991. ∫ ëáå ãñ Åçë åñ Çñ = − O(ã + å) −
O(ã − å )
+ ` I=

ã O ≠ å O K=
=
ëáå(ã + å )ñ ëáå(ã − å )ñ
992. ∫ Åçë ãñ Åçë åñ Çñ = O(ã + å) +
O(ã − å )
+ ` I=

ã O ≠ å O K=
=
993. ∫ ëÉÅ ñ í~å ñÇñ = ëÉÅ ñ + ` =
=
994. ∫ ÅëÅ ñ Åçí ñÇñ = − ÅëÅ ñ + ` =
=
Åçë å+N ñ
∫ ëáå ñ Åçë ñ Çñ = − +`=
å
995.
å +N
=
ëáå å +N ñ
996. ∫ ëáå ñ Åçë ñ Çñ =
å
+`=
å +N
=

240
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

997. ∫ ~êÅëáå ñ Çñ = ñ ~êÅëáå ñ + N− ñO + ` =

=
998. ∫ ~êÅÅçë ñ Çñ = ñ ~êÅÅçë ñ − N− ñO + ` =
=

∫ ~êÅí~å ñ Çñ = ñ ~êÅí~å ñ − O äå(ñ + N) + ` =

N O
999.
=
1000. ∫ ~êÅ Åçí ñ Çñ = ñ ~êÅ Åçí ñ + äå(ñ O + N) + ` =
N
O
=
=
=
9.5 Integrals of Hyperbolic Functions
=
1001. ∫ ëáåÜ ñÇñ = ÅçëÜ ñ + ` =
=
1002. ∫ ÅçëÜ ñÇñ = ëáåÜ ñ + ` =
=
1003. ∫ í~åÜ ñ Çñ = äå ÅçëÜ ñ + ` =
=
1004. ∫ ÅçíÜ ñ Çñ = äå ëáåÜ ñ + ` =
=
1005. ∫ ëÉÅÜ O ñÇñ = í~åÜ ñ + ` =
=
1006. ∫ ÅëÅÜ O ñÇñ = − ÅçíÜ ñ + ` =
=
1007. ∫ ëÉÅÜñ í~åÜ ñÇñ = −ëÉÅÜñ + ` =
=

241
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1008. ∫ ÅëÅÜñ ÅçíÜ ñÇñ = −ÅëÅÜñ + ` =

=
=
=
9.6 Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
=
1009. ∫ É ñ Çñ = É ñ + ` =
=
~ñ
1010. ∫ ~ Çñ = ñ
+`=
äå ~
=
É ~ñ
1011. ∫ É ~ñ Çñ = +`=
~
=
É ~ñ
1012. ∫ ñÉ ~ñ Çñ = O (~ñ − N) + ` =
~
=
1013. ∫ äå ñ Çñ = ñ äå ñ − ñ + ` =
=
Çñ
1014. ∫ ñ äå ñ = äå äå ñ + ` =
=
 äå ñ N 
1015. ∫ ñ å äå ñ Çñ = ñ å +N  − O
+`=
 å + N (å + N) 
=
~ ëáå Äñ − Ä Åçë Äñ ~ñ
1016. ∫ É ~ñ ëáå Äñ Çñ = É +`=
~ O + ÄO
=

242
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

~ Åçë Äñ + Ä ëáå Äñ ~ñ
1017. ∫ É ~ñ Åçë Äñ Çñ = É +`=
~ O + ÄO
=
=
=
9.7 Reduction Formulas
=
N å ãñ å
1018. ∫ ñ å É ãñ Çñ = ñ É − ∫ ñ å −NÉ ãñ Çñ =
ã ã
=
É ãñ É ãñ ã É ãñ
1019. ∫ ñå Çñ = −
(å − N)ñ å−N å − N ∫ ñ å−N
+ Çñ I= å ≠ N K=

=
N å −N
1020. ∫ ëáåÜ å ñÇñ = ëáåÜ å −N ñ ÅçëÜ ñ − ∫ ëáåÜ å −O ñÇñ =
å å
=
Çñ ÅçëÜ ñ å−O Çñ
1021. ∫ ëáåÜ å
ñ
=− − ∫
(å − N) ëáåÜ ñ å − N ëáåÜ å−O ñ
å −N
I= å ≠ N K=

=
N å −N
1022. ∫ ÅçëÜ å ñÇñ = ëáåÜ ñ ÅçëÜ å −N ñ ÅçëÜ ñ + ∫ ÅçëÜ å −O ñÇñ =
å å
=
Çñ ëáåÜ ñ å−O Çñ
1023. ∫ ÅçëÜ å
ñ
=− + ∫
(å − N) ÅçëÜ ñ å − N ÅçëÜ å−O ñ
å −N
I= å ≠ N K=

=
ëáåÜ å +N ñ ÅçëÜ ã −N ñ
1024. ∫ ëáåÜ ñ ÅçëÜ ñÇñ =
å ã
=
å+ã
ã −N
+
å+ã ∫ ëáåÜ å ñ ÅçëÜ ã −O ñÇñ =
=
ëáåÜ å −N ñ ÅçëÜ ã +N ñ
1025. ∫ ëáåÜ å ñ ÅçëÜ ã ñÇñ = =
å+ã

243
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

å −N
−
å+ã ∫ ëáåÜ å −O ñ ÅçëÜ ã ñÇñ =
=
N
1026. ∫ í~åÜ å ñÇñ = − í~åÜ å −N ñ + ∫ í~åÜ å −O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N
=
N
1027. ∫ ÅçíÜ å ñÇñ = − ÅçíÜ å −N ñ + ∫ ÅçíÜ å − O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N
=
ëÉÅÜ å −O ñ í~åÜ ñ å − O
1028. ∫ ëÉÅÜ å ñÇñ = + ∫ ëÉÅÜ å −O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N å −N
=
N å −N
1029. ∫ ëáå å ñÇñ = − ëáå å −N ñ Åçë ñ + ∫ ëáå å −O ñÇñ =
å å
=
Çñ Åçë ñ å−O Çñ
1030. ∫ =− + ∫ I= å ≠ N K=
å
ëáå ñ (å − N) ëáå ñ å − N ëáå å−O ñ
å −N

=
N å −N
1031. ∫ Åçë å ñÇñ = ëáå ñ Åçë å −N ñ + ∫ Åçë å −O ñÇñ =
å å
=
Çñ ëáå ñ å−O Çñ
1032. ∫ = + ∫ I= å ≠ N K=
Åçë ñ (å − N) Åçë ñ å − N Åçë å −O ñ
å å −N

=
ëáå å+N ñ Åçë ã −N ñ
1033. ∫ ëáå å ñ Åçë ã ñÇñ = =
å+ã
ã −N
å+ã∫
+ ëáå å ñ Åçë ã −O ñÇñ =
=
ëáå å −N ñ Åçë ã +N ñ
1034. ∫ ëáå å ñ Åçë ã ñÇñ = − =
å+ã

244
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

å −N
+
å+ã ∫ ëáå å −O ñ Åçë ã ñÇñ =
=
N
1035. ∫ í~å å ñÇñ = í~å å −N ñ − ∫ í~å å −O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N
=
N
1036. ∫ Åçí å ñÇñ = − Åçí å −N ñ − ∫ Åçí å−O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N
=
ëÉÅ å −O ñ í~å ñ å − O
1037. ∫ ëÉÅ å ñÇñ = + ∫ ëÉÅ å −O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N å −N
=
ÅëÅ å −O ñ Åçí ñ å − O
1038. ∫ ÅëÅ å ñÇñ = − + ∫ ÅëÅ å −O ñÇñ I= å ≠ N K=
å −N å −N
=
ñ å +N äå ã ñ ã
1039. ∫ ñ å äå ã ñÇñ =
å +N ∫
− ñ å äå ã −N ñÇñ =
å +N
=
äå ã ñ äå ã ñ ã äå ã −N ñ
1040. ∫ ñå Çñ = −
(å − N)ñ å−N å − N ∫ ñ å
+ Çñ I= å ≠ N K=

=
1041. ∫ äå å ñÇñ = ñ äå å ñ − å ∫ äå å −N ñÇñ =
=
1042. ∫ ñ å ëáåÜ ñÇñ = ñ å ÅçëÜ ñ − å ∫ ñ å −N ÅçëÜ ñÇñ =
=
1043. ∫ ñ å ÅçëÜ ñÇñ = ñ å ëáåÜ ñ − å ∫ ñ å −N ëáåÜ ñÇñ =
=
1044. ∫ ñ å ëáå ñÇñ = − ñ å Åçë ñ + å ∫ ñ å −N Åçë ñÇñ =
=
1045. ∫ ñ å Åçë ñÇñ = ñ å ëáå ñ − å ∫ ñ å −N ëáå ñÇñ =

245
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ñ å +N N ñ å +N
1046. ∫ ñ å ëáå −N ñÇñ =
å + N ∫ N− ñO
ëáå −N ñ − Çñ =
å +N
=
ñ å +N N ñ å +N
1047. ∫ ñ å Åçë −N ñÇñ =
å + N ∫ N− ñO
Åçë −N ñ + Çñ =
å +N
=
ñ å +N N ñ å +N
1048. ∫ ñ å í~å −N ñÇñ =
å + N ∫ N+ ñO
í~å −N ñ − Çñ =
å +N
=
ñ å Çñ ñ Ä Çñ
1049. ∫ å = − ∫ å =
~ñ + Ä ~ ~ ~ñ + Ä
=
Çñ − O~ñ − Ä
1050. ∫ = =
(~ñ + Äñ + Å ) (å − N)(Ä − Q~Å )(~ñ O + Äñ + Å )å−N
O å O

O(Oå − P)~ Çñ
− ∫
(å − N)(Ä − Q~Å ) (~ñ + Äñ + Å )å−N
O O
I= å ≠ N K=

=
Çñ ñ Oå − P Çñ
1051. ∫ (ñ +~
O
)
O å
=
O(å − N)~ O (ñ O + ~ )
O å −N
+
O(å − N)~ O ∫ (ñ O
+ ~O )
å −N
I

å ≠ N K=
=
Çñ ñ
1052. ∫ (ñ O
−~ )
O å
=−
O(å − N)~ O (ñ O − ~ O )
å −N
=

Oå − P Çñ
O ∫
− I= å ≠ N K=
O(å − N)~ (ñ O − ~ O )å−N
=
=
=
=
=

246
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

9.8 Definite Integral

=
Ä Ä
aÉÑáåáíÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçåW= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ I= ∫ Ö (ñ )Çñ I=£=
~ ~
å
oáÉã~åå=ëìãW= ∑ Ñ (ξ á )∆ñ á ==
á =N
pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉëW= ∆ñ á ==
^åíáÇÉêáî~íáîÉëW= c(ñ ) I= d(ñ ) ==
iáãáíë=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåëW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=Ç=
=
=
Ä å
1053. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = äáã ∑ Ñ (ξ )∆ñ
á á I==
å→∞
~ ã~ñ ∆ñ á →M á =N

ïÜÉêÉ== ∆ñ á = ñ á − ñ á −N I== ñ á −N ≤ ξ á ≤ ñ á K==

=
=
Figure 179.
=

247
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Ä
1054. ∫ NÇñ = Ä − ~ =
~

=
Ä Ä
1055. ∫ âÑ (ñ )Çñ = â ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =
~ ~

=
Ä Ä Ä
1056. ∫ [Ñ (ñ ) + Ö(ñ )]Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ + ∫ Ö(ñ )Çñ =
~ ~ ~

=
Ä Ä Ä
1057. ∫ [Ñ (ñ ) − Ö(ñ )]Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ − ∫ Ö(ñ )Çñ =
~ ~ ~

=
~
1058. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = M =
~

=
Ä ~
1059. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = − ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =
~ Ä

=
Ä Å Ä
1060. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ + ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =Ñçê= ~ < Å < Ä K=
~ ~ Å

=
Ä
1061. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ ≥ M =áÑ= Ñ (ñ ) ≥ M =çå= [~ I Ä] K=
~

=
Ä
1062. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ ≤ M =áÑ= Ñ (ñ ) ≤ M =çå= [~ I Ä] K=
~

=
=
=
=

248
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1063. cìåÇ~ãÉåí~ä=qÜÉçêÉã=çÑ=`~äÅìäìë=
Ä

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = c(ñ ) = c(Ä) − c(~ ) =áÑ= c′(ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) K=

Ä
~
~

=
1064. jÉíÜçÇ=çÑ=pìÄëíáíìíáçå==
fÑ= ñ = Ö (í ) I=íÜÉå==
Ä Ç

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = ∫ Ñ (Ö(í ))Ö′(í )Çí I==

~ Å

ïÜÉêÉ=
Å = Ö −N (~ ) I= Ç = Ö −N (Ä) K=
=
1065. fåíÉÖê~íáçå=Äó=m~êíë=
Ä Ä

∫ ìÇî = (ìî ) ~ − ∫ îÇì =

~ ~

=
1066. qê~éÉòçáÇ~ä=oìäÉ=
Ä−~ 
Ä å −N

∫~ Ñ ( ñ )Çñ =  Ñ ( ñ M ) + Ñ ( ñ å ) + O∑ Ñ (ñ á ) =
Oå  á =N 
=

249
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 180.
=
1067. páãéëçå∞ë=oìäÉ==
Ä−~
Ä

∫~ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = På [Ñ (ñ M ) + QÑ (ñ N ) + OÑ (ñ O ) + QÑ (ñ P ) + =
+ OÑ (ñ Q ) + K + QÑ (ñ å −N ) + Ñ (ñ å )] I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
Ä−~
ñá = ~ + á I= á = MI NI OI KI å K==
å
=

250
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 181.
=
1068. ^êÉ~=råÇÉê=~=`ìêîÉ=
Ä
p = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = c(Ä) − c(~ ) I==
~

ïÜÉêÉ= c′(ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) K=
=

251
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 182.
=
1069. ^êÉ~=_ÉíïÉÉå=qïç=`ìêîÉë=
Ä
p = ∫ [Ñ (ñ ) − Ö (ñ )]Çñ = c(Ä) − d(Ä) − c(~ ) + d(~ ) I==
~

ïÜÉêÉ= c′(ñ ) = Ñ (ñ ) I= d′(ñ ) = Ö (ñ ) K=

252
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 183.
=
=
=
9.9 Improper Integral
=
Ä
1070. qÜÉ=ÇÉÑáåáíÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä== ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =áë=Å~ääÉÇ=~å=áãéêçéÉê=áåíÉÖê~ä=
~

áÑ==
• ~=çê=Ä=áë=áåÑáåáíÉI=
• Ñ (ñ ) ==Ü~ë==çåÉ==çê==ãçêÉ=éçáåíë=çÑ==ÇáëÅçåíáåìáíó=
=====áå=íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä= [~ I Ä] K=
=
1071. fÑ= Ñ (ñ ) =áë=~=Åçåíáåìçìë=ÑìåÅíáçå=çå= [~ I ∞ ) I=íÜÉå==
∞ å

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = äáã ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ K=

~
å →∞
~

253
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 184.
=
1072. fÑ= Ñ (ñ ) =áë=~=Åçåíáåìçìë=ÑìåÅíáçå=çå= (− ∞I Ä] I=íÜÉå==
Ä Ä

−∞
∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = äáã ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ K=
å→ −∞
å
=

=
=
Figure 185.

254
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

kçíÉ=W=qÜÉ=áãéêçéÉê=áåíÉÖê~äë=áå=NMTNI=NMTO=~êÉ=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=
áÑ=íÜÉ=äáãáíë=Éñáëí=~åÇ=~êÉ=ÑáåáíÉX=çíÜÉêïáëÉ=íÜÉ=áåíÉÖê~äë=~êÉ=
ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
=
∞ Å ∞
1073. ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ + ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =
−∞ −∞ Å

=
=
Figure 186.
=
fÑ=Ñçê=ëçãÉ=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉê=ÅI=ÄçíÜ=çÑ=íÜÉ=áåíÉÖê~äë=áå=íÜÉ=êáÖÜí=
∞
ëáÇÉ= ~êÉ= ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíI= íÜÉå= íÜÉ= áåíÉÖê~ä= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = áë= ~äëç=====
−∞
ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíX=çíÜÉêïáëÉ=áí=áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
=
1074. `çãé~êáëçå=qÜÉçêÉãë=
iÉí== Ñ (ñ ) =~åÇ== Ö(ñ ) ==ÄÉ==Åçåíáåìçìë==ÑìåÅíáçåë==çå=íÜÉ=ÅäçëÉÇ=
áåíÉêî~ä= [~ I ∞ ) K= pìééçëÉ= íÜ~í= M ≤ Ö (ñ ) ≤ Ñ (ñ ) = Ñçê= ~ää= ñ= áå=
[~I ∞ ) K=

255
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

∞ ∞
• fÑ= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíI=íÜÉå= ∫ Ö (ñ )Çñ =áë=~äëç=
~ ~

=====ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíI=
∞ ∞
• fÑ= ∫ Ö (ñ )Çñ =áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíI=íÜÉå= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =áë=~äëç=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
~ ~

=
1075. ^ÄëçäìíÉ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=
=
∞ ∞
fÑ= ∫ Ñ (ñ ) Çñ =áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =áë=~Äëç-
~ ~
äìíÉäó=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK===
=
1076. aáëÅçåíáåìçìë=fåíÉÖê~åÇ=
iÉí= Ñ (ñ ) =ÄÉ=~=ÑìåÅíáçå=ïÜáÅÜ=áë=Åçåíáåìçìë=çå=íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä==
[~I Ä) =Äìí=áë=ÇáëÅçåíáåìçìë=~í= ñ = Ä K=qÜÉå==
Ä Ä−ε

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = äáã
~
ε →M + ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ =
~

=
=
Figure 187.

256
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1077. iÉí= Ñ (ñ ) =ÄÉ=~=Åçåíáåìçìë=ÑìåÅíáçå=Ñçê=~ää=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêë==ñ==áå=

íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä== [~ I Ä] ==ÉñÅÉéí==Ñçê==ëçãÉ=éçáåí==Å==áå= (~ I Ä) K=qÜÉå=
Ä Å −ε Ä

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = äáã ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ + äáã ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ K=

~
ε →M +
~
δ →M +
Å +δ

=
=
Figure 188.
=
=
=
9.10 Double Integral
=
cìåÅíáçåë=çÑ=íïç=î~êá~ÄäÉëW= Ñ (ñ I ó ) I= Ñ (ìI î ) I=£=
açìÄäÉ=áåíÉÖê~äëW= ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó I= ∫∫ Ö (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó I=£=
o o

( )
ã å
oáÉã~åå=ëìãW= ∑∑ Ñ ì á I î à ∆ñ á ∆ó à =
á =N à=N

pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉëW= ∆ñ á I= ∆ó à =
oÉÖáçåë=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåW=oI=p==
mçä~ê=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ê I= θ =

257
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

^êÉ~W=^=
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=p=
sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=ëçäáÇW=s=
j~ëë=çÑ=~=ä~ãáå~W=ã=
aÉåëáíóW= ρ(ñ I ó ) =
cáêëí=ãçãÉåíëW= j ñ I= j ó =
jçãÉåíë=çÑ=áåÉêíá~W= f ñ I= f ó I= fM =
`Ü~êÖÉ=çÑ=~=éä~íÉW=n=
`Ü~êÖÉ=ÇÉåëáíóW= σ(ñ I ó ) =
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=ã~ëëW= ñ I= ó =
^îÉê~ÖÉ=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçåW= µ =
=
1078. aÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=açìÄäÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=
qÜÉ=ÇçìÄäÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çîÉê=~=êÉÅí~åÖäÉ= [~I Ä]× [ÅI Ç] =áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=
íç=ÄÉ==

∑∑ Ñ (ì I î )∆ñ ∆ó
ã å

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = äáã
[~ I Ä ]×[Å I Ç ]
ã~ñ ∆ñ á →M
á à á à I==
ã~ñ ∆ó à → M á =N à=N

( )
ïÜÉêÉ= ì á I î à =áë=ëçãÉ=éçáåí=áå=íÜÉ=êÉÅí~åÖäÉ=
( )
(ñ á −N I ñ á )× ó à−N I ó à I=~åÇ= ∆ñ á = ñ á − ñ á −N I= ∆ó à = ó à − ó à−N K=
=

=== =
Figure 189.

258
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

qÜÉ=ÇçìÄäÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çîÉê=~=ÖÉåÉê~ä=êÉÖáçå=o=áë==
∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫∫ Ö(ñ I ó )Ç^ I==
o [~ I Ä ]×[Å I Ç ]
ïÜÉêÉ=êÉÅí~åÖäÉ= [~I Ä]× [ÅI Ç] =Åçåí~áåë=oI==
Ö(ñ I ó ) = Ñ (ñ I ó ) =áÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) =áë=áå=o=~åÇ= Ö(ñ I ó ) = M =çíÜÉêïáëÉK=
=

=
=
Figure 190.
=
1079. ∫∫ [Ñ (ñ I ó ) + Ö(ñ I ó )]Ç^ = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ + ∫∫ Ö(ñ I ó )Ç^ =
o o o

=
1080. ∫∫ [Ñ (ñ I ó ) − Ö(ñ I ó )]Ç^ = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ − ∫∫ Ö(ñ I ó )Ç^ =
o o o

=
1081. ∫∫ âÑ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = â ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ I==
o o

ïÜÉêÉ=â=áë=~=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1082. fÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≤ Ö(ñ I ó ) =çå=oI=íÜÉå= ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ ≤ ∫∫ Ö (ñ I ó )Ç^ K=
o o

=
1083. fÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≥ M =çå=o=~åÇ= p ⊂ o I=íÜÉå=

259
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

= ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ ≤ ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ K=
p o

=
=
Figure 191.
=
1084. fÑ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≥ M =çå=o=~åÇ=o=~åÇ=p=~êÉ=åçå-çîÉêä~ééáåÖ=
êÉÖáçåëI=íÜÉå= ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ + ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o ∪p o p

eÉêÉ= o ∪ p =áë=íÜÉ=ìåáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=êÉÖáçåë=o=~åÇ=pK=
=

=
=
Figure 192.
=
=

260
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1085. fíÉê~íÉÇ=fåíÉÖê~äë=~åÇ=cìÄáåá∞ë=qÜÉçêÉã=
Ä è(ñ )

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫ ∫( Ñ) (ñ I ó )ÇóÇñ ==
o ~é ñ

Ñçê=~=êÉÖáçå=çÑ=íóéÉ=fI==
o = {(ñ I ó ) ö ~ ≤ ñ ≤ ÄI é(ñ ) ≤ ó ≤ è(ñ )} K=
=

=
=
Figure 193.
=
Ç î (ó )

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫ ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó ==
o Å ì(ó )

Ñçê=~=êÉÖáçå=çÑ=íóéÉ=ffI=
o = {(ñ I ó ) ö ì(ó ) ≤ ñ ≤ î (ó )I Å ≤ ó ≤ Ç} K=
=

261
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 194.
=
1086. açìÄäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=çîÉê=oÉÅí~åÖìä~ê=oÉÖáçåë=
=
fÑ=o=áë=íÜÉ=êÉÅí~åÖìä~ê=êÉÖáçå= [~I Ä]× [ÅI Ç] I=íÜÉå==
Ä Ç
  
Ç Ä

∫∫o Ñ ( ñ I ó )ÇñÇó = ∫~  ∫Å
 Ñ ( ñ I ó )Çó 
 Çñ = ∫  ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Çñ Çó K==
 
 Å~ 
=
få=íÜÉ=ëéÉÅá~ä=Å~ëÉ=ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=áåíÉÖê~åÇ= Ñ (ñ I ó ) =Å~å=ÄÉ=ïêáí-
íÉå=~ë= Ö (ñ )Ü(ó ) =ïÉ=Ü~îÉ==
Ä Ç 
∫∫o Ñ ( ñ I ó )ÇñÇó = ∫∫o Ö ( ñ )Ü( ó )ÇñÇó = ∫
 Ö ( ñ )Çñ ∫
  Ü( ó )Çó  K==

~ Å 
=
1087. `Ü~åÖÉ=çÑ=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
∂ (ñ I ó )
∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó = ∫∫ Ñ [ñ (ìI î )I ó(ìI î )] ∂(ìI î ) ÇìÇî I==
o p

∂ñ ∂ñ
∂ (ñ I ó ) ∂ì ∂î
ïÜÉêÉ= = ≠ M áë= íÜÉ= à~ÅçÄá~å= çÑ= íÜÉ= íê~åë-
∂ (ìI î ) ∂ó ∂ó
∂ì ∂î
Ñçêã~íáçåë= (ñ I ó ) → (ìI î ) I=~åÇ=p=áë=íÜÉ=éìääÄ~Åâ=çÑ=o=ïÜáÅÜ=

262
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

Å~å=ÄÉ=ÅçãéìíÉÇ=Äó= ñ = ñ (ìI î ) I= ó = ó (ìI î ) =áåíç=íÜÉ=ÇÉÑáåá-

íáçå=çÑ=oK==
=
1088. mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
ñ = ê Åçë θ I= ó = ê ëáå θ K==
=

=
=
Figure 195.
=
1089. açìÄäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=áå=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
=
qÜÉ=aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=ÇñÇó=Ñçê=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=áë==
∂ (ñ I ó )
ÇñÇó = ÇêÇθ = êÇêÇθ K==
∂ (êI θ)
=
iÉí=íÜÉ=êÉÖáçå=o=áë=ÇÉíÉêãáåÉÇ=~ë=ÑçääçïëW=
M ≤ Ö (θ) ≤ ê ≤ Ü(θ) I= α ≤ θ ≤ β I=ïÜÉêÉ= β − α ≤ Oπ K==
qÜÉå==
β Ü (θ )

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó = ∫ ∫ Ñ (ê Åçë θI ê ëáå θ)êÇêÇθ K=

o α Ö (θ )

263
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 196.
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=êÉÖáçå=o=áë=íÜÉ=éçä~ê=êÉÅí~åÖäÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
M ≤ ~ ≤ ê ≤ Ä I= α ≤ θ ≤ β I=ïÜÉêÉ= β − α ≤ Oπ I===
íÜÉå==
β Ä

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó = ∫ ∫ Ñ (ê Åçë θI ê ëáå θ)êÇêÇθ K==

o α ~

=
=
Figure 197.
=
=

264
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1090. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=oÉÖáçå=
Ä Ñ (ñ )
^ = ∫ ∫ ÇóÇñ =EÑçê=~=íóéÉ=f=êÉÖáçåFK=
~ Ö (ñ )

=
=
Figure 198.
=
Ç è(ó )
^ = ∫ ∫ ÇñÇó =EÑçê=~=íóéÉ=ff=êÉÖáçåFK=
Å é( ó )

=
=
Figure 199.
=
=

265
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1091. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=
s = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o
=

=
=
Figure 200.
=
fÑ=o=áë=~=íóéÉ=f=êÉÖáçå=ÄçìåÇÉÇ=Äó= ñ = ~ I= ñ = Ä I= ó = Ü(ñ ) I=
ó = Ö (ñ ) I=íÜÉå==
Ä Ö(ñ )
s = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫ ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇóÇñ K==
o ~ Ü(ñ )

=
fÑ=o=áë=~=íóéÉ=ff=êÉÖáçå=ÄçìåÇÉÇ=Äó= ó = Å I= ó = Ç I= ñ = è(ó ) I=
ñ = é(ó ) I=íÜÉå=
Ç è(ó )
s = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ = ∫ ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )ÇñÇó K==
o Å é( ó )

266
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

fÑ== Ñ (ñ I ó ) ≥ Ö (ñ I ó ) ==çîÉê==~==êÉÖáçå==oI==íÜÉå==íÜÉ==îçäìãÉ==çÑ=
íÜÉ= ëçäáÇ= ÄÉíïÉÉå= òN = Ñ (ñ I ó ) = ~åÇ= ò O = Ö(ñ I ó ) = çîÉê= o= áë=
ÖáîÉå=Äó=
s = ∫∫ [Ñ (ñ I ó ) − Ö (ñ I ó )]Ç^ K==
o
=
1092. ^êÉ~=~åÇ=sçäìãÉ=áå=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
fÑ=p=áë=~=êÉÖáçå=áå=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉ=ÄçìåÇÉÇ=Äó= θ = α I= θ = β I=
ê = Ü(θ) I= ê = Ö (θ) I==
íÜÉå==
β Ö (θ )

^ = ∫∫ Ç^ = ∫ ∫ êÇêÇθ I==
p α Ü(θ )

s = ∫∫ Ñ (êI θ)êÇêÇθ K==

p
=

=
=
Figure 201.
=
1093. pìêÑ~ÅÉ=^êÉ~=
O
 ∂ò   ∂ò 
O

p = ∫∫ N +   +   ÇñÇó =
o  ∂ñ   ∂ó 
=

267
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1094. j~ëë=çÑ=~=i~ãáå~=
ã = ∫∫ ρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ I==
o

ïÜÉêÉ==íÜÉ==ä~ãáå~==çÅÅìéáÉë==~==êÉÖáçå==o=~åÇ==áíë==ÇÉåëáíó==~í=
~=éçáåí=EñIóF=áë= ρ(ñ I ó ) K===
=
1095. jçãÉåíë=
qÜÉ=ãçãÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ä~ãáå~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ==ñ-~ñáë==áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=Ñçê-
ãìä~=
j ñ = ∫∫ óρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o

=
qÜÉ=ãçãÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ä~ãáå~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ó-~ñáë=áë=
j ó = ∫∫ ñρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ K=
o

=
qÜÉ=ãçãÉåí=çÑ=áåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáë=áë=
f ñ = ∫∫ ó Oρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o

=
qÜÉ=ãçãÉåí=çÑ=áåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ó-~ñáë=áë=
f ó = ∫∫ ñ Oρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o

=
qÜÉ=éçä~ê=ãçãÉåí=çÑ=áåÉêíá~=áë=
fM = ∫∫ (ñ O + ó O )ρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ K==
o

=
1096. `ÉåíÉê=çÑ=j~ëë=

jó
N ∫∫ ñρ(ñ I ó )Ç^
ñ= = ∫∫ ñρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ = o
I==
ã ã o ∫∫ ρ(ñ I ó )Ç^
o

268
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

j N ∫∫ óρ(ñ I ó )Ç^
ó = ñ = ∫∫ óρ(ñ I ó )Ç^ = o
K==
ã ã o ∫∫ ρ(ñ I ó )Ç^
o
=
1097. `Ü~êÖÉ=çÑ=~=mä~íÉ=
n = ∫∫ σ(ñ I ó )Ç^ I==
o
ïÜÉêÉ=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ~ä=ÅÜ~êÖÉ=áë=ÇáëíêáÄìíÉÇ=çîÉê=~=êÉÖáçå=o=~åÇ=áíë=
ÅÜ~êÖÉ=ÇÉåëáíó=~í=~=éçáåí=EñIóF=áë= σ(ñ I ó ) K===
=
1098. ^îÉê~ÖÉ=çÑ=~=cìåÅíáçå=
N
µ = ∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó )Ç^ I==
po
ïÜÉêÉ= p = ∫∫ Ç^ K==
o
=
=
=
9.11 Triple Integral
=
cìåÅíáçåë=çÑ=íÜêÉÉ=î~êá~ÄäÉëW= Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) I= Ö (ñ I ó I ò ) I=£=
qêáéäÉ=áåíÉÖê~äëW= ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çs I= ∫∫∫ Ö (ñ I ó I ò )Çs I=£=
d d

( )
ã å é
oáÉã~åå=ëìãW= ∑∑∑ Ñ ì á I î à I ï â ∆ñ á ∆ó à ∆ò â =
á =N à=N â =N

pã~ää=ÅÜ~åÖÉëW= ∆ñ á I= ∆ó à I= ∆ò â =
iáãáíë=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåW=~I=ÄI=ÅI=ÇI=êI=ë=
oÉÖáçåë=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåW=dI=qI=p==
`óäáåÇêáÅ~ä=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ê I= θ I=ò=
péÜÉêáÅ~ä=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ê I= θ I= ϕ =
sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=ëçäáÇW=s=

269
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

j~ëë=çÑ=~=ëçäáÇW=ã==
aÉåëáíóW= µ(ñ I ó I ò ) =
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=ã~ëëW= ñ I= ó I= ò =
cáêëí=ãçãÉåíëW= j ñó I= j óò I= j ñò =
jçãÉåíë=çÑ=áåÉêíá~W= f ñó I= f óò I= f ñò I= f ñ I= f ó I= fò I= fM =
=
=
1099. aÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=qêáéäÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=
qÜÉ=íêáéäÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çîÉê=~=é~ê~ääÉäÉéáéÉÇ= [~I Ä]× [ÅI Ç]× [êI ë] =
áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=íç=ÄÉ==

∑∑∑ Ñ (ì I î I ï )∆ñ ∆ó ∆ò
ã å é

∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çs = äáã á à â á à â I

ã~ñ ∆ñ á →M
[~ I Ä ]×[Å I Ç ]×[ê I ë ] ã~ñ ∆ó à →M á =N à=N â =N
ã~ñ ∆ò â →M

( )
ïÜÉêÉ= ì á I î à I ï â =áë=ëçãÉ=éçáåí=áå=íÜÉ=é~ê~ääÉäÉéáéÉÇ=
( )
(ñ á −N I ñ á )× ó à−N I ó à × (ò â −N I ò â ) I=~åÇ= ∆ñ á = ñ á − ñ á −N I=
∆ó à = ó à − ó à−N I= ∆ò â = ò â − ò â −N K=
=
1100. ∫∫∫ [Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) + Ö (ñ I ó I ò )]Çs = ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çs + ∫∫∫ Ö (ñ I ó I ò )Çs
d d d
=
1101. ∫∫∫ [Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) − Ö(ñ I óI ò )]Çs = ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )Çs − ∫∫∫ Ö(ñ I óI ò )Çs
d d d
=
1102. ∫∫∫ âÑ (ñ I óI ò )Çs = â ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çs I==
d d
ïÜÉêÉ=â=áë=~=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1103. fÑ== Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) ≥ M =~åÇ=d=~åÇ=q=~êÉ=åçåçîÉêä~ééáåÖ=Ä~ëáÅ=
êÉÖáçåëI=íÜÉå==
∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )Çs = ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )Çs + ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )Çs K==
d∪q d q
eÉêÉ= d ∪ q =áë=íÜÉ=ìåáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=êÉÖáçåë=d=~åÇ=qK=
=

270
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1104. bî~äì~íáçå=çÑ=qêáéäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=Äó=oÉéÉ~íÉÇ=fåíÉÖê~äë=
fÑ=íÜÉ=ëçäáÇ=d=áë=íÜÉ=ëÉí=çÑ=éçáåíë= (ñ I ó I ò ) =ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
= (ñ I ó )∈ oI χ N (ñ I ó ) ≤ ò ≤ χ O (ñ I ó ) I=íÜÉå==
χ O ( ñ I ó ) 
= ∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )ÇñÇóÇò = ∫∫  ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çò  ÇñÇó I==
d o  χN ( ñ I ó ) 
ïÜÉêÉ=o=áë=éêçàÉÅíáçå=çÑ=d=çåíç=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉK=
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=ëçäáÇ=d=áë=íÜÉ=ëÉí=çÑ=éçáåíë= (ñ I ó I ò ) =ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
~ ≤ ñ ≤ ÄI ϕN (ñ ) ≤ ó ≤ ϕO (ñ )I χN (ñ I ó ) ≤ ò ≤ χ O (ñ I ó ) I=íÜÉå==
Ä  ϕO ( ñ )  χ O ( ñ I ó )  
∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )ÇñÇóÇò = ∫  ∫  ∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çò Çó Çñ ==
~ 
  
d  ϕN ( ñ )  χN ( ñ I ó )  
=
1105. qêáéäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=çîÉê=m~ê~ääÉäÉéáéÉÇ=
fÑ=d=áë=~=é~ê~ääÉäÉéáéÉÇ= [~ I Ä]× [ÅI Ç]× [êI ë] I=íÜÉå=
 
Ä Ç ë
 
∫∫∫ Ñ ( ñ I ó I ò )ÇñÇóÇò = ∫  ∫ ∫
 Ñ ( ñ I ó I ò )Çò Çó Çñ K==

d 
~ Å  ê  
=
få==íÜÉ=ëéÉÅá~ä=Å~ëÉ==ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=áåíÉÖê~åÇ== Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) ==Å~å=ÄÉ=
ïêáííÉå=~ë= Ö (ñ ) Ü(ó ) â (ò ) =ïÉ=Ü~îÉ==
Ä  Ç  ë 
∫∫∫ Ñ ( ñ I ó I ò )ÇñÇóÇò = ∫
 Ö ( ñ )Çñ  ∫
 Ü( ó )Çó  ∫ â (ò )Çò  K==
 
d ~  Å  ê 
=
1106. `Ü~åÖÉ=çÑ=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )ÇñÇóÇò = =
d

∂ (ñ I ó I ò )
= ∫∫∫ Ñ [ñ (ìI î I ï )I ó (ìI î I ï )I ò (ìI î I ï )] ÇñÇóÇòI =
p
∂ (ìI î I ï )

271
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

∂ñ ∂ñ ∂ñ
∂ì ∂î ∂ï
∂ (ñ I ó I ò ) ∂ó ∂ó ∂ó
ïÜÉêÉ== = ≠ M ==áë==íÜÉ==à~ÅçÄá~å==çÑ=
∂ (ìI î I ï ) ∂ì ∂î ∂ï
∂ò ∂ò ∂ò
∂ì ∂î ∂ï
íÜÉ= íê~åëÑçêã~íáçåë= (ñ I ó I ò ) → (ìI î I ï ) I= ~åÇ= p= áë= íÜÉ= éìää-
Ä~Åâ= çÑ= d= ïÜáÅÜ= Å~å= ÄÉ= ÅçãéìíÉÇ= Äó= ñ = ñ (ìI î I ï ) I=
ó = ó (ìI î I ï ) =
ò = ò (ìI î I ï ) =áåíç=íÜÉ=ÇÉÑáåáíáçå=çÑ=dK=
= =
1107. qêáéäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=áå=`óäáåÇêáÅ~ä=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
qÜÉ=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=ÇñÇóÇò=Ñçê=ÅóäáåÇêáÅ~ä=ÅççêÇáå~íÉë=áë==
∂ (ñ I ó I ò )
ÇñÇóÇò = ÇêÇθÇò = êÇêÇθÇò K==
∂ (êI θI ò )
=
iÉí=íÜÉ=ëçäáÇ=d=áë=ÇÉíÉêãáåÉÇ=~ë=ÑçääçïëW=
(ñ I ó )∈ oI χN (ñ I ó ) ≤ ò ≤ χ O (ñ I ó ) I=
ïÜÉêÉ=o=áë=éêçàÉÅíáçå=çÑ=d=çåíç=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉK=qÜÉå==
∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )ÇñÇóÇò = ∫∫∫ Ñ (ê Åçë θI ê ëáå θI ò )êÇêÇθÇò =
d p
χ O ( ê Åçë θ Iê ëáå θ )
 
=  Ñ (
∫∫  χ (ê Åçë∫θIê ëáå θ )
ê Åçë θI ê ëáå θI ò )Çò  êÇêÇθ K=
o ( ê Iθ )  N 
eÉêÉ=p=áë=íÜÉ=éìääÄ~Åâ=çÑ=d=áå=ÅóäáåÇêáÅ~ä=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëK=
=
1108. qêáéäÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=áå=péÜÉêáÅ~ä=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
qÜÉ=aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=ÇñÇóÇò=Ñçê=péÜÉêáÅ~ä=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=áë==
∂ (ñ I ó I ò )
ÇñÇóÇò = ÇêÇθÇϕ = ê O ëáå θÇêÇθÇϕ ==
∂ (êI θI ϕ)
=
∫∫∫ Ñ (ñ I óI ò )ÇñÇóÇò = =
d

272
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

========= = ∫∫∫ Ñ (ê ëáå θ Åçë ϕI ê ëáå θ ëáå ϕI ê Åçë θ) ê O ëáå θÇêÇθÇϕ I==
p

ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=ëçäáÇ=p=áë=íÜÉ=éìääÄ~Åâ=çÑ=d=áå=ëéÜÉêáÅ~ä=ÅççêÇá-
å~íÉëK=qÜÉ=~åÖäÉ== θ ==ê~åÖÉë==Ñêçã==M=íç== Oπ I==íÜÉ==~åÖäÉ== ϕ =
ê~åÖÉë=Ñêçã=M=íç= π K==
=

======= =
=
Figure 202.
=
1109. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=
s = ∫∫∫ ÇñÇóÇò =
d
=
1110. sçäìãÉ=áå=`óäáåÇêáÅ~ä=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
s = ∫∫∫ êÇêÇθÇò =
p ( ê I θ Iò )

=
1111. sçäìãÉ=áå=péÜÉêáÅ~ä=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
s = ∫∫∫ ê O ëáå θÇêÇθÇϕ =
p ( ê I θ Iϕ )

273
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1112. j~ëë=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=
ã = ∫∫∫ µ(ñ I ó I ò )Çs I==
d
ïÜÉêÉ= íÜÉ= ëçäáÇ= çÅÅìéáÉë= ~= êÉÖáçå= d= ~åÇ= áíë= ÇÉåëáíó= ~í============
~=éçáåí= (ñ I ó I ò ) =áë= µ(ñ I ó I ò ) K===
=
1113. `ÉåíÉê=çÑ=j~ëë=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=
j óò j j ñó
ñ= I= ó = ñò I= ò = I==
ã ã ã
ïÜÉêÉ==
j óò = ∫∫∫ ñµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==
d

j ñò = ∫∫∫ óµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==

j ñó = ∫∫∫ òµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs =
d
~êÉ==íÜÉ==Ñáêëí==ãçãÉåíë==~Äçìí==íÜÉ==ÅççêÇáå~íÉ=éä~åÉë= ñ = M I=
ó = M I= ò = M I=êÉëéÉÅíáîÉäóI== µ(ñ I ó I ò ) =áë=íÜÉ=ÇÉåëáíó=ÑìåÅíáçåK==
=
1114. jçãÉåíë=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=~Äçìí==íÜÉ==ñó-éä~åÉ=Eçê= ò = M FI=óò-éä~åÉ==
E ñ = M FI=~åÇ=ñò-éä~åÉ=E ó = M F=
f ñó = ∫∫∫ ò Oµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==
d

f óò = ∫∫∫ ñ Oµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==

f ñò = ∫∫∫ ó Oµ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs K==

d
=
1115. jçãÉåíë=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáëI=ó-~ñáëI=~åÇ=ò-~ñáë=
f ñ = f ñó + f ñò = ∫∫∫ (ò O + ó O )µ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==
d

f ó = f ñó + f óò = ∫∫∫ (ò O + ñ O )µ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs I==

274
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

fò = f ñò + f óò = ∫∫∫ (ó O + ñ O )µ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs K==

d
=
1116. mçä~ê=jçãÉåí=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=
fM = f ñó + f óò + f ñò = ∫∫∫ (ñ O + ó O + ò O )µ(ñ I ó I ò ) Çs =
d
=
=
9.12 Line Integral
=
pÅ~ä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçåëW= c(ñ I ó I ò ) I= c(ñ I ó ) I= Ñ (ñ ) =
pÅ~ä~ê=éçíÉåíá~äW= ì(ñ I ó I ò ) =
`ìêîÉëW=`I= `N I= ` O =
iáãáíë=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåëW=~I=ÄI= α I= β =
m~ê~ãÉíÉêëW=íI=ë=
mçä~ê=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëW= ê I= θ =
r
sÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= c (mI nI o ) =
r
mçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçêW= ê (ë ) =
r r r r
råáí=îÉÅíçêëW= á I= à I= â I= τ =
^êÉ~=çÑ=êÉÖáçåW=p=
iÉåÖíÜ=çÑ=~=ÅìêîÉW=i=
j~ëë=çÑ=~=ïáêÉW=ã=
aÉåëáíóW= ρ(ñ I ó I ò ) I= ρ(ñ I ó ) =
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=ã~ëëW= ñ I= ó I= ò =
cáêëí=ãçãÉåíëW= j ñó I= j óò I= j ñò =
jçãÉåíë=çÑ=áåÉêíá~W= f ñ I= f ó I= fò =
sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=ëçäáÇW=s=
tçêâW=t=
r
j~ÖåÉíáÅ=ÑáÉäÇW= _ =
`ìêêÉåíW=f=
bäÉÅíêçãçíáîÉ=ÑçêÅÉW= ε =
j~ÖåÉíáÅ=ÑäìñW= ψ =

275
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1117. iáåÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=pÅ~ä~ê=cìåÅíáçå=
r r
iÉí=~=ÅìêîÉ=`=ÄÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑìåÅíáçå= ê = ê (ë ) I=
M ≤ ë ≤ p I=~åÇ=~=ëÅ~ä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçå=c=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=çîÉê=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`K==
qÜÉå==
p
r
∫ c(ê (ë ))Çë = ∫ c(ñ I óI ò )Çë = ∫ cÇë I==
M ` `
ïÜÉêÉ=Çë=áë=íÜÉ=~êÅ=äÉåÖíÜ=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~äK==
=
1118. ∫ c Çë = ∫ c Çë + ∫ c Çë =
`N ∪ ` O `N `O

=
=
Figure 203.
=
r r
1119. fÑ=íÜÉ=ëãççíÜ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=é~ê~ãÉíêáòÉÇ=Äó= ê = ê (í ) I=
α ≤ í ≤ β I=íÜÉå==
β

∫ c(ñ I ó I ò )Çë = ∫ c(ñ (í )I ó(í )I ò(í )) (ñ ′(í )) + (ó′(í )) + (ò′(í )) Çí K=

O O O

` α
=
1120. fÑ=`=áë=~=ëãççíÜ=ÅìêîÉ=áå=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå=
ó = Ñ (ñ ) I= ~ ≤ ñ ≤ Ä I=íÜÉå==
Ä

∫ c(ñ I ó )Çë = ∫ c(ñ I Ñ (ñ )) N + (Ñ ′(ñ )) Çñ K==

` ~
=
1121. iáåÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=pÅ~ä~ê=cìåÅíáçå=áå=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=

276
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

β O
 Çê 
∫` c(ñ I ó )Çë = ∫α c(ê Åçë θI ê ëáå θ) ê +  Çθ  Çθ I==
O

ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=éçä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçå= êEθF K=
=
1122. iáåÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=sÉÅíçê=cáÉäÇ=
r r
iÉí=~=ÅìêîÉ=`=ÄÉ=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑìåÅíáçå= ê = ê (ë ) I=
M ≤ ë ≤ p K=qÜÉå==
r
Çê r
= τ = (Åçë αI Åçë βI Åçë γ ) ==
Çë
áë=íÜÉ=ìåáí=îÉÅíçê=çÑ=íÜÉ=í~åÖÉåí=äáåÉ=íç=íÜáë=ÅìêîÉK==
=

=
=
Figure 204.
=
r
iÉí= ~= îÉÅíçê= ÑáÉäÇ= c (mI nI o ) = áë= ÇÉÑáåÉÇ= çîÉê= íÜÉ= ÅìêîÉ= `K=
r
qÜÉå=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇ= c =~äçåÖ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=
`=áë==
p

∫ mÇñ + nÇó + oÇò = ∫ (m Åçë α + n Åçë β + o Åçë γ )Çë K=

` M
=
=

277
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1123. mêçéÉêíáÉë=çÑ=iáåÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=çÑ=sÉÅíçê=cáÉäÇë=
( ) ( )
r r r r
∫ c
−`
⋅ Ç ê = − ∫ ⋅ Çê I==
c
`

ïÜÉêÉ=-`=ÇÉåçíÉ==íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=ïáíÜ=íÜÉ=çééçëáíÉ=çêáÉåí~íáçåK=
=
(
r r
) r r
( ) (
r r r r
) (
∫ c ⋅ Çê = ∫ c ⋅ Çê = ∫ c ⋅ Çê + ∫ c ⋅ Çê I== )
` `N ∪ ` O `N `O

ïÜÉêÉ=`=áë=íÜÉ=ìåáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉë= `N =~åÇ= ` O K==

=
r
1124. fÑ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=é~ê~ãÉíÉêáòÉÇ=Äó= ê (í ) = ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í ) I=
α ≤ í ≤ β I=íÜÉå==
∫ mÇñ + nÇó + oÇò = =
`
β
 Çñ Çó Çò 
= ∫  m(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í )) + n(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í )) + o(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í )) Çí
α
Çí Çí Çí 
=
1125. fÑ=`=äáÉë=áå=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉ=~åÇ=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå= ó = Ñ (ñ ) I=
íÜÉå==
Ä
 ÇÑ 
∫` mÇñ + nÇó = ∫~  m(ñ I Ñ (ñ )) + n(ñ I Ñ (ñ )) Çñ Çñ K==
=
1126. dêÉÉå∞ë=qÜÉçêÉã=
 ∂n ∂m 
∫∫o  ∂ñ − ∂ó ÇñÇó = ∫` mÇñ + nÇó I==
r r r
ïÜÉêÉ= c = m(ñ I ó ) á + n(ñ I ó ) à = áë= ~= Åçåíáåìçìë= îÉÅíçê= ÑìåÅ-
∂m ∂n
íáçå=ïáíÜ==Åçåíáåìçìë==Ñáêëí=é~êíá~ä==ÇÉêáî~íáîÉë= I= =áå=~=
∂ó ∂ñ
ëçãÉ= Ççã~áå= oI= ïÜáÅÜ= áë= ÄçìåÇÉÇ= Äó= ~= ÅäçëÉÇI= éáÉÅÉïáëÉ=
ëãççíÜ=ÅìêîÉ=`K==
=
=

278
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1127. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=oÉÖáçå=o=_çìåÇÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=`ìêîÉ=`=
N
p = ∫∫ ÇñÇó = ∫ ñÇó − óÇñ =
o
O`
=
1128. m~íÜ=fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåÅÉ=çÑ=iáåÉ=fåíÉÖê~äë=
r r r r
qÜÉ= äáåÉ= áåíÉÖê~ä= çÑ= ~= îÉÅíçê= ÑìåÅíáçå= c = m á + n à + oâ = áë=
ë~áÇ=íç=ÄÉ=é~íÜ=áåÇÉéÉåÇÉåíI=áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ=mI=nI=~åÇ=o=~êÉ=
Åçåíáåìçìë= áå= ~= Ççã~áå= aI= ~åÇ= áÑ= íÜÉêÉ= Éñáëíë= ëçãÉ= ëÅ~ä~ê=
ÑìåÅíáçå== ì = ì(ñ I ó I ò ) ==E~==ëÅ~ä~ê==éçíÉåíá~äF==áå==a==ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
r ∂ì ∂ì ∂ì
c = Öê~Ç ì I=çê= = m I= = n I= = o K==
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
qÜÉå==
rr r
∫ c(ê ) ⋅ Çê = ∫ mÇñ + nÇó + oÇò = ì(_) − ì(^ ) K==
` `
=
1129. qÉëí=Ñçê=~=`çåëÉêî~íáîÉ=cáÉäÇ=
r
^=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇ=çÑ=íÜÉ=Ñçêã= c = Öê~Ç ì =áë=Å~ääÉÇ=~=ÅçåëÉêî~íáîÉ=
r r r r
ÑáÉäÇK=qÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑìåÅíáçå= c = m á + n à + oâ =
áë=é~íÜ=áåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=áÑ=~åÇ=çåäó=áÑ==
r r r
á à â
r ∂ ∂ ∂ r
Åìêä c = = M K==
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
m n o
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=áë=í~âÉå=áå=ñó-éä~åÉ=ëç=íÜ~í==
∫ mÇñ + nÇó = ì(_) − ì(^ ) I==
`
íÜÉå=íÜÉ=íÉëí=Ñçê=ÇÉíÉêãáåáåÖ=áÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇ=áë=ÅçåëÉêî~íáîÉ=
Å~å=ÄÉ=ïêáííÉå=áå=íÜÉ=Ñçêã==
∂m ∂n
= K==
∂ó ∂ñ
=

279
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1130. iÉåÖíÜ=çÑ=~=`ìêîÉ=
β r β O O O

(í ) Çí = ∫  Çñ  +   +  Çò  Çí I=
Çê Çó
i = ∫ Çë = ∫
α 
` α
Çí Çí   Çí   Çí 
ïÜÉêÉ=`=á~=~=éáÉÅÉïáëÉ=ëãççíÜ=ÅìêîÉ=ÇÉëÅêáÄÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=éçëá-
r
íáçå=îÉÅíçê= ê (í ) I= α ≤ í ≤ β K=
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=íïç-ÇáãÉåëáçå~äI=íÜÉå=
β r β O O
Çê  Çñ   Çó 
i = ∫ Çë = ∫ (í ) Çí = ∫   +   Çí K==
α 
` α
Çí Çí   Çí 
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=íÜÉ=Öê~éÜ=çÑ=~=ÑìåÅíáçå= ó = Ñ (ñ ) =áå=íÜÉ=ñó-
éä~åÉ= (~ ≤ ñ ≤ Ä) I=íÜÉå==
Ä O
 Çó 
i=∫ N +   Çñ K==
~  Çñ 
=
1131. iÉåÖíÜ=çÑ=~=`ìêîÉ=áå=mçä~ê=`ççêÇáå~íÉë=
β O
 Çê 
i = ∫   + ê O Çθ I==
α 
Çθ 
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå= ê = ê(θ) I=
α ≤ θ ≤ β =áå=éçä~ê=ÅççêÇáå~íÉëK===
=
1132. j~ëë=çÑ=~=táêÉ=
ã = ∫ ρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë I==
`

ïÜÉêÉ= ρ(ñ I ó I ò ) =áë=íÜÉ=ã~ëë=éÉê=ìåáí=äÉåÖíÜ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ïáêÉK=

=
fÑ=`=áë=~=ÅìêîÉ=é~ê~ãÉíêáòÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑìåÅíáçå
r
ê (í ) = ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í ) I==íÜÉå==íÜÉ==ã~ëë==Å~å==ÄÉ==ÅçãéìíÉÇ=Äó=
íÜÉ=Ñçêãìä~=

280
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

β O O O
 Çñ   Çó   Çò 
ã = ∫ ρ(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í ))   +   +   Çí K==
α  Çí   Çí   Çí 
=
fÑ=`=áë=~=ÅìêîÉ=áå=ñó-éä~åÉI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ã~ëë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ïáêÉ=áë=ÖáîÉå=
Äó==
ã = ∫ ρ(ñ I ó )Çë I=
`

çê=
β O O
 Çñ   Çó 
ã = ∫ ρ(ñ (í )I ó (í ))   +   Çí =Eáå=é~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=ÑçêãFK=
α  Çí   Çí 
=
1133. `ÉåíÉê=çÑ=j~ëë=çÑ=~=táêÉ=
j óò j j ñó
ñ= I= ó = ñò I= ò = I=
ã ã ã
ïÜÉêÉ==
j óò = ∫ ñρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë I==
`

j ñò = ∫ óρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë I==

j ñó = ∫ òρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë K=
`

=
1134. jçãÉåíë=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=
qÜÉ=ãçãÉåíë=çÑ=áåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáëI=ó-~ñáëI=~åÇ=ò-~ñáë=
~êÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=Ñçêãìä~ë=
f ñ = ∫ (ó O + ò O )ρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë I==
`

f ó = ∫ (ñ O + ò O )ρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë I==

f ò = ∫ (ñ O + ó O )ρ(ñ I ó I ò )Çë K==

281
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1135. ^êÉ~=çÑ=~=oÉÖáçå=_çìåÇÉÇ=Äó=~=`äçëÉÇ=`ìêîÉ=
N
p = ∫ ñÇó = − ∫ óÇñ = ∫ ñÇó − óÇñ K==
` `
O`
=

=
=
Figure 205.
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=ÅäçëÉÇ=ÅìêîÉ=`=áë=ÖáîÉå=áå=é~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=Ñçêã=
r
ê (í ) = ñ (í )I ó (í ) I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=~êÉ~=Å~å=ÄÉ=Å~äÅìä~íÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=Ñçê-
ãìä~=
β β β
Çó Çñ N  Çó Çñ 
p = ∫ ñ (í ) Çí = − ∫ ó (í ) Çí = ∫  ñ (í ) − ó (í ) Çí K==
α
Çí α
Çí O α Çí Çí 
=
1136. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=cçêãÉÇ=Äó=oçí~íáåÖ=~=`äçëÉÇ=`ìêîÉ=
~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáë=
π
s = − π ∫ ó OÇñ = −Oπ ∫ ñóÇó = − ∫ OñóÇó + ó OÇñ ==
` `
O`
=

282
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

=
=
Figure 206.
=
1137. tçêâ=
r
tçêâ=ÇçåÉ=Äó=~=ÑçêÅÉ= c =çå=~å=çÄàÉÅí=ãçîáåÖ=~äçåÖ=~=ÅìêîÉ=
`=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=
r r
t = ∫ c ⋅ Ç ê I=
`
r r
ïÜÉêÉ= c =áë=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑçêÅÉ=ÑáÉäÇ=~ÅíáåÖ=çå=íÜÉ=çÄàÉÅíI= Ç ê =áë=
íÜÉ=ìåáí=í~åÖÉåí=îÉÅíçêK==

=
=
Figure 207.

283
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

fÑ=íÜÉ=çÄàÉÅí=áë=ãçîÉÇ=~äçåÖ=~=ÅìêîÉ=`=áå=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉI=íÜÉå=
r r
t = ∫ c ⋅ Ç ê = ∫ mÇñ + nÇó I==
` `

=
fÑ= ~= é~íÜ= `= áë= ëéÉÅáÑáÉÇ= Äó= ~= é~ê~ãÉíÉê= í= Eí= çÑíÉå= ãÉ~åë=
íáãÉFI=íÜÉ=Ñçêãìä~=Ñçê=Å~äÅìä~íáåÖ=ïçêâ=ÄÉÅçãÉë=
β
 Çñ Çó Çò 
t = ∫ m(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í )) + n(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í )) + o(ñ (í )I ó (í )I ò (í ))  ÇíI
α
Çí Çí Çí 
ïÜÉêÉ=í=ÖçÉë=Ñêçã= α =íç= β K==
=
r
fÑ= ~= îÉÅíçê= ÑáÉäÇ= c = áë= ÅçåëÉêî~íáîÉ= ~åÇ= ì(ñ I ó I ò ) = áë= ~= ëÅ~ä~ê=
éçíÉåíá~ä= çÑ= íÜÉ= ÑáÉäÇI= íÜÉå= íÜÉ= ïçêâ= çå= ~å= çÄàÉÅí= ãçîáåÖ=
Ñêçã=^=íç=_=Å~å=ÄÉ=ÑçìåÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=Ñçêãìä~=
t = ì(_ ) − ì(^ ) K==
=
1138. ^ãéÉêÉ∞ë=i~ï=
r r
∫ ⋅ Çê = µMf K==
_
`
r
qÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=ã~ÖåÉíáÅ=ÑáÉäÇ= _ =~êçìåÇ=~=ÅäçëÉÇ=é~íÜ=
`= áë= Éèì~ä= íç= íÜÉ= íçí~ä= ÅìêêÉåí= f= ÑäçïáåÖ= íÜêçìÖÜ= íÜÉ= ~êÉ~=
ÄçìåÇÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=é~íÜK==
=

=
Figure 208.

284
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1139. c~ê~Ç~ó∞ë=i~ï=
r r Çψ
ε = ∫ b ⋅ Çê = − =
`
Çí
=
qÜÉ= ÉäÉÅíêçãçíáîÉ= ÑçêÅÉ= EÉãÑF= ε = áåÇìÅÉÇ= ~êçìåÇ= ~= ÅäçëÉÇ=
äççé=`=áë=Éèì~ä=íç=íÜÉ=ê~íÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅÜ~åÖÉ=çÑ=ã~ÖåÉíáÅ=Ñäìñ= ψ =
é~ëëáåÖ=íÜêçìÖÜ=íÜÉ=äççéK===
=

=
=
Figure 209.
=
=
=
9.13 Surface Integral
=
pÅ~ä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçåëW= Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) I= ò (ñ I ó ) =
r r
mçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçêëW= ê (ìI î ) I= ê (ñ I ó I ò ) =
r r r
råáí=îÉÅíçêëW= á I= à I= â =
pìêÑ~ÅÉW=p=
r
sÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= c (mI nI o ) =
r r
aáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= Çáî c = ∇ ⋅ c =

285
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

r r
`ìêä=çÑ=~=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇW= Åìêä c = ∇ × c ==
r
sÉÅíçê=ÉäÉãÉåí=çÑ=~=ëìêÑ~ÅÉW= Çp =
r
kçêã~ä=íç=ëìêÑ~ÅÉW= å =
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~W=^=
j~ëë=çÑ=~=ëìêÑ~ÅÉW=ã=
aÉåëáíóW= µ(ñ I ó I ò ) =
`ççêÇáå~íÉë=çÑ=ÅÉåíÉê=çÑ=ã~ëëW= ñ I= ó I= ò =
cáêëí=ãçãÉåíëW= j ñó I= j óò I= j ñò =
jçãÉåíë=çÑ=áåÉêíá~W= f ñó I= f óò I= f ñò I= f ñ I= f ó I= fò =
sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=ëçäáÇW=s=
r
cçêÅÉW= c =
dê~îáí~íáçå~ä=Åçåëí~åíW=d=
rr
cäìáÇ=îÉäçÅáíóW= î (ê ) =
cäìáÇ=ÇÉåëáíóW= ρ =
r
mêÉëëìêÉW= é(ê ) =
j~ëë=ÑäìñI=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ=ÑäìñW= Φ =
pìêÑ~ÅÉ=ÅÜ~êÖÉW=n=
`Ü~êÖÉ=ÇÉåëáíóW= σ(ñ I ó ) =
r
j~ÖåáíìÇÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ=ÑáÉäÇW= b =
=
=
1140. pìêÑ~ÅÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=~=pÅ~ä~ê=cìåÅíáçå=
iÉí=~=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=ÄÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=éçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçê=
r r r r
ê (ìI î ) = ñ (ìI î )á + ó (ìI î ) à + ò (ìI î )â I==
ïÜÉêÉ= (ìI î ) = ê~åÖÉë= çîÉê= ëçãÉ= Ççã~áå= a(ìI î ) = çÑ= íÜÉ= ìî-
éä~åÉK=
qÜÉ==ëìêÑ~ÅÉ==áåíÉÖê~ä==çÑ==~==ëÅ~ä~ê=ÑìåÅíáçå== Ñ (ñ I ó I ò ) =çîÉê=
íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=áë=ÇÉÑáåÉÇ=~ë==
r r
∂ê ∂ê
∫∫p Ñ ( ñ I ó I ò )Çp = ∫∫ Ñ ( ñ (ì I î )I ó (ì I î )I ò (ì I î )) × ÇìÇî I==
a(ì I î )
∂ì ∂î
r r
∂ê ∂ê
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉë= =~åÇ= =~êÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
∂ì ∂î

286
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

r r ∂ó r ∂ò r
∂ê ∂ñ
= (ìI î ) á + (ìI î ) à + (ìI î )â I==
∂ì ∂ì ∂ì ∂ì
r r ∂ó r ∂ò r
∂ ê ∂ñ
= (ìI î ) á + (ìI î ) à + (ìI î )â =
∂î ∂î ∂î ∂î
r r
∂ê ∂ê
~åÇ= × =áë=íÜÉ=Åêçëë=éêçÇìÅíK==
∂ì ∂î
=
1141. fÑ==íÜÉ==ëìêÑ~ÅÉ==p==áë==ÖáîÉå=Äó==íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå= ò = ò(ñ I ó ) =ïÜÉêÉ=
ò (ñ I ó ) ==áë==~==ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ÄäÉ==ÑìåÅíáçå==áå=íÜÉ=Ççã~áå= a(ñ I ó ) I=
íÜÉå==
O
 ∂ò   ∂ò 
O

∫∫ Ñ (ñ I ó I ò )Çp = (∫∫ ) Ñ (ñ I ó I ò(ñ I ó ))

p a ñ Ió
N +   +   ÇñÇó K==
 ∂ñ   ∂ó 
=
r
1142. pìêÑ~ÅÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=çÑ=íÜÉ=sÉÅíçê=cáÉäÇ= c =çîÉê=íÜÉ=pìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=
• fÑ=p=áë=çêáÉåíÉÇ=çìíï~êÇI=íÜÉå==
r r r r
===== ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ Çp = ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ åÇp =
p p
r r r
 ∂ê ∂ê 
====== = ∫∫ c(ñ (ìI î )I ó (ìI î )I ò (ìI î )) ⋅  ×  ÇìÇî K==
a( ì I î )  ∂ì ∂î 
=
• fÑ=p=áë=çêáÉåíÉÇ=áåï~êÇI=íÜÉå==
r r r r
===== ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ Çp = ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ åÇp =
p p
r r r
 ∂ê ∂ê 
====== = ∫∫ c(ñ (ìI î )I ó (ìI î )I ò (ìI î )) ⋅  ×  ÇìÇî K==
a( ì I î )  ∂î ∂ì 
=
r r
Çp = åÇp ==áë==Å~ääÉÇ==íÜÉ==îÉÅíçê=ÉäÉãÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉK==açí=
ãÉ~åë= = íÜÉ= = ëÅ~ä~ê= = éêçÇìÅí= = çÑ= = íÜÉ= = ~ééêçéêá~íÉ= = îÉÅíçêëK=
r r
∂ê ∂ê
qÜÉ=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉë= =~åÇ== =~êÉ=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
∂ì ∂î

287
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

r r ∂ó r ∂ò r
∂ê ∂ñ
= (ìI î ) ⋅ á + (ìI î ) ⋅ à + (ìI î ) ⋅ â I==
∂ì ∂ì ∂ì ∂ì
r r ∂ó r ∂ò r
∂ ê ∂ñ
= (ìI î ) ⋅ á + (ìI î ) ⋅ à + (ìI î ) ⋅ â K==
∂î ∂î ∂î ∂î
=
1143. fÑ==íÜÉ==ëìêÑ~ÅÉ==p==áë==ÖáîÉå=Äó=íÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå= ò = ò (ñ I ó ) I=ïÜÉêÉ=
ò (ñ I ó ) ==áë==~==ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ÄäÉ==ÑìåÅíáçå==áå==íÜÉ=Ççã~áå= a(ñ I ó ) I=
íÜÉå==
• fÑ= p= áë= çêáÉåíÉÇ= ìéï~êÇI= áKÉK= íÜÉ= â-íÜ= ÅçãéçåÉåí= çÑ= íÜÉ=
åçêã~ä=îÉÅíçê=áë=éçëáíáîÉI=íÜÉå===
r r r r
===== ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ Çp = ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ åÇp =
p p

r  ∂ò r ∂ò r r 
====== = ∫∫ c ( ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅  − á− à + â ÇñÇó I==
a( ñ I ó )  ∂ñ ∂ó 
=
• fÑ=p=áë=çêáÉåíÉÇ=Ççïåï~êÇI=áKÉK=íÜÉ=â-íÜ=ÅçãéçåÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=
åçêã~ä=îÉÅíçê=áë=åÉÖ~íáîÉI=íÜÉå===
r r r r
===== ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ Çp = ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅ åÇp
p p

r  ∂ò r ∂ò r r 
====== = ∫∫ c(ñ I ó I ò ) ⋅  á + à − â ÇñÇó K==
a( ñ I ó )  ∂ñ ∂ó 
=
∫∫ (c ⋅ å)Çp = ∫∫ mÇóÇò + nÇòÇñ + oÇñÇó =
r r
1144.
p p

= ∫∫ (m Åçë α + n Åçë β + o Åçë γ )Çp I==

ïÜÉêÉ= m(ñ I ó I ò ) I= n(ñ I ó I ò ) I= o(ñ I ó I ò ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=ÅçãéçåÉåíë=çÑ=

r
íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê= ÑáÉäÇ= c K==
Åçë α I= Åçë β I= Åçë γ ==~êÉ=íÜÉ= ~åÖäÉë= ÄÉíïÉÉå=íÜÉ=çìíÉê=ìåáí=
r
åçêã~ä=îÉÅíçê= å =~åÇ=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáëI=ó-~ñáëI=~åÇ=ò-~ñáëI=êÉëéÉÅí-
áîÉäóK=
=

288
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1145. fÑ=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=áë=ÖáîÉå=áå=é~ê~ãÉíêáÅ=Ñçêã=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=
r
ê (ñ (ìI î )I ó (ìI î )I ò (ìI î )) I==íÜÉå==íÜÉ==ä~ííÉê=Ñçêãìä~=Å~å=ÄÉ=
ïêáííÉå=~ë==

m n o
( )
r r ∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
∫∫p c ⋅ å Çp = ∫∫ mÇóÇò + nÇòÇñ + oÇñÇó =
p
∫∫
a(ì Iî )
∂ì ∂ ì ∂ì
ÇìÇî I
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
∂î ∂î ∂î
ïÜÉêÉ= (ìI î ) = ê~åÖÉë= çîÉê= ëçãÉ= Ççã~áå= a(ìI î ) = çÑ= íÜÉ= ìî-
éä~åÉK=
=
1146. aáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=qÜÉçêÉã=
( )
r r r
∫∫ p
c ⋅ Ç p = ∫∫∫d
∇ ⋅ c Çs I==

ïÜÉêÉ==
r
c(ñ I ó I ò ) = m(ñ I ó I ò )I n(ñ I ó I ò )I o(ñ I ó I ò ) ===
áë==~==îÉÅíçê==ÑáÉäÇ==ïÜçëÉ==ÅçãéçåÉåíë==mI==nI==~åÇ==o==Ü~îÉ==
Åçåíáåìçìë=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉëI==
r ∂m ∂n ∂o
∇⋅c = + + ==
∂ñ ∂ó ∂ò
r r
áë==íÜÉ==ÇáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ==çÑ== c I==~äëç==ÇÉåçíÉÇ== Çáîc K==qÜÉ==ëóãÄçä=
∫∫ =áåÇáÅ~íÉë==íÜ~í=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=áë=í~âÉå=çîÉê=~=ÅäçëÉÇ=
ëìêÑ~ÅÉK==
=
1147. aáîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=qÜÉçêÉã=áå=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=cçêã=
 ∂m ∂n ∂o 
∫∫p mÇóÇò + nÇñÇò + oÇñÇó = ∫∫∫
d 

∂ñ
+
∂ó
+
∂ò
ÇñÇóÇò K==

=
1148. píçâÉ∞ë=qÜÉçêÉã=
( )
r r r r
∫ `
c ⋅ Ç ê = ∫∫
p
∇ × c ⋅ Çp I==

289
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

ïÜÉêÉ==
r
c(ñ I ó I ò ) = m(ñ I ó I ò )I n(ñ I ó I ò )I o(ñ I ó I ò ) ===
áë==~=îÉÅíçê==ÑáÉäÇ==ïÜçëÉ==ÅçãéçåÉåíë==mI==nI==~åÇ=o==Ü~îÉ=
Åçåíáåìçìë=é~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉëI==
r r r
á à â
r ∂ ∂ ∂  ∂o ∂n  r  ∂m ∂o  r  ∂n ∂m  r
∇×c= = − á +  − à + − â
∂ñ ∂ñ ∂ñ  ∂ó ∂ò   ∂ò ∂ñ   ∂ñ ∂ó 
m n o
r r
áë=íÜÉ=Åìêä=çÑ= c I=~äëç=ÇÉåçíÉÇ= Åìêä c K==
qÜÉ=ëóãÄçä== ∫ =áåÇáÅ~íÉë=íÜ~í=íÜÉ=äáåÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä=áë=í~âÉå=çîÉê=
~=ÅäçëÉÇ=ÅìêîÉK==
=
1149. píçâÉ∞ë=qÜÉçêÉã=áå=`ççêÇáå~íÉ=cçêã=
∫ mÇñ + nÇó + oÇò =
`

 ∂o ∂n  ∂m ∂o   ∂n ∂m 
= ∫∫  − ÇóÇò +  − ÇòÇñ +  − ÇñÇó
p 
∂ó ∂ò   ∂ò ∂ñ   ∂ñ ∂ó 
==
1150. pìêÑ~ÅÉ=^êÉ~=
^ = ∫∫ Çp =
p

=
1151. fÑ=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=áë=é~ê~ãÉíÉêáòÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê==
r r r r
ê (ìI î ) = ñ (ìI î )á + ó (ìI î ) à + ò (ìI î )â I==
íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~=áë==
r r
∂ê ∂ê
^ = ∫∫ × ÇìÇî I==
a( ì I î )
∂ì ∂î
r
ïÜÉêÉ== a(ìI î ) ==áë==íÜÉ==Ççã~áå==ïÜÉêÉ==íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ= ê (ìI î ) =áë=
ÇÉÑáåÉÇK==
=

290
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

1152. fÑ=p=áë=ÖáîÉå=ÉñéäáÅáíäó=Äó=íÜÉ=ÑìåÅíáçå= ò (ñ I ó ) I==íÜÉå==íÜÉ==ëìê-

Ñ~ÅÉ=~êÉ~=áë==
O
 ∂ò   ∂ò 
O

^ = ∫∫ N +   +   ÇñÇó I==
a( ñ I ó )  ∂ñ   ∂ó 
ïÜÉêÉ= a(ñ I ó ) =áë=íÜÉ=éêçàÉÅíáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=p=çåíç=íÜÉ=ñó-
éä~åÉK==
=
1153. j~ëë=çÑ=~=pìêÑ~ÅÉ=
ã = ∫∫ µ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==
p

ïÜÉêÉ= µ(ñ I ó I ò ) = áë= íÜÉ= ã~ëë= éÉê= ìåáí= ~êÉ~= = EÇÉåëáíó= ÑìåÅ-
íáçåFK=
=
1154. `ÉåíÉê=çÑ=j~ëë=çÑ=~=pÜÉää=
j óò j j ñó
ñ= I= ó = ñò I= ò = I==
ã ã ã
ïÜÉêÉ==
j óò = ∫∫ ñµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==
p

j ñò = ∫∫ óµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==

j ñó = ∫∫ òµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp =
p

~êÉ==íÜÉ==Ñáêëí==ãçãÉåíë==~Äçìí===íÜÉ=ÅççêÇáå~íÉ=éä~åÉë= ñ = M I=
ó = M I= ò = M I==êÉëéÉÅíáîÉäóK== µ(ñ I ó I ò ) =áë=íÜÉ=ÇÉåëáíó=ÑìåÅíáçåK=
=
1155. jçãÉåíë=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñó-éä~åÉ=Eçê= ò = M FI==óò-éä~åÉ==
E ñ = M FI=~åÇ=ñò-éä~åÉ=E ó = M F=
f ñó = ∫∫ ò Oµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==
p

f óò = ∫∫ ñ Oµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==

291
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

f ñò = ∫∫ ó Oµ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp K=
p

=
1156. jçãÉåíë=çÑ=fåÉêíá~=~Äçìí=íÜÉ=ñ-~ñáëI=ó-~ñáëI=~åÇ=ò-~ñáë=
f ñ = ∫∫ (ó O + ò O )µ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==
p

f ó = ∫∫ (ñ O + ò O )µ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp I==

fò = ∫∫ (ñ O + ó O )µ(ñ I ó I ò )Çp K==

=
1157. sçäìãÉ=çÑ=~=pçäáÇ=_çìåÇÉÇ=Äó=~=`äçëÉÇ=pìêÑ~ÅÉ=
N
P ∫∫
s= ñÇóÇò + óÇñÇò + òÇñÇó ==
p

=
1158. dê~îáí~íáçå~ä=cçêÅÉ=
r r
ê
c = dã ∫∫ µ(ñ I ó I ò ) P Çp I=
p
ê
ïÜÉêÉ=ã=áë=~=ã~ëë=~í=~=éçáåí= ñ M I ó M I ò M =çìíëáÇÉ=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉI==
r
ê = ñ − ñ M I ó − ó M I ò − ò M I==
µ(ñ I ó I ò ) =áë=íÜÉ=ÇÉåëáíó=ÑìåÅíáçåI==
~åÇ=d=áë=Öê~îáí~íáçå~ä=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1159. mêÉëëìêÉ=cçêÅÉ=
r r r
c = ∫∫ é(ê )Çp I==
p
r
ïÜÉêÉ=íÜÉ=éêÉëëìêÉ== é(ê ) ==~Åíë==çå==íÜÉ==ëìêÑ~ÅÉ==p==ÖáîÉå==Äó=
r
íÜÉ=éçëáíáçå=îÉÅíçê= ê K=
=
1160. cäìáÇ=cäìñ=E~Åêçëë=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=pF=
r r r
Φ = ∫∫ î (ê ) ⋅ Çp I==
p

292
CHAPTER 9. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

r r
ïÜÉêÉ= î (ê ) =áë=íÜÉ=ÑäìáÇ=îÉäçÅáíóK=
==
1161. j~ëë=cäìñ=E~Åêçëë=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=pF=
r r r
Φ = ∫∫ ρî (ê ) ⋅ Çp I==
p
r r
ïÜÉêÉ= c = ρî =áë=íÜÉ=îÉÅíçê=ÑáÉäÇI= ρ =áë=íÜÉ=ÑäìáÇ=ÇÉåëáíóK=
=
1162. pìêÑ~ÅÉ=`Ü~êÖÉ=
n = ∫∫ σ(ñ I ó )Çp I==
p

ïÜÉêÉ= σ(ñ I ó ) =áë=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=ÅÜ~êÖÉ=ÇÉåëáíóK=

=
1163. d~ìëë∞=i~ï=
qÜÉ=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ=Ñäìñ=íÜêçìÖÜ=~åó=ÅäçëÉÇ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=áë=éêçéçêíáçå~ä=
íç=íÜÉ=ÅÜ~êÖÉ=n=ÉåÅäçëÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=ëìêÑ~ÅÉ=
r r n
Φ = ∫∫ b ⋅ Çp = I==
p
εM
ïÜÉêÉ==
Φ =áë=íÜÉ=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ=ÑäìñI==
r
b =áë=íÜÉ=ã~ÖåáíìÇÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÉäÉÅíêáÅ=ÑáÉäÇ=ëíêÉåÖíÜI=
c
ε M = UIUR × NM −NO =áë=éÉêãáííáîáíó=çÑ=ÑêÉÉ=ëé~ÅÉK==
ã
=
=

293
Chapter 10
Differential Equations
=
=
=
=
cìåÅíáçåë=çÑ=çåÉ=î~êá~ÄäÉW=óI=éI=èI=ìI=ÖI=ÜI=dI=eI=êI=ò==
^êÖìãÉåíë=EáåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=î~êá~ÄäÉëFW=ñI=ó=
cìåÅíáçåë=çÑ=íïç=î~êá~ÄäÉëW= Ñ (ñ I ó ) I= j(ñ I ó ) I= k(ñ I ó ) =
Çó
cáêëí=çêÇÉê=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉW= ó ′ I= ì′ I= ó& I= I=£=
Çí
Ç Of
pÉÅçåÇ=çêÇÉê=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉëW= ó′′ I= &ó& I= O I=£=
Çí
∂ì ∂ ì O
m~êíá~ä=ÇÉêáî~íáîÉëW= I= O I=£=
∂í ∂ñ
k~íìê~ä=åìãÄÉêW=å=
m~êíáÅìä~ê=ëçäìíáçåëW= ó N I= ó é =
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=âI=íI=`I= `N I= ` O I=éI=èI= α I= β =
oççíë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅÜ~ê~ÅíÉêáëíáÅ=Éèì~íáçåëW= λN I= λ O =
qáãÉW=í=
qÉãéÉê~íìêÉW=qI=p=
mçéìä~íáçå=ÑìåÅíáçåW= m(í ) ==
j~ëë=çÑ=~å=çÄàÉÅíW=ã=
píáÑÑåÉëë=çÑ=~=ëéêáåÖW=â=
aáëéä~ÅÉãÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ã~ëë=Ñêçã=ÉèìáäáÄêáìãW=ó=
^ãéäáíìÇÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíW=^=
cêÉèìÉåÅóW= ω =
a~ãéáåÖ=ÅçÉÑÑáÅáÉåíW= γ =
mÜ~ëÉ=~åÖäÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíW= δ =
^åÖìä~ê=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíW= θ =
mÉåÇìäìã=äÉåÖíÜW=i=

294
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

^ÅÅÉäÉê~íáçå=çÑ=Öê~îáíóW=Ö=
`ìêêÉåíW=f=
oÉëáëí~åÅÉW=o=
fåÇìÅí~åÅÉW=i=
`~é~Åáí~åÅÉW=`=
=
=
10.1 First Order Ordinary Differential
Equations
=
1164. iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçåë=
Çó
+ é(ñ )ó = è(ñ ) K==
Çñ
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==

ó=
∫ ì(ñ )è(ñ )Çñ + ` I==
ì (ñ )
ïÜÉêÉ==
( )
ì(ñ ) = Éñé ∫ é(ñ )Çñ K=
=
1165. pÉé~ê~ÄäÉ=bèì~íáçåë=
Çó
= Ñ (ñ I ó ) = Ö (ñ )Ü(ó ) =
Çñ
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó=
Çó
∫ Ü(ó ) = ∫ Ö(ñ )Çñ + ` I==
çê=
e(ó ) = d(ñ ) + ` K=
=
=
=

295
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1166. eçãçÖÉåÉçìë=bèì~íáçåë=
Çó
qÜÉ= ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä= Éèì~íáçå= = Ñ (ñ I ó ) = áë= ÜçãçÖÉåÉçìëI= áÑ=
Çñ
íÜÉ=ÑìåÅíáçå= Ñ (ñ I ó ) =áë=ÜçãçÖÉåÉçìëI=íÜ~í=áë==
Ñ (íñ I íó ) = Ñ (ñ I ó ) K==
=
ó
qÜÉ=ëìÄëíáíìíáçå= ò = =EíÜÉå= ó = òñ F=äÉ~Çë=íç=íÜÉ=ëÉé~ê~ÄäÉ=
ñ
Éèì~íáçå=
Çò
ñ + ò = Ñ (NI ò ) K==
Çñ
=
1167. _Éêåçìääá=bèì~íáçå=
Çó
+ é(ñ )ó = è(ñ )ó å K==
Çñ
=
qÜÉ=ëìÄëíáíìíáçå= ò = ó N−å =äÉ~Çë=íç=íÜÉ=äáåÉ~ê=Éèì~íáçå==
Çò
+ (N − å )é(ñ ) ò = (N − å )è(ñ ) K==
Çñ
=
1168. oáÅÅ~íá=bèì~íáçå=
Çó
= é(ñ ) + è(ñ ) ó + ê(ñ ) ó O =
Çñ
=
fÑ=~=é~êíáÅìä~ê=ëçäìíáçå= ó N =áë=âåçïåI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäì-
íáçå=Å~å=ÄÉ=çÄí~áåÉÇ=ïáíÜ=íÜÉ=ÜÉäé=çÑ=ëìÄëíáíìíáçå=
N
ò= I=ïÜáÅÜ=äÉ~Çë=íç=íÜÉ=Ñáêëí=çêÇÉê=äáåÉ~ê=Éèì~íáçå==
ó − óN
Çò
= −[è(ñ ) + Oó Nê(ñ )] ò − ê(ñ ) K==
Çñ
=
=
=

296
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1169. bñ~Åí=~åÇ=kçåÉñ~Åí=bèì~íáçåë=
qÜÉ=Éèì~íáçå==
j(ñ I ó )Çñ + k(ñ I ó )Çó = M ==
áë=Å~ääÉÇ=Éñ~Åí=áÑ==
∂j ∂k
= I==
∂ó ∂ñ
~åÇ=åçåÉñ~Åí=çíÜÉêïáëÉK=
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
∫ j(ñ I ó )Çñ + ∫ k(ñ I ó )Çó = ` K==
=
1170. o~Çáç~ÅíáîÉ=aÉÅ~ó=
Çó
= − âó I==
Çí
ïÜÉêÉ= ó (í ) =áë=íÜÉ=~ãçìåí=çÑ=ê~Çáç~ÅíáîÉ=ÉäÉãÉåí=~í=íáãÉ=íI=â=
áë=íÜÉ=ê~íÉ=çÑ=ÇÉÅ~óK==
=
qÜÉ=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
ó (í ) = ó M É − âí I=ïÜÉêÉ= ó M = ó (M) =áë=íÜÉ=áåáíá~ä=~ãçìåíK=
=
1171. kÉïíçå∞ë=i~ï=çÑ=`ççäáåÖ=
Çq
= − â (q − p ) I==
Çí
ïÜÉêÉ= q(í ) =áë=íÜÉ=íÉãéÉê~íìêÉ=çÑ=~å=çÄàÉÅí=~í=íáãÉ=íI=p=áë=íÜÉ=
íÉãéÉê~íìêÉ= çÑ= íÜÉ= ëìêêçìåÇáåÖ= ÉåîáêçåãÉåíI= â= áë= ~= éçëá-
íáîÉ=Åçåëí~åíK==
=
qÜÉ=ëçäìíáçå=áë=
q(í ) = p + (qM − p) É −âí I==
ïÜÉêÉ= qM = q(M) = áë= íÜÉ= áåáíá~ä= íÉãéÉê~íìêÉ= çÑ= íÜÉ= çÄàÉÅí= ~í=
íáãÉ= í = M K==
=
=

297
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1172. mçéìä~íáçå=aóå~ãáÅë=EiçÖáëíáÅ=jçÇÉäF=
Çm  m
= âm N −  I==
Çí  j
ïÜÉêÉ= m(í ) =áë=éçéìä~íáçå=~í=íáãÉ=íI=â=áë=~=éçëáíáîÉ=Åçåëí~åíI=
j=áë=~=äáãáíáåÖ=ëáòÉ=Ñçê=íÜÉ=éçéìä~íáçåK==
=
qÜÉ=ëçäìíáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=Éèì~íáçå=áë==
jmM
m(í ) = I=ïÜÉêÉ= mM = m(M) =áë=íÜÉ=áåáíá~ä=éçéì-
mM + (j − mM )É − âí
ä~íáçå=~í=íáãÉ= í = M K===
=
=
=
10.2 Second Order Ordinary Differential
Equations
=
1173. eçãçÖÉåÉçìë=iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçåë=ïáíÜ=`çåëí~åí=`çÉÑÑáÅáÉåíë==
ó′′ + éó′ + èó = M K==
qÜÉ=ÅÜ~ê~ÅíÉêáëíáÅ=Éèì~íáçå=áë==
λO + éλ + è = M K==
=
fÑ= λN = ~åÇ= λ O = ~êÉ= ÇáëíáåÅí= êÉ~ä= êççíë= çÑ= íÜÉ= ÅÜ~ê~ÅíÉêáëíáÅ=
Éèì~íáçåI=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
ó = `NÉ λNñ + ` OÉ λ O ñ I=ïÜÉêÉ==
`N =~åÇ= ` O =~êÉ=áåíÉÖê~íáçå=Åçåëí~åíëK==
==
é
fÑ= λN = λ O = − I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
O
é
− ñ
ó = (`N + ` O ñ )É O K==
=
fÑ= λN =~åÇ= λ O =~êÉ=ÅçãéäÉñ=åìãÄÉêëW=

298
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

λN = α + β á I= λ O = α − β á I=ïÜÉêÉ==
é Qè − é O
α = − I= β = I==
O O
íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
ó = É αñ (`N Åçë β ñ + ` O ëáå β ñ ) K==
=
1174. fåÜçãçÖÉåÉçìë=iáåÉ~ê=bèì~íáçåë=ïáíÜ=`çåëí~åí=======================
`çÉÑÑáÅáÉåíë==
ó′′ + éó′ + èó = Ñ (ñ ) K==
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
ó = ó é + ó Ü I=ïÜÉêÉ==
ó é =áë==~=é~êíáÅìä~ê==ëçäìíáçå=çÑ==íÜÉ=áåÜçãçÖÉåÉçìë=Éèì~íáçå=
~åÇ= ó Ü =áë=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=çÑ=íÜÉ=~ëëçÅá~íÉÇ=ÜçãçÖÉåÉ-
çìë=Éèì~íáçå=EëÉÉ=íÜÉ=éêÉîáçìë=íçéáÅ=NNTPFK=
=
fÑ=íÜÉ=êáÖÜí=ëáÇÉ=Ü~ë=íÜÉ=Ñçêã==
Ñ (ñ ) = É αñ (mN (ñ )Åçë β ñ + mN (ñ )ëáå βñ ) I==
íÜÉå=íÜÉ==é~êíáÅìä~ê=ëçäìíáçå= ó é =áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
ó é = ñ â É αñ (oN (ñ )Åçë βñ + o O (ñ )ëáå β ñ ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ= íÜÉ= éçäóåçãá~äë= oN (ñ ) = ~åÇ= o O (ñ ) = Ü~îÉ= íç= ÄÉ= ÑçìåÇ=
Äó=ìëáåÖ=íÜÉ=ãÉíÜçÇ=çÑ=ìåÇÉíÉêãáåÉÇ=ÅçÉÑÑáÅáÉåíëK==
• fÑ= α + β á =áë=åçí=~=êççí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ÅÜ~ê~ÅíÉêáëíáÅ=Éèì~íáçåI=íÜÉå=

íÜÉ=éçïÉê= â = M I=
• fÑ= α + β á =áë=~=ëáãéäÉ=êççíI=íÜÉå= â = N I=

• fÑ= α + β á =áë=~=ÇçìÄäÉ=êççíI=íÜÉå= â = O K==

=
1175. aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=bèì~íáçåë=ïáíÜ=ó=jáëëáåÖ=
ó′′ = Ñ (ñ I ó′) K==
pÉí= ì = ó′ K=qÜÉå=íÜÉ=åÉï=Éèì~íáçå=ë~íáëÑáÉÇ=Äó=î=áë==
ì′ = Ñ (ñ I ì ) I==
ïÜáÅÜ=áë=~=Ñáêëí=çêÇÉê=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=Éèì~íáçåK=

299
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

1176. aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=bèì~íáçåë=ïáíÜ=ñ=jáëëáåÖ=
ó′′ = Ñ (ó I ó′) K==
pÉí= ì = ó′ K=páåÅÉ==
Çì Çì Çó Çì
ó′′ = = = ì I==
Çñ Çó Çñ Çó
ïÉ=Ü~îÉ=
Çì
ì = Ñ (ó I ì ) I==
Çó
ïÜáÅÜ=áë=~=Ñáêëí=çêÇÉê=ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä=Éèì~íáçåK==
=
1177. cêÉÉ=råÇ~ãéÉÇ=sáÄê~íáçåë=
qÜÉ=ãçíáçå=çÑ=~=j~ëë=çå=~=péêáåÖ=áë=ÇÉëÅêáÄÉÇ=Äó=íÜÉ=Éèì~-
íáçå==
ã&ó& + âó = M I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
ã=áë=íÜÉ=ã~ëë=çÑ=íÜÉ=çÄàÉÅíI=
â=áë=íÜÉ=ëíáÑÑåÉëë=çÑ=íÜÉ=ëéêáåÖI=
ó=áë=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåí=çÑ=íÜÉ=ã~ëë=Ñêçã=ÉèìáäáÄêáìãK=
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
ó = ^ Åçë(ωM í − δ ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
^=áë=íÜÉ=~ãéäáíìÇÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíI=
Oπ
ωM =áë=íÜÉ=ÑìåÇ~ãÉåí~ä=ÑêÉèìÉåÅóI=íÜÉ=éÉêáçÇ=áë= q = I=
ωM
δ =áë=éÜ~ëÉ=~åÖäÉ=çÑ=íÜÉ=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíK=
qÜáë=áë=~å=Éñ~ãéäÉ=çÑ=ëáãéäÉ=Ü~êãçåáÅ=ãçíáçåK==
=
1178. cêÉÉ=a~ãéÉÇ=sáÄê~íáçåë=
ã&ó& + γó& + âó = M I=ïÜÉêÉ==
γ =áë=íÜÉ=Ç~ãéáåÖ=ÅçÉÑÑáÅáÉåíK==
qÜÉêÉ=~êÉ=P=Å~ëÉë=Ñçê=íÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçåW=
=

300
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

`~ëÉ=NK γ O > Qâã =EçîÉêÇ~ãéÉÇF=

ó (í ) = ^É λNí + _É λ Oí I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
− γ − γ O − Q âã − γ + γ O − Q âã
λN = I= λ O = K==
Oã Oã
=
`~ëÉ=OK= γ O = Qâã EÅêáíáÅ~ääó=Ç~ãéÉÇF=
ó (í ) = (^ + _í )É λí I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
γ
λ=− K=
Oã
=
`~ëÉ=PK= γ O < Qâã =EìåÇÉêÇ~ãéÉÇF==
γ
−
ó (í ) = É ^ Åçë(ωí − δ ) I=ïÜÉêÉ==
í
Oã

ω = Qâã − γ O K==
=
1179. páãéäÉ=mÉåÇìäìã=
Ç Oθ Ö
+ θ = M I=
Çí O i
ïÜÉêÉ= θ = áë= íÜÉ= ~åÖìä~ê= Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåíI= i= áë= íÜÉ= éÉåÇìäìã=
äÉåÖíÜI=Ö=áë=íÜÉ=~ÅÅÉäÉê~íáçå=çÑ=Öê~îáíóK=
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=Ñçê=ëã~ää=~åÖäÉë= θ =áë==
Ö i
θ(í ) = θã~ñ ëáå í I=íÜÉ=éÉêáçÇ=áë= q = Oπ K==
i Ö
=
1180. oi`=`áêÅìáí=
Ç Of Çf N
i O + o + f = s′(í ) = ωb M Åçë(ωí ) I=
Çí Çí `

301
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

ïÜÉêÉ=f=áë=íÜÉ=ÅìêêÉåí=áå=~å=oi`=ÅáêÅìáí=ïáíÜ=~å=~Å=îçäí~ÖÉ=
ëçìêÅÉ= s(í ) = b M ëáå(ωí ) K===
=
qÜÉ=ÖÉåÉê~ä=ëçäìíáçå=áë==
f(í ) = `NÉ êNí + ` OÉ êOí + ^ ëáå(ωí − ϕ) I=
ïÜÉêÉ==
Qi
− o ± oO −
ê NI O = ` I==
Oi
ωb M
^= I==
O
 O N 
 iω −  + o ω
O O

 ` 
 iω N 
ϕ = ~êÅí~å −  I==
 o o`ω 
`N I= ` O =~êÉ=Åçåëí~åíë=ÇÉéÉåÇáåÖ=çå=áåáíá~ä=ÅçåÇáíáçåëK=
=
=
=
10.3. Some Partial Differential Equations
=
1181. qÜÉ=i~éä~ÅÉ=bèì~íáçå=
∂ Oì ∂ Oì
+ = M=
∂ñ O ∂ó O
~ééäáÉë=íç=éçíÉåíá~ä=ÉåÉêÖó=ÑìåÅíáçå= ì(ñ I ó ) ==Ñçê==~==ÅçåëÉê-
î~íáîÉ= ÑçêÅÉ= ÑáÉäÇ= áå= íÜÉ= ñó-éä~åÉK= m~êíá~ä= ÇáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ä= Éèì~-
íáçåë=çÑ=íÜáë=íóéÉ=~êÉ=Å~ääÉÇ=ÉääáéíáÅK==
=
1182. qÜÉ=eÉ~í=bèì~íáçå=
∂ O ì ∂ O ì ∂ì
+ = =
∂ñ O ∂ó O ∂í

302
CHAPTER 10. DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

~ééäáÉë= íç= íÜÉ= íÉãéÉê~íìêÉ= ÇáëíêáÄìíáçå= ì(ñ I ó ) = áå= íÜÉ= ñó-

éä~åÉ=ïÜÉå=ÜÉ~í=áë=~ääçïÉÇ=íç=Ñäçï=Ñêçã=ï~êã=~êÉ~ë=íç=Åççä=
çåÉëK=qÜÉ=Éèì~íáçåë=çÑ=íÜáë=íóéÉ=~êÉ=Å~ääÉÇ=é~ê~ÄçäáÅK==
=
1183. qÜÉ=t~îÉ=bèì~íáçå=
∂ Oì ∂ Oì ∂ Oì
+ = =
∂ñ O ∂ó O ∂í O
~ééäáÉë=íç=íÜÉ=Çáëéä~ÅÉãÉåí= ì(ñ I ó ) =çÑ=îáÄê~íáåÖ=ãÉãÄê~åÉë=
~åÇ= çíÜÉê= ï~îÉ= ÑìåÅíáçåëK= qÜÉ= Éèì~íáçåë= çÑ= íÜáë= íóéÉ= ~êÉ=
Å~ääÉÇ=ÜóéÉêÄçäáÅK==
=
=

303
Chapter 11
Series
=
=
=
=
11.1 Arithmetic Series
=
fåáíá~ä=íÉêãW= ~N =
kíÜ=íÉêãW= ~ å =
aáÑÑÉêÉåÅÉ=ÄÉíïÉÉå=ëìÅÅÉëëáîÉ=íÉêãëW=Ç=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=íÉêãë=áå=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉëW=å=
pìã=çÑ=íÜÉ=Ñáêëí=å=íÉêãëW= på =
=
=
1184. ~ å = ~ å −N + Ç = ~ å −O + OÇ = K = ~N + (å − N)Ç =
=
1185. ~N + ~ å = ~ O + ~ å−N = K = ~ á + ~ å +N−á =
=
~ +~
1186. ~ á = á −N á +N =
O
=
~ +~ O~ + (å − N)Ç
1187. på = N å ⋅ å = N ⋅å=
O O
=
=
=
=
=

304
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

11.2 Geometric Series

=
fåáíá~ä=íÉêãW= ~N =
kíÜ=íÉêãW= ~ å =
`çããçå=ê~íáçW=è=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=íÉêãë=áå=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉëW=å=
pìã=çÑ=íÜÉ=Ñáêëí=å=íÉêãëW= på =
pìã=íç=áåÑáåáíóW=p=
=
=
1188. ~ å = è~ å −N = ~Nè å −N =
=
1189. ~N ⋅ ~ å = ~ O ⋅ ~ å −N = K = ~ á ⋅ ~ å +N−á =
=
1190. ~ á = ~ á −N ⋅ ~ á +N =
=
~ å è − ~N ~N (è å − N)
1191. på = = =
è −N è −N
=
~
1192. p = äáã på = N =
å →∞ N− è
cçê= è < N I=íÜÉ=ëìã=p=ÅçåîÉêÖÉë=~ë= å → ∞ K=
=
=
=
11.3 Some Finite Series
=
kìãÄÉê=çÑ=íÉêãë=áå=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉëW=å=
=
=

305
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

å(å + N)
1193. N + O + P + K + å = =
O
=
1194. O + Q + S + K + Oå = å(å + N) =
=
1195. N + P + R + K + (Oå − N) = å O =
=
å(Oâ + å − N)
1196. â + (â + N) + (â + O) + K + (â + å − N) = =
O
=
å(å + N)(Oå + N)
1197. NO + OO + PO + K + å O = =
S
=
 å(å + N) 
O

1198. NP + OP + PP + K + åP =  =
 O 
=
å(Qå O − N)
1199. N + P + R + K + (Oå − N) =
O O O O
=
P
=
1200. NP + PP + RP + K + (Oå − N) = å O (Oå O − N) =
P

=
N N N N
1201. N + + + + K + å + K = O =
O Q U O
=
N N N N
1202. + + +K+ +K = N=
N⋅ O O ⋅ P P ⋅ Q å(å + N)
=
N N N N
1203. N + + + + K + +K = É =
N> O> P> (å − N)>
=
=
=

306
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

11.4 Infinite Series

=
pÉèìÉåÅÉW= {~ å }=
cáêëí=íÉêãW= ~N =
kíÜ=íÉêãW= ~ å =
=
=
1204. fåÑáåáíÉ=pÉêáÉë=
∞

∑~
å =N
å = ~N + ~ O + K + ~ å + K =

=
1205. kíÜ=m~êíá~ä=pìã=
å
på = ∑ ~ å = ~N + ~ O + K + ~ å =
å =N
=
1206. `çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=çÑ=fåÑáåáíÉ=pÉêáÉë=
∞

∑~
å =N
å = i I=áÑ= äáã på = i =
å →∞

=
1207. kíÜ=qÉêã=qÉëí=
∞
• fÑ=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉë= ∑ ~ å áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíI=íÜÉå= äáã ~ å = M K==
å→∞
å =N
• fÑ= äáã ~ å ≠ M I=íÜÉå=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉë=áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
å→∞
=
=
=
11.5 Properties of Convergent Series
=
∞ ∞
`çåîÉêÖÉåí=pÉêáÉëW= ∑ ~ å = ^ I= ∑ Äå = _ =
å =N å =N
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW=Å=

307
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

∞ ∞ ∞
1208. ∑ (~ å + Ä å ) = ∑ ~ å + ∑ Ä å = ^ + _ =
å =N å =N å =N
=
∞ ∞
1209. ∑ Å~
å =N
å = Å∑ ~ å = Å^ K==
å =N
=
=
=
11.6 Convergence Tests
=
1210. qÜÉ=`çãé~êáëçå=qÉëí=
∞ ∞
iÉí= ∑ ~ å =~åÇ= ∑ Äå =ÄÉ=ëÉêáÉë=ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í= M < ~ å ≤ Äå =Ñçê=~ää=åK==
å =N å =N
∞ ∞
• fÑ= ∑ Äå áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å áë=~äëç=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK==
å =N å =N
∞ ∞
• fÑ= ∑ ~ å áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåí=íÜÉå= ∑ Äå áë=~äëç=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
å =N å =N
=
1211. qÜÉ=iáãáí=`çãé~êáëçå=qÉëí=
∞ ∞
iÉí= ∑ ~ å =~åÇ= ∑ Äå =ÄÉ=ëÉêáÉë=ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í= ~ å =~åÇ= Äå =~êÉ=éçëá-
å =N å =N
íáîÉ=Ñçê=~ää=åK==
∞ ∞
~å
• fÑ= M < äáã < ∞ = íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å = ~åÇ= ∑ Äå ~êÉ= ÉáíÜÉê= ÄçíÜ=
å →∞ Ä
å å =N å =N

ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=çê=ÄçíÜ=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
∞ ∞
~å
• fÑ= äáã = M =íÜÉå= ∑ Äå ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=áãéäáÉë=íÜ~í= ∑ ~ å =áë=
å →∞ Ä
å å =N å =N

~äëç=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK=

308
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

∞ ∞
~å
• fÑ= äáã = ∞ =íÜÉå= ∑ Äå ÇáîÉêÖÉåí=áãéäáÉë=íÜ~í= ∑ ~ å =áë=
å →∞ Ä
å å =N å =N

~äëç=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
=
1212. é-ëÉêáÉë=
∞
N
é-ëÉêáÉë= ∑ é
=ÅçåîÉêÖÉë=Ñçê= é > N =~åÇ=ÇáîÉêÖÉë=Ñçê=
å =N å
M < é ≤ N K=
=
1213. qÜÉ=fåíÉÖê~ä=qÉëí=
iÉí= Ñ (ñ ) = ÄÉ= ~= ÑìåÅíáçå= ïÜáÅÜ= áë= ÅçåíáåìçìëI= éçëáíáîÉI= ~åÇ=
ÇÉÅêÉ~ëáåÖ=Ñçê=~ää= ñ ≥ N K=qÜÉ=ëÉêáÉë==
∞

∑ Ñ (å) = Ñ (N) + Ñ (O) + Ñ (P) + K + Ñ (å) + K =

å =N
∞
ÅçåîÉêÖÉë=áÑ= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ ÅçåîÉêÖÉëI=~åÇ=ÇáîÉêÖÉë=áÑ=
N
å

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ → ∞ =~ë= å → ∞ K=
N
=
1214. qÜÉ=o~íáç=qÉëí=
∞
iÉí= ∑ ~ å =ÄÉ=~=ëÉêáÉë=ïáíÜ=éçëáíáîÉ=íÉêãëK=
å =N
∞
~ å +N
• fÑ= äáã < N =íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK=
å →∞ ~
å å =N
∞
~ å +N
• fÑ= äáã > N =íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å =áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
å →∞ ~
å å =N
∞
~
• fÑ= äáã å +N = N = íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å = ã~ó= ÅçåîÉêÖÉ= çê= ÇáîÉêÖÉ= ~åÇ=
å →∞ ~
å å =N

íÜÉ= ê~íáç= íÉëí= áë= áåÅçåÅäìëáîÉX= ëçãÉ= çíÜÉê= íÉëíë= ãìëí= ÄÉ=
ìëÉÇK==
=

309
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

1215. qÜÉ=oççí=qÉëí=
∞
iÉí= ∑ ~ å =ÄÉ=~=ëÉêáÉë=ïáíÜ=éçëáíáîÉ=íÉêãëK=
å =N
∞
• fÑ= äáã å ~ å < N =íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å =áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK=
å →∞
å =N
∞
• fÑ= äáã å ~ å > N =íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å =áë=ÇáîÉêÖÉåíK=
å →∞
å =N
∞
• fÑ= äáã å ~ å = N =íÜÉå= ∑ ~ å =ã~ó=ÅçåîÉêÖÉ=çê=ÇáîÉêÖÉI=Äìí=
å →∞
å =N
åç=ÅçåÅäìëáçå=Å~å=ÄÉ=Çê~ïå=Ñêçã=íÜáë=íÉëíK=
=
=
=
11.7 Alternating Series
=
1216. qÜÉ=^äíÉêå~íáåÖ=pÉêáÉë=qÉëí=EiÉáÄåáò∞ë=qÜÉçêÉãF=
=
iÉí= {~ å }=ÄÉ=~=ëÉèìÉåÅÉ=çÑ=éçëáíáîÉ=åìãÄÉêë=ëìÅÜ=íÜ~í=
~ å+N < ~ å =Ñçê=~ää=åK=
äáã ~ å = M K==
å→∞
∞ ∞
qÜÉå= íÜÉ= ~äíÉêå~íáåÖ= ëÉêáÉë= ∑ (− N) ~
å =N
å
å = ~åÇ= ∑ (− N)
å =N
å −N
~å =

ÄçíÜ=ÅçåîÉêÖÉK====
=
1217. ^ÄëçäìíÉ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=
∞
• ^= ëÉêáÉë= ∑~
å =N
å = áë= ~ÄëçäìíÉäó= ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí= áÑ= íÜÉ= ëÉêáÉë=
∞

∑~å =N
å =áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK==

310
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

∞
• fÑ=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉë= ∑ ~ å áë=~ÄëçäìíÉäó=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=íÜÉå=áí=áë=Åçå-
å =N
îÉêÖÉåíK=
=
1218. `çåÇáíáçå~ä=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=
∞
^= ëÉêáÉë= ∑~
å =N
å áë= ÅçåÇáíáçå~ääó= ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí= áÑ= íÜÉ= ëÉêáÉë= áë=

ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=Äìí=áë=åçí=~ÄëçäìíÉäó=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåíK=
=
=
=
11.8 Power Series
=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêëW=ñI= ñ M =
∞ ∞
mçïÉê=ëÉêáÉëW= ∑ ~ å ñ å I= ∑ ~ å (ñ − ñ M ) =
å

å =M å =M
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉW=o=
=
1219. mçïÉê=pÉêáÉë=áå=ñ=
∞

∑~
å =M
å ñ å = ~ M + ~Nñ + ~ O ñ O + K + ~ å ñ å + K =

=
1220. mçïÉê=pÉêáÉë=áå= (ñ − ñ M ) =
∞

∑ ~ (ñ − ñ )
å =M
å M
å
= ~ M + ~ N (ñ − ñ M ) + ~ O ( ñ − ñ M ) + K + ~ å (ñ − ñ M ) + K
O å

=
1221. fåíÉêî~ä=çÑ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ===
qÜÉ=ëÉí=çÑ=íÜçëÉ=î~äìÉë=çÑ=ñ=Ñçê=ïÜáÅÜ=íÜÉ=ÑìåÅíáçå=
∞
Ñ (ñ ) = ∑ ~ å (ñ − ñ M ) =áë=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåí=áë=Å~ääÉÇ==íÜÉ==áåíÉêî~ä=çÑ=
å

å =M
ÅçåîÉêÖÉåÅÉK=

311
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

1222. o~Çáìë=çÑ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=
fÑ=íÜÉ=áåíÉêî~ä=çÑ=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåÅÉ=áë== (ñ M − oI ñ M + o ) ==Ñçê==ëçãÉ=
o ≥ M I=íÜÉ=o=áë=Å~ääÉÇ==íÜÉ=ê~Çáìë=çÑ=ÅçåîÉêÖÉåÅÉK==fí=áë=ÖáîÉå=
~ë=
N ~
o = äáã =çê= o = äáã å K==
å →∞ å ~ å →∞ ~
å å +N

=
=
=
11.9 Differentiation and Integration of Power
Series
=
`çåíáåìçìë=ÑìåÅíáçåW= Ñ (ñ ) =
∞
mçïÉê=ëÉêáÉëW= ∑ ~ å ñ å =
å =M
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å=
o~Çáìë=çÑ=`çåîÉêÖÉåÅÉW=o=
=
=
1223. aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~íáçå=çÑ=mçïÉê=pÉêáÉë=
∞
iÉí= Ñ (ñ ) = ∑ ~ å ñ å = ~ M + ~ Nñ + ~ O ñ O + K =Ñçê= ñ < o K==
å =M

qÜÉåI= = Ñçê= ñ < o I= Ñ (ñ ) = áë= ÅçåíáåìçìëI= íÜÉ= ÇÉêáî~íáîÉ= Ñ ′(ñ ) =

Éñáëíë=~åÇ=
Ç Ç Ç
Ñ ′(ñ ) = ~ M + ~ Nñ + ~ O ñ O + K =
Çñ Çñ Çñ
∞
= ~N + O~ O ñ + P~ P ñ O + K = ∑ å~ å ñ å −N K=
å =N
=
=
=

312
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

1224. fåíÉÖê~íáçå=çÑ=mçïÉê=pÉêáÉë=
∞
iÉí= Ñ (ñ ) = ∑ ~ å ñ å = ~ M + ~ Nñ + ~ O ñ O + K =Ñçê= ñ < o K==
å =M

qÜÉåI==Ñçê= ñ < o I=íÜÉ=áåÇÉÑáåáíÉ=áåíÉÖê~ä= ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ Éñáëíë=~åÇ==

∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ = ∫ ~ Çñ + ∫ ~ ñÇñ + ∫ ~ ñ Çñ + K =
O
M N O

ñO ñP ∞
ñ å +N
= ~ M ñ + ~N + ~O + K = ∑ ~å + ` K=
O P å =M å +N
=
=
=
11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
=
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å=
aáÑÑÉêÉåíá~ÄäÉ=ÑìåÅíáçåW= Ñ (ñ ) =
oÉã~áåÇÉê=íÉêãW= o å =
=
=
1225. q~óäçê=pÉêáÉë=
∞
Ñ (ñ ) = ∑ Ñ (å ) (~ )
(ñ − ~ )å = Ñ (~ ) + Ñ ′(~ )(ñ − ~ ) + Ñ ′′(~ )(ñ − ~ )O + K
å=M å> O>
Ñ (å ) (~ )(ñ − ~ )
å
== + + o å K==
å>
=
1226. qÜÉ=oÉã~áåÇÉê=^ÑíÉê=åHN=qÉêãë=áë=ÖáîÉå=Äó==
Ñ (å +N) (ξ )(ñ − ~ )
å +N
oå = I=== ~ < ξ < ñ K=
(å + N)>
=
1227. j~Åä~ìêáå=pÉêáÉë=

313
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

∞
ñå Ñ ′′(M)ñ O Ñ (å ) (M )ñ å
Ñ (ñ ) = ∑ Ñ (å ) (M ) = Ñ (M) + Ñ ′(M)ñ + +K+ + oå
å =M å> O> å>
=
=
=
=
11.11 Power Series Expansions for Some
Functions
=
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW=ñ=
=
=
ñO ñP ñå
1228. É ñ = N + ñ + + +K+ + K=
O> P> å>
=
ñ äå ~ (ñ äå ~ ) (ñ äå ~ ) (ñ äå ~ )å + K =
O P
1229. ~ ñ = N + + + +K+
N> O> P> å>
=
ñ O ñP ñ Q
1230. äå(N + ñ ) = ñ − + − + K +
(− N) ñ å+N
å
± K I= − N < ñ ≤ N K=
O P Q å +N
=
N+ ñ  ñP ñR ñT 
1231. äå = O ñ + + + + K I= ñ < N K=
N− ñ  P R T 
=
 ñ − N N  ñ − N P N  ñ − N  R 
1232. äå ñ = O +   +   K I= ñ > M K=
 ñ + N P  ñ + N  R  ñ + N  
=
ñO ñQ ñS
1233. Åçë ñ = N − + − + K +
(− N)å ñ Oå ± K =
O> Q> S> (Oå )>
=

314
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

ñP ñR ñT
1234. ëáå ñ = ñ − + − + K +
(− N) ñ Oå+N ± K =
å

P> R> T> (Oå + N)>

=
ñ P Oñ R NT ñ T SOñ V π
1235. í~å ñ = ñ + + + + + K I= ñ < K=
P NR PNR OUPR O
=
N  ñ ñ P Oñ R Oñ T 
1236. Åçí ñ = −  + + + + K I= ñ < π K=
ñ  P QR VQR QTOR 
=
ñ P N ⋅ Pñ R N ⋅ P ⋅ RK (Oå − N)ñ Oå +N
1237. ~êÅëáå ñ = ñ + + +K+ + K I=
O⋅P O⋅ Q ⋅R O ⋅ Q ⋅ SK (Oå )(Oå + N)
ñ < N K=
=
π  ñ P N ⋅ Pñ R N ⋅ P ⋅ RK (Oå − N)ñ Oå +N 
1238. ~êÅÅçë ñ = −  ñ + + +K+ + KI
O  O⋅P O⋅Q ⋅R O ⋅ Q ⋅ SK (Oå )(Oå + N) 
ñ < N K=
=
1239. ~êÅí~å ñ = ñ −
ñP ñR ñT
+ − +K+
(− N) ñ Oå+N ± K I= ñ ≤ N K=
å

P R T Oå + N
=
ñO ñQ ñS ñ Oå
1240. ÅçëÜ ñ = N + + + +K+ + K=
O> Q> S> (Oå )>
=
ñP ñR ñT ñ O å +N
1241. ëáåÜ ñ = ñ + + + +K+ + K=
P> R> T> (Oå + N)>
=
=
=
=
=

315
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

11.12 Binomial Series

=
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêëW=åI=ã=
oÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW=ñ=
`çãÄáå~íáçåëW= å ` ã =
=
=
1242. (N + ñ ) = N + å`Nñ + å` O ñ O + K + ã ` å ñ ã + K + ñ å =
å

=
å(å − N)K[å − (ã − N)]
1243. å ` ã = I= ñ < N K=
ã>
=
N
1244. = N − ñ + ñ O − ñ P + K I= ñ < N K=
N+ ñ
=
N
1245. = N + ñ + ñ O + ñ P + K I= ñ < N K=
N− ñ
=
ñ ñ O N ⋅ Pñ P N ⋅ P ⋅ Rñ Q
1246. N + ñ = N + − + − + K I= ñ ≤ N K=
O O⋅Q O⋅Q ⋅S O⋅Q ⋅S⋅U
=
ñ N ⋅ Oñ O N ⋅ O ⋅ Rñ P N ⋅ O ⋅ R ⋅ Uñ Q
1247. P N + ñ = N + − + − + K I= ñ ≤ N K=
P P⋅S P⋅S⋅V P ⋅ S ⋅ V ⋅ NO
=
=
=
11.13 Fourier Series
=
fåíÉÖê~ÄäÉ=ÑìåÅíáçåW= Ñ (ñ ) =
cçìêáÉê=ÅçÉÑÑáÅáÉåíëW= ~ M I= ~ å I= Äå =
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêW=å==

316
CHAPTER 11. SERIES

∞
~
1248. Ñ (ñ ) = M + ∑ (~ å Åçë åñ + Äå ëáå åñ ) =
O å =N
=
π
N
1249. ~ å = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Åçë åñ Çñ ==
π −π
=
π
N
Ñ (ñ )ëáå åñ Çñ ==
π −∫π
1250. åÄ =

=
=

317
Chapter 12
Probability
=
=
=
=
12.1 Permutations and Combinations
=
mÉêãìí~íáçåëW= å mã =
`çãÄáå~íáçåëW= å ` ã =
tÜçäÉ=åìãÄÉêëW=åI=ã=
=
=
1251. c~Åíçêá~ä=
å> = N ⋅ O ⋅ PK(å − O)(å − N)å =
M> = N =
=
1252. å må = å> =
=
å>
1253. å mã = =
(å − ã )>
=
1254. _áåçãá~ä=`çÉÑÑáÅáÉåí=
å å>
å
` ã =   = =
 ã  ã> (å − ã )>
=
1255. å ` ã = å ` å −ã =
=
1256. å ` ã + å ` ã +N = å +N ` ã +N =
=

318
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

1257. å ` M + å `N + å ` O + K + å ` å = Oå =
=
1258. m~ëÅ~ä∞ë=qêá~åÖäÉ=
=
oçï=M= = = = = = = N= = = = = = =
oçï=N= = = = = = N= = N= = = = = =
oçï=O= = = = = N= = O= = N= = = = =
oçï=P= = = = N= = P= = P= = N= = = =
oçï=Q= = = N= = Q= = S= = Q= = N= = =
oçï=R= = N= = R= = NM= = NM= = R= = N= =
oçï=S= N= = S= = NR= = OM= = NR= = S= = N=
=
=
=
12.2 Probability Formulas
=
bîÉåíëW=^I=_=
mêçÄ~ÄáäáíóW=m=
o~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉëW=uI=vI=w=
s~äìÉë=çÑ=ê~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉëW=ñI=óI=ò=
bñéÉÅíÉÇ=î~äìÉ=çÑ=uW= µ =
^åó=éçëáíáîÉ=êÉ~ä=åìãÄÉêW= ε ==
pí~åÇ~êÇ=ÇÉîá~íáçåW= σ =
s~êá~åÅÉW= σ O =
aÉåëáíó=ÑìåÅíáçåëW= Ñ (ñ ) I= Ñ (í ) =
=
=
1259. mêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=~å=bîÉåí=
ã
m(^ ) = I==
å
ïÜÉêÉ==
ã=áë=íÜÉ=åìãÄÉê=çÑ=éçëëáÄäÉ=éçëáíáîÉ=çìíÅçãÉëI==
å=áë=íÜÉ=íçí~ä=åìãÄÉê=çÑ=éçëëáÄäÉ=çìíÅçãÉëK=
=

319
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

1260. o~åÖÉ=çÑ=mêçÄ~Äáäáíó=s~äìÉë=
M ≤ m(^ ) ≤ N =
=
1261. `Éêí~áå=bîÉåí=
m( ^ ) = N =
=
1262. fãéçëëáÄäÉ=bîÉåí=
m( ^ ) = M =
=
1263. `çãéäÉãÉåí=
m(^ ) = N − m(^ ) =
=
1264. fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=bîÉåíë=
m(^ L _ ) = m(^ ) I==
m(_ L ^ ) = m(_ ) =
=
1265. ^ÇÇáíáçå=oìäÉ=Ñçê=fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=bîÉåíë=
m(^ ∪ _ ) = m(^ ) + m(_ ) =
=
1266. jìäíáéäáÅ~íáçå=oìäÉ=Ñçê=fåÇÉéÉåÇÉåí=bîÉåíë=
m(^ ∩ _ ) = m(^ ) ⋅ m(_ ) =
=
1267. dÉåÉê~ä=^ÇÇáíáçå=oìäÉ=
m(^ ∪ _ ) = m(^ ) + m(_ ) − m(^ ∩ _ ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
^ ∪ _ =áë=íÜÉ=ìåáçå=çÑ=ÉîÉåíë=^=~åÇ=_I==
^ ∩ _ =áë=íÜÉ=áåíÉêëÉÅíáçå=çÑ=ÉîÉåíë=^=~åÇ=_K=
=
1268. `çåÇáíáçå~ä=mêçÄ~Äáäáíó=
m(^ ∩ _ )
m( ^ L _ ) = =
m(_ )
=
1269. m(^ ∩ _ ) = m(_ ) ⋅ m(^ L _ ) = m(^ ) ⋅ m(_ L ^ ) =

320
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

1270. i~ï=çÑ=qçí~ä=mêçÄ~Äáäáíó=
ã
m(^ ) = ∑ m(_ á )m(^ L _ á ) I==
á =N
ïÜÉêÉ= _ á =áë=~=ëÉèìÉåÅÉ=çÑ=ãìíì~ääó=ÉñÅäìëáîÉ=ÉîÉåíëK==
=
1271. _~óÉë∞=qÜÉçêÉã=
m(^ L _ ) ⋅ m(_ )
m(_ L ^ ) = =
m(^ )
=
1272. _~óÉë∞=cçêãìä~=
m(_ ) ⋅ m(^ L _ á )
m(_ á L ^ ) = ã á I==
∑ m(_ á ) ⋅ m(^ L _ á )
â =N
ïÜÉêÉ==
_ á =áë=~=ëÉí=çÑ=ãìíì~ääó=ÉñÅäìëáîÉ=ÉîÉåíë=EÜóéçíÜÉëÉëFI=
^ =áë=íÜÉ=Ñáå~ä=ÉîÉåíI==
m(_ á ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=éêáçê=éêçÄ~ÄáäáíáÉëI=
m(_ á L ^ ) =~êÉ=íÜÉ=éçëíÉêáçê=éêçÄ~ÄáäáíáÉëK=
=
1273. i~ï=çÑ=i~êÖÉ=kìãÄÉêë=
p 
m å − µ ≥ ε  → M =~ë= å → ∞ I==
 å 
p 
m å − µ < ε  → N =~ë= å → ∞ I==
 å 
ïÜÉêÉ==
på =áë=íÜÉ=ëìã=çÑ=ê~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉëI=
å =áë=íÜÉ=åìãÄÉê=çÑ=éçëëáÄäÉ=çìíÅçãÉëK=
=
1274. `ÜÉÄóëÜÉî=fåÉèì~äáíó=
s(u )
m( u − µ ≥ ε ) ≤ O I==
ε
ïÜÉêÉ= s(u ) =áë=íÜÉ=î~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=uK=

321
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

1275. kçêã~ä=aÉåëáíó=cìåÅíáçå=
( ñ −µ ) O
N −
ϕ(ñ ) =
O
É Oσ I==
σ Oπ
ïÜÉêÉ=ñ=áë=~=é~êíáÅìä~ê=çìíÅçãÉK=
=
1276. pí~åÇ~êÇ=kçêã~ä=aÉåëáíó=cìåÅíáçå=
O
N − òO
ϕ(ò ) = É =
Oπ
^îÉê~ÖÉ=î~äìÉ= µ = M I=ÇÉîá~íáçå= σ = N K=
=

===== =
=
Figure 210.
=
1277. pí~åÇ~êÇ=w=s~äìÉ=
u−µ
w= =
σ
=
1278. `ìãìä~íáîÉ=kçêã~ä=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=cìåÅíáçå=
ñ ( í −µ ) O
N −
c(ñ ) = ∫ É OσO
Çí I==
σ Oπ −∞

322
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

ïÜÉêÉ==
ñ=áë=~=é~êíáÅìä~ê=çìíÅçãÉI==
í =áë=~=î~êá~ÄäÉ=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåK=
=
 α −µ β−µ
1279. m(α < u < β ) = c  − c  I=
 σ   σ 
ïÜÉêÉ=
u=áë=åçêã~ääó=ÇáëíêáÄìíÉÇ=ê~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉI=
c=áë=Åìãìä~íáîÉ=åçêã~ä=ÇáëíêáÄìíáçå=ÑìåÅíáçåI==
m(α < u < β ) =áë=áåíÉêî~ä=éêçÄ~ÄáäáíóK=
=
ε
1280. m( u − µ < ε ) = Oc  I==
σ
ïÜÉêÉ==
u=áë=åçêã~ääó=ÇáëíêáÄìíÉÇ=ê~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉI=
c=áë=Åìãìä~íáîÉ=åçêã~ä=ÇáëíêáÄìíáçå=ÑìåÅíáçåK=
=
1281. `ìãìä~íáîÉ=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=cìåÅíáçå=
ñ
c(ñ ) = m(u < ñ ) = ∫ Ñ (í )Çí I==
−∞
ïÜÉêÉ=í=áë=~=î~êá~ÄäÉ=çÑ=áåíÉÖê~íáçåK=
=
1282. _Éêåçìääá=qêá~äë=mêçÅÉëë=
µ = åé = I= σ O = åéè I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
å =áë=~=ëÉèìÉåÅÉ=çÑ=ÉñéÉêáãÉåíëI==
é =áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=ëìÅÅÉëë=çÑ=É~ÅÜ=ÉñéÉêáãÉåíëI=
è =áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=Ñ~áäìêÉI= è = N − é K=
=
1283. _áåçãá~ä=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=cìåÅíáçå=======
 å
Ä(åI éI è ) =   é â è å − â I==
â

323
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

µ = åé I= σ O = åéè I=
Ñ (ñ ) = (è + éÉ ñ ) I==
å

ïÜÉêÉ==
å=áë=íÜÉ=åìãÄÉê=çÑ=íêá~äë=çÑ=ëÉäÉÅíáçåëI=
é=áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=ëìÅÅÉëëI=
è=áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=Ñ~áäìêÉI= è = N − é K=
=
1284. dÉçãÉíêáÅ=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=
m(q = à) = è à−Né I==
N è
µ = I= σ O = O I==
é é
ïÜÉêÉ==
q=áë=íÜÉ=Ñáêëí=ëìÅÅÉëëÑìä=ÉîÉåí=áë=íÜÉ=ëÉêáÉëI=
à=áë=íÜÉ=ÉîÉåí=åìãÄÉêI=
é=áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=íÜ~í=~åó=çåÉ=ÉîÉåí=áë=ëìÅÅÉëëÑìäI==
è=áë=íÜÉ=éêçÄ~Äáäáíó=çÑ=Ñ~áäìêÉI= è = N − é K=
=
1285. mçáëëçå=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=
λâ −λ
m(u = â ) ≈ É I= λ = åé I==
â>
µ = λ I= σ = λ I==
O

ïÜÉêÉ==
λ =áë=íÜÉ=ê~íÉ=çÑ=çÅÅìêêÉåÅÉI=
â=áë=íÜÉ=åìãÄÉê=çÑ=éçëáíáîÉ=çìíÅçãÉëK=
=
1286. aÉåëáíó=cìåÅíáçå==
Ä
m(~ ≤ u ≤ Ä) = ∫ Ñ (ñ )Çñ ==
~
=
1287. `çåíáåìçìë=råáÑçêã=aÉåëáíó=
N ~+Ä
Ñ= I= µ = I==
Ä−~ O

324
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

ïÜÉêÉ=Ñ=áë=íÜÉ=ÇÉåëáíó=ÑìåÅíáçåK=
=
1288. bñéçåÉåíá~ä=aÉåëáíó=cìåÅíáçå=
Ñ (í ) = λÉ −λí I= µ = λ I= σ O = λO =
ïÜÉêÉ=í=áë=íáãÉI= λ =áë=íÜÉ=Ñ~áäìêÉ=ê~íÉK=
=
1289. bñéçåÉåíá~ä=aáëíêáÄìíáçå=cìåÅíáçå=
c(í ) = N − É −λí I==
ïÜÉêÉ=í=áë=íáãÉI= λ =áë=íÜÉ=Ñ~áäìêÉ=ê~íÉK=
=
1290. bñéÉÅíÉÇ=s~äìÉ=çÑ=aáëÅêÉíÉ=o~åÇçã=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
å
µ = b(u ) = ∑ ñ á éá I==
á =N
ïÜÉêÉ= ñ á =áë=~=é~êíáÅìä~ê=çìíÅçãÉI= é á =áë=áíë=éêçÄ~ÄáäáíóK=
=
1291. bñéÉÅíÉÇ=s~äìÉ=çÑ=`çåíáåìçìë=o~åÇçã=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
∞
µ = b(u ) = ∫ ñÑ (ñ )Çñ ==
−∞
=
1292. mêçéÉêíáÉë=çÑ=bñéÉÅí~íáçåë=
b(u + v ) = b(u ) + b(v ) I==
b(u − v ) = b(u ) − b(v ) I=
b(Åu ) = Åb(u ) I==
b(uv ) = b(u ) ⋅ b(v ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ=Å=áë=~=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1293. b(u O ) = s(u ) + µ O I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
µ = b(u ) =áë=íÜÉ=ÉñéÉÅíÉÇ=î~äìÉI===
s(u ) =áë=íÜÉ=î~êá~åÅÉK=
=
=
=

325
CHAPTER 12. PROBABILITY

1294. j~êâçî=fåÉèì~äáíó=
b(u )
m(u > â ) ≤ I==
â
ïÜÉêÉ=â=áë=ëçãÉ=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1295. s~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=aáëÅêÉíÉ=o~åÇçã=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
[ ]
å
σ O = s(u ) = b (u − µ ) = ∑ (ñ á − µ ) éá I==
O O

á =N
ïÜÉêÉ==
ñ á =áë=~=é~êíáÅìä~ê=çìíÅçãÉI=
é á =áë=áíë=éêçÄ~ÄáäáíóK=
=
1296. s~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=`çåíáåìçìë=o~åÇçã=s~êá~ÄäÉë=
[ ] ∫ (ñ − µ) Ñ (ñ )Çñ ==
∞
σ = s(u ) = b (u − µ ) =
O O O

−∞
=
1297. mêçéÉêíáÉë=çÑ=s~êá~åÅÉ=
s(u + v ) = s(u ) + s(v ) I==
s(u − v ) = s(u ) + s(v ) I=
s(u + Å ) = s(u ) I=
s(Åu ) = Å O s(u ) I=
ïÜÉêÉ=Å=áë=~=Åçåëí~åíK=
=
1298. pí~åÇ~êÇ=aÉîá~íáçå=
[
a(u ) = s(u ) = b (u − µ ) =
O
]
=
1299. `çî~êá~åÅÉ=
Åçî (uI v ) = b[(u − µ(u ))(v − µ(v ))] = b(uv ) − µ(u )µ(v ) I==
ïÜÉêÉ==
u =áë=ê~åÇçã=î~êá~ÄäÉI==
s(u ) =áë=íÜÉ=î~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=uI==
µ =áë=íÜÉ=ÉñéÉÅíÉÇ=î~äìÉ=çÑ=u=çê=vK=

326
Chemistry Formulas
 Peroidic Table of Elements
 List of elements by atomic number
 Chemistry Vocabulary
 Chemical Formulas and their Common Names
with Chemical Compounds
 Boyle’s Law
 Charle’s Law
 Gay Lussac’s Law
 Dalton’s Law
 Graham’s Law
 Chemistry Definitions
 Metals and Metallurgy Formulas
 Equivalent Concepts and Volumetric Analysis
Formulas
 Solid and Liquid State Formulas
 Polymers Formulas
 Periodic Table Formulas
 P Block Formulas
 Oxidation Reduction and Solution Formulas
 Ionic Equilibrium Formulas
 Hydrogen and It's Compounds Formulas
 General Organic Chemistry Formulas
 Gaseous State Formulas
 Co Ordination Compounds Formulas
 Chemical Bonding Formulas
 Chemical Energetics Formulas
 Chemical Equilibrium Formulas
 Atomic Structure Formulas
 Acid Base Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkanes Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkenes Formulas
 Nomenclature and Iupac Name Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkyl Halide Formulas
 Important Reagent Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkynes Formulas
 Reaction Mechanism Formulas
 Chemistry in Everyday Life Formulas
 Salt Analysis Formulas
 Biochemistry Formulas
 Aromatic Chemistry Formulas
 Some Fundamental Physical Constants Formulas
 Amines and Urea Formulas
 Acid and Acid Derivatives Formulas
 D and F Block Formulas
 S Block Formulas
 Mole Concept Formulas
 Solution and Colligative Properties Formulas
 Nuclear Chemistry Formulas
 Chemical Kinetic Formulas
 Electro Chemistry Formulas
 Aldehyde and Ketone Formulas
 Surface Chemistry and Colloidal State Formulas

Maths Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 6
Maths Formulas for Class 7
Maths Formulas for Class 8
Maths Formulas for Class 9
Maths Formulas for Class 10
Maths Formulas for Class 11
Maths Formulas for Class 12
3-Dimensional Coordinate Geometry Formulas
Addition of Vectors Formulas
Area Under The Curve Formulas
Binomial Theorem Formulas
Circle Formulas
Complex Number Formulas
Continuity Formulas
Correlation and Regression Formulas
Definite Integration Formulas
De-Moivre's Theorem and Euler Formulas
Determinants Formulas
Differential Equation Formulas
Differentiation Formulas
Ellipse Formulas
Exponential And Logarithmic Series Formulas
Function Formulas
Hyperbola Formulas
Hyperbolic Functions Formulas
Indefinite Integral Formulas
Limit Formulas
Linear Programming Problems Formulas
Logarithm and Modulus Function Formulas
Matrices Formulas
Maxima and Minima Formulas
Measure of Central Tendency and Dispersion
Formulas
Monotonicity Formulas
Numerical Methods Formulas
Parabola Formulas
Permutations and Combinations Formulas
Points Formulas
Probability Formulas
Product of Vectors Formulas
Progression and Series Formulas
Quadratic Equation and Expressions Formulas
Separation of Real and Imaginary Parts Formulas
Statics and dynamics Formulas
Straight Line Formulas
Tangent and Normal Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 6

Maths Formulas for Class 7

Rational Numbers Class 7 Formulas
Practical Geometry Class 7 Formulas
Integers Class 7 Formulas
Fractions and Decimals Class 7 Formulas
Data Handling Class 7 Formulas
Algebraic Expressions Class 7 Formulas
Symmetry Class 7 Formulas
Exponents and Powers Class 7 Formulas
Perimeter and Area Class 7 Formulas
Comparing Quantities Class 7 Formulas
Congruence Of Triangles Class 7 Formulas
Lines and Angles Class 7 Formulas
Visualising Solid Shapes Class 7 Formulas
The Triangle and Its Properties Class 7 Formulas
Simple Equations Class 7 Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 8
Mensuration Class 8 Formulas
Linear Equations in One Variable Class 8
Formulas
Factorisation Class 8 Formulas
Exponents and Powers Class 8 Formulas
Direct and Inverse Proportions Class 8 Formulas
Cubes and Cube Roots Class 8 Formulas
Comparing Quantities Class 8 Formulas
Algebraic Expressions and Identities Class 8
Formulas
Introduction To Graphs Class 8 Formulas
Visualising Solid Shapes Class 8 Formulas
Squares and Square Roots Class 8 Formulas
Data Handling Class 8 Formulas
Understanding Quadrilaterals Class 8 Formulas
Rational Numbers Class 8 Formulas
Practical Geometry Class 8 Formulas
Playing with Numbers Class 8 Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 9

Quadrilaterals Class 9 Formulas
Probability Class 9 Formulas
Polynomials Class 9 Formulas
Number Systems Class 9 Formulas
Lines and Angles Class 9 Formulas
Linear Equations in Two Variables Class 9
Formulas
Introduction To Euclid’S Geometry Class 9
Formulas
Coordinate Geometry Class 9 Formulas
Constructions Class 9 Formulas
Circles Class 9 Formulas
Areas Of Parallelograms and Triangles Class 9
Formulas
Surface Areas and Volumes Class 9 Formulas
Herons Formula Class 9 Formulas
Triangles Class 9 Formulas
Statistics Class 9 Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 10
Area Related to Circles Class 10 Formulas
Surface Areas and Volumes Class 10 Formulas
Constructions Class 10 Formulas
Circles Class 10 Formulas
Introduction to Trigonometry Class 10 Formulas
Coordinate Geometry Class 10 Formulas
Arithmetic Progression Class 10 Formulas
Quadratic Equations Class 10 Formulas
Pair Of Linear Equations in Two Variables Class
10 Formulas
Polynomials Class 10 Formulas
Real Numbers Class 10 Formulas
Triangles Class 10 Formulas
Some Applications of Trigonometry Class 10
Formulas
Statistics Class 10 Formulas
Probability Class 10 Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 11
Class 11 Sets Formulas
Class 11 Relations and Functions Formulas
Class 11 Trigonometric Functions Formulas
Class 11 Complex Numbers and Quadratic
Equations Formulas
Class 11 Permutations and Combinations
Formulas
Class 11 Binomial Theorem Formulas
Class 11 Sequence and Series Formulas
Class 11 Straight Lines Formulas
Class 11 Conic Sections Formulas
Class 11 Introduction to Three Dimensional
Geometry Formulas
Class 11 Limits and Derivatives Formulas
Class 11 Statistics Formulas
Maths Formulas for Class 12
Class 12 Relations and Functions
Class 12 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Class 12 Matrices
Class 12 Determinants
Class 12 Continuity and Differentiability
Class 12 Integrals
Class 12 Application of Integrals
Class 12 Vector Algebra
Class 12 Three Dimensional Geometry
Class 12 Probability
Physics Formulas
 Unit and Dimensions Formulas
 Thermal Expansion Formulas
 Surface Tension Formulas
 Simple Harmonic Motion Formulas
 Semiconductor and Devices Formulas
 Rotational Motion Formulas
 Refraction at Plane Surface
 Thermodynamics Formulas
 Refraction at Curved Surface Formulas
 Reflection at Plane Surface Formulas
 Reflection at Curved Surface Formulas
 Radioactivity Formulas
 Radiation Formulas
 Projectile Motion Formulas
 Potentiometer Formulas
 Photoelectric Effect and Photon Formulas
 Optical Instrument Formulas
 Nuclear Physics Formulas
 Motion in One Dimension Formulas
 Mechanical Wave On String and Sound Wave
Formulas
 Magnetism Formulas
 Magnetic Effect of Current Formulas
 Laws of Motion Formulas
 Laws of Conservation Formulas
 Kinetic Theory of Gases Formulas
 Interference of Light Formulas
 Gravitation Formulas
 Friction Formulas
 Fluid Mechanics Formulas
 Electrostatics Formulas
 Electronics Vaccum Tube Formulas
 Electro Magnetic Induction Formulas
 Elasticity Formulas
 Doppler Effect Formulas
 Diffraction of Light Formulas
 Deviation and Dispersion Formulas
 Current Electricity Formulas
 Defects of Images and Vision Formulas
 Conduction Formulas
 Circular Motion Formulas
 Capacitance Formulas
 Calorimetry Formulas
 Alternating Current Formulas
 Atomic Structure Formulas
 X Ray Formulas
 Work Energy Power Formulas
 Viscosity Formulas
 Vector Formulas
Chemistry Formulas
 Peroidic Table of Elements
 List of elements by atomic number
 Chemistry Vocabulary
 Chemical Formulas and their Common Names
with Chemical Compounds
 Boyle’s Law
 Charle’s Law
 Gay Lussac’s Law
 Dalton’s Law
 Graham’s Law
 Chemistry Definitions
 Metals and Metallurgy Formulas
 Equivalent Concepts and Volumetric Analysis
Formulas
 Solid and Liquid State Formulas
 Polymers Formulas
 Periodic Table Formulas
 P Block Formulas
 Oxidation Reduction and Solution Formulas
 Ionic Equilibrium Formulas
 Hydrogen and It's Compounds Formulas
 General Organic Chemistry Formulas
 Gaseous State Formulas
 Co Ordination Compounds Formulas
 Chemical Bonding Formulas
 Chemical Energetics Formulas
 Chemical Equilibrium Formulas
 Atomic Structure Formulas
 Acid Base Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkanes Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkenes Formulas
 Nomenclature and Iupac Name Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkyl Halide Formulas
 Important Reagent Formulas
 Reaction Chart for Alkynes Formulas
 Reaction Mechanism Formulas
 Chemistry in Everyday Life Formulas
 Salt Analysis Formulas
 Biochemistry Formulas
 Aromatic Chemistry Formulas
 Some Fundamental Physical Constants Formulas
 Amines and Urea Formulas
 Acid and Acid Derivatives Formulas
 D and F Block Formulas
 S Block Formulas
 Mole Concept Formulas
 Solution and Colligative Properties Formulas
 Nuclear Chemistry Formulas
 Chemical Kinetic Formulas
 Electro Chemistry Formulas
 Aldehyde and Ketone Formulas
 Surface Chemistry and Colloidal State Formulas

Maths Formulas for Class 6

Maths Formulas for Class 7

Maths Formulas for Class 9

=
1300. `çêêÉä~íáçå=
Åçî (uI v )
ρ(uI v ) = I==
s(u )s(v )
ïÜÉêÉ==
s(u ) =áë=íÜÉ=î~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=uI==
s(v ) =áë=íÜÉ=î~êá~åÅÉ=çÑ=vK=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

327

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