Chapter 1 Sets and Relations 1.1 Sets Any branch of science, like a foreign language, has its own terminology. Iso- morphism, cyclotomic and coset are words one is unlikely to hear except in a mathematical context. On the other hand, quite a number of common English words—field, complex, function—have precise mathematical meanings quite dif- ferent from their usual ones. Students of French or Spanish know that memory work is a fundamental part of their studies; it is perfectly obvious to them that without a firm grasp of the meaning of words, their ability to learn grammar and to communicate will be severely hindered. It is, however, not always understood by science students that they must memorize the terminology of their discipline with the same diligence that students of Russian memorize vocabulary. Without constant review of the meanings of words, one’s understanding of a paragraph of text or the words of a teacher is very limited. We advise readers of this book to maintain and constantly review a mathematical vocabulary list. What would it be like to delve into a dictionary if you didn’t already know the meanings of some of the words in it? Most people, at one time or another, have gone to a dictionary in search of a word only to discover that the definition uses another unfamiliar word. Some reflection indicates that a dictionary can be of no use unless there are some words which are so basic that we can understand them without definitions. Mathematics is the same way. There are a few basic terms which we accept without definitions. Most of mathematics is based upon the single undefined concept of set, which we think of as just a collection of things called elements or members. Primitive man discovered the set of natural numbers with which he learned to count. The set of natural numbers, which is denoted with a capital boldface N or, in handwriting, with this symbol—N, consists of the numbers 1,2,3,... (the three dots meaning “and so on”). ‘The elements of N are equally well known as the *Since the manufacture of boldface symbols such as N is a luxury not afforded users of chalk or pencil, it has long been traditional to use N on blackboards or in handwritten work as the symbol for the natural numbers and to call N a blackboard bold symbol. 201.1. Sets 21 natural numbers or the positive integers. The full set of integers, denoted Z or Z, consists of the natural numbers, their negatives, and 0. We might describe this set by ... ,—3,—2,—1,0,1,2,3,.... Our convention, which is not universal, is that 0 is an integer, but not a natural number. There are various ways to describe sets. Sometimes it is possible to list the elements of a set within braces. © {eggl, egg2} is a set containing two elements, egg] and egg2. © {2} is a set containing one element, x. ¢ N= {1,2,3,...} is the set of natural numbers. ZH. 1,0, 1,2,3,...} is the set of integers. On other occasions, it is convenient to describe a set with so-called set builder notation. This has the format {x | « has certain properties}, which is read “the set of x such that « has certain properties.” One reads “such that” at the vertical line, “|.” More generally, one sees {some expression | the expression has certain properties}. Thus, the set of odd natural numbers could be described as {n | n is an odd integer, n > 0} {2k -1|k=1,2,3,...} {2k—1|k EN}. The expression “k € N” is read “k belongs to N,” the symbol € denoting set membership. Thus, “m € Z” simply records the fact that m is an integer. Recall that a slash (/) written over any mathematical symbol negates the meaning of that symbol. So, in the same way that m # 3.14, we have 0 ¢ N. The set of common fractions—numbers like $, 72, and 5 (= 8), which are ratios of integers with nonzero denominators—is more properly called the set of rational numbers and is denoted Q or Q. Formally, Q= {2 |mneZn #0}. The set of all real numbers is denoted R or R. To define the real numbers properly requires considerable mathematical maturity. For our purposes, we22 Chapter 1. Sets and Relations think of real numbers as numbers which have decimal expansions of the form @.a,a2... where a is an integer and aj,a2,... are integers between 0 and 9 inclusive. In addition to the rational numbers, whose decimal expansions termi- nate or repeat, the real numbers include numbers like V2, {/17, e. 7, In5, and cos/6 whose decimal expansions neither terminate nor repeat. Such numbers are called irrational. An irrational number is a number which cannot be written in the form m/n with m and n both integers. Incidentally, it can be very difficult to decide whether or not a given real number is irrational. For example, it is unknown whether or not such numbers as e + 7 or e/7m are irrational. The complex numbers, denoted C or C, are those of the form a+ bi where a and b are real numbers and i? = —1; that is, C= {a+ bi]a,bER,i? =—1}. Sometimes people are surprised to discover that a set can be an element of another set. For example, {{a,b},c} is a set with two clements, one of which is {a,b} and the other c. Pause 1. Let S denote the set {{a},b,c}. True or false? 1A. (a) a¢S. (b) {a} € 8. Equality of Sets DEFINITION. Sets A and B are equal, and we write A = B, if and only if A and B contain the same elements or neither set contains any clement. Examples 1. @ {1,21} = {1,2} = 2,1} © {t|t=r—s, 7,8 € {0,1,2}} = {-2,-1,0, 1,2} The Empty Set One set which arises in a variety of different guises is the set which contains no clements. Consider, for example, the set sscaut of people less than 1 millimeter in height, the set LARGE of people taller than the Eiffel Tower, the set PECULIAR = {n EN | 5n = 2}11. Sets 23 and the set S={neEN|n®4+1=0}. These sets are all equal since none of them contains any elements. The unique set which contains no elements is called the empty set. Set theorists originally used 0 (zero) to denote this set, but now it is customary to use a 0 with a slash through it, 0, to avoid confusion between zero and a capital “Oh.” PAUSE 2. True or false? {}=0. 1.2 1.3 DEFINITION. A set A is a subset of a set B, and we write AC B, if and only if every clement of A is an clement of B.IACBbut A # B, then A is called a Proper subset of B and we write A g B. When A C B, it is common to say “A is contained in B” as well as “Aisa subset of B.” One occasionally sees “B 2 A,” read “B is a superset of A.” This is an alternative way to express “A C B,” A is a subset of B, just as “y > 2” is an alternative way to express “gz < y.” We generally prefer the subset notation. Examples 2. © {a,b} © {a,b,c} © {a,b} S {a,b,c} # {4,5} C {a,6, {a, b}} ® {a,5} € {a,b, {a,5}} *NSZEQEREC el Note the distinction between A S B and A ¢ B, the latter expressing the negation of AC B; for example, {a,b} S {a,b,c} £ {a,,0}. PROPOSITION. For any set A, AC A and $C A, Proof. Ifa A, then a € A, so A C A. The proof that 0 € Ais a classic model of proof by contradiction. If 0 ¢ Ais false, then there must exist some © € such that ¢ ¢ A. This is an absurdity since there is no x € 0. a24 Chapter 1. Sets and Relations Pause 3. True or false? (a) {0} € {{0}} (b) 0S {{0}} (c) {0} ¢ {{0}} (As Shakespeare once wrote, “Much ado about: nothing.” ) The following proposition is an immediate consequence of the definitions of subset and equal sets and it illustrates the way that one proves two sets are equal in practice. 1.4 PROPOSITION. If A and B are sets, then A= B <> AC Band BCA. Remember that one says “if and only if” at the symbol <=> . Thus, Propo- sition 1.4 says “A = B if and only if A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A.” There are two assertions being made here. (=+) A=B, then Aisa subset of B and B is a subset of A. (<=) Tf Aisa subset of B and B is a subset of A, then A=B. Remember too that another way of expressing the content of Proposition 1.4 is to say that, for two sets to be equal, it is necessary and sufficient that each be a subset of the other. Note the distinction between membership, a € b, and subset, a € b. By the former statement, one understands that a is an element of the set b; by the latter, that a is a set each of whose elements is also in the set b.” Examples 3. Each of the following assertions is true. © {a} € {2,y, {a}} © {a} S {2.9.0} {a} Z {x,u, {a}} © {a,b} C {a,b} e be {x,y,0} 2 OS {a,y, 0} © {0} ¢ {2.0.0} ———— I 2Note the use of lowercase letters for sets, which is not common but certainly permissible.1.1. Sets 25 The Power Set An important example of a set, all of whose elements are themselves sets, is the power set of a set. 1.5 DEFINITION. The power set of a set A, denoted P(A), is the set of all subsets of A: P(A) ={B| BC A}. Examples 4, « If A= {a}, then P(A) = {0, {a}} © If A= {a,b}, then P(A) = {0, {a}, {5}, {a, b}} # P({a,b,c}) = {0,{a}, {0}, {e}, {a,b}. a,c}, {5,0}, {0,8,0}} sidpaiia—ias Answers to Pauses 1. Both statements are true. The set $ contains the set {a} as one of its elements, but not the element a. 2. This statement is false: {0} is not the empty set for it contains one element, namely, the set 0. 3. (a) True: {{0}} is a set which contains the single element {0}. (b) True: The empty set is a subset of any set. (c) False: There is just one element in the set {0} (namely, 0) and this is not an element of the set {{0}}, whose only clement is {0}. EXERCISES 1. List the (distinct) elements in each of the following sets: (a) (BB) {2 €R| 2? =5} (b) {© €Z | ay = 15 for some y € Z} (c) [BB] {x € Q| #(e? — 2)(22 + 3) =0} (d) {e+y|@ € {-1,0,1},y € {0,1,2}} (e) {aeN|a<-4 anda>4} ‘Remember that [BB] means that an answer or solution can be found in the Back of the Book.26 Chapter 1. Sets and Relations 2. List five elements in each of the following sets: (a) [BB] {a+bi| a,b Z,2 = -1} (b) {a+ bV2|aEN,-be {2,5,7}} (c) {2/y | a,y € R,x? + y? = 25} (d) {n EN | n? +n is a multiple of 3} 3. Let A= {1,2,3, 4}. (a) [BB] List all the subsets B of A such that {1,2} C B. (b) List all the subsets B of A such that BC {1,2}. (c) List all the subsets B of A such that {1,2} Z B. (d) List all the subsets B of A such that B ¢ {1,2}. (e) List all the subsets B of A such that {1,2} cP. (f) List all the subsets B of A such that B & {1,2}. 4, Determine which of the following are true and which are false. Provide a counterexample to any statement which is false. (a) [BB] 3 € {1,3,5} (b) {3} € {1,3,5} () 8}¢ {1,3,5} i (a) [BB] {3,5} ¢ {1,3,5} (e) {1,3,5} $ {1,3,5} (£) Le {a+ 2b | a,b even integers} (g) 0 € {a+ by2 | a,b€ Q,b £0} 5. Find the power sets of each of the following sets: (a) [BB] 0 (b) {0} (c) {0, {0}} 6. Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false. Justify your answers. (a) [BB] 0c (b) 0 ¢ {0} (c) bE6 (d) De {0} (e) [BB] {1,2} Z {1,2,3, {1,2,3}}2! 10. 11. Sets 27 (f) {1,2} € {1,2,3, (1,2, 3}} (g) {1,2} $ (1,2, ({(L,23}} (h) [BB] {1,2} € {1,2,{{1,2}}3 () {{1,2H} € (1,2, {1,2}} (a) List all the subsets of the set: {a,b, c,d} which contain: i. four elements ii. [BB] three elements iii. two elements iv. one element v. no elements (b) How many subsets of {a,, c,d} are there altogether? . (a) How many elements are in the power set of the power set of the empty set? (b) Suppose A is a set containing one element. How many elements are in P(P(A))? . (a) If A contains two elements, how many elements are there in the power set of A? (b) If A contains three elements, how many elements are there in the power set of A? (c) Ifa set A contains n > 0 elements, guess how many elements are in the power set of A. Suppose A, B, and C are sets. For each of the following statements either prove it is true or give a counterexample to show that it is false. (a) [BB] Ae B,BEC = AEC. (b) ACB,BCC = ACC. (c) AG B,BGC = AGC. (d) AE B,BCC = Acc. (e) AEB,BCC = ACC. (f) ACB,BeEC = AEC. (g) ACB,BeEC = ACC. Suppose A, B, and C are sets. Prove or give a counterexample which disproves each of the following assertions. (a) CeP(A) = CCA. (B)ACB => P(A)CP(B). T (c) A=0 => P(A) =0.28 Chapter 1. Sets and Relations 1.2 Operations on Sets In this section, we discuss ways in which two or more sets can be combined in order to form a new set. Union and Intersection 1.6 DEFINITIONS. If A and B are sets, then the union of A and B, written AU B, is the set of elements in A or in B (or in both). The intersection of A and B, written AM B, is the set of elements which belong to both A and B. Examples 5. e If A= {a,b,c} and B = {a, x,y, b}, then AUB ={a,b,c,2,y}, ANB = {a,b}, AU {0} = {a,b,c,0} and AN{O}=0. For any set A, AU@= A and ANO=0. el Like addition and multiplication of real numbers, the union and intersection of sets are associative operations. To say that set union is associative is to say that (Ai U Ag) U Ag = Ay U (Ag U Ag) for any three sets A;, Az, A3. It follows that the expression A, U Ap U Ag is unambiguous. The two different interpretations (corresponding to different insertions of parentheses) agree. The union of n sets Ai, Ao, ..., An is written (a) A, UA,UAgU+"U An or LU Ai i=l and represents the set of elements which belong to one or more of the sets Aj. The intersection of Aj, Ag, ..., An is written (2) AiNA2NAgN---04An or) Ai and denotes the set of elements which belong to all of the sets. One must not assume from the expression A; U Az U A3 U---U A, that n is actually greater than 3 since the first part of this expression—A, U Ag U A3—is1.2. Operations on Sets 29 present only to make the general pattern clear; a union of sets is being formed. The last term—A,,—indicates that the last set in the union is A,. If n = 2, then A; U Ag U Ag U--+U Ap means A; U Ap. Similarly, if n = 1, the expression A, A21+++M Ap simply means Aj. While parentheses are not required in expressions like (1) or (2), they are mandatory when both union and intersection are involved. For example, AM (BUC) and (AN B) UC are, in general, quite different sets. This is probably most easily seen by the use of the Venn diagram shown in Fig. 1.1. es Y FIGURE 1.1: A Venn diagram. The diagram indicates that A consists of the points in the regions labeled 1, 2, 3, and 4; B consists of those points in regions 3, 4, 5, and 6 and C' of tho 2, 3, 5, and 7. The set BUC consists of points in the regions labeled 3, 4, 5 2, and 7. Notice that AN (BUC) consists of the points in regions 2, 3, and 4. The region AN B consists of the points in regions 3 and 4; thus, (AN B) UC is the set of points in the regions labeled 3, 4, 2, 5, and 7. The diagram enables us to see that, in general, AM (BUC) # (ANB) UC and it shows how we could construct a specific counterexample. Namely, we could let A, B, and C be the sets in A=({1,2,3,4}, B= {3,4,5,6}, C = {2,3,5,7} as suggested by the diagram and then calculate AN (BUC) = {2,3, 4} # {2,3,4,5, 7} = (ANB) UC. There is a way to rewrite AN (BUC). In Fig. 1.1, we see that ANB consists of the points in the regions labeled 3 and 4 and that AMC consists of the points in 2 and 3. Thus, the points of (AN B) U(ANC) are those of 2, 3, and 4; these are just the points of AM (BUC) (as observed above) and so the Venn diagram makes it easy to believe that, in general, (3) AN (BUC) =(ANB)U(ANC). While pictures can be extremely helpful in making certain statements seem plau- sible, they should not be relied upon because they can also mislead. For this reason, and because there are situations in which Venn diagrams are difficult or impossible to introduce, it is important to be able to establish relationships among sets without resorting to a picture.30 Chapter 1. Sets and Relations Problem 1. Establish equation (3) without the aid of a Venn diagram. Solution. As observed in Proposition 1.4, showing that two sets are equal is equivalent to showing that each is a subset of the other. Here this just amounts to expressing the meaning of U and A in words. To show AN(BUC) C (ANB)U(ANC), let e € AN(BUC). Then z is in A and also in BUC. Since x € BUC, either x € B or x € C. This suggests cases, Case 1: r € B. In this case, z is in A as well as in B, so its in ANB. Case 2: EC. Here z is in A as well as in C, so its in ANC. We have shown that either ¢¢ ANB or x € ANC. By definition of union, « € (AN B)U(ANC), completing this half of our proof. Conversely, we must show (AB) U(ANC) C AN(BUC). For this, let x €(ANB)U(ANC). Then either z is in ANB or x € ANC. Thus, « is in both A and B or in both A and C. In either case, x is in A. Also, z is in either B or C; thus, z is in BUC. So a is both in A and in B UC; that is, x is in AN (BUC). This completes the proof. a Problem 2. For sets A and B, prove that ANB=A <3 ACB. Solution. Remember that there are two implications to establish and that we use the symbolism (+ ) and ( <=) to mark the start of the proof of each implication. (= ) Here we assume ANB = A and must prove A C B. For this, suppose v€ A, Then, « € ANB (because we are assuming A = ANB). Therefore, x is in A and in B, in particular, x is in B. This proves A C B. (= ) Now we assume A C B and prove ANB = A. To prove the equality of ANB and A, we must prove that each set is a subset of the other. By definition of intersection, ANB is a subset of A, so ANB C A. On the other hand, suppose «€ A, Since A C B, 2 is in B too; thus, x is in both A and B. Therefore, ACAMB. Therefore, A= ANB. ao PAUsE 1. For sets A and B, prove that AUB=B <> ACB. 1.7 DEFINITIONS. If A and B are sets, then the set difference A~ B is the set of those elements of A which are not in B.The complement of a set A is the set A® =U ~ A, where U is some universal set made clear by the context.