group 4

Steps in
Conducting a Research

Aujero Cabanggay
Bacabac Eucogco
Balomit Jacintos
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS

problem identification target population and

sampling identification
statement of research
problem/objectives data collection
theoretical/ conceptual
framework formulation
data processing
operational definition of
variables
data analysis and
hypothesis formulation interpretation

report presentation and

research design selection information dissemenation
 Problem Identification
How to make a research problem?
Research problems are stated in a form of a question, which
serves as the focus of the investigation.

Identification of research problem refers to the sense of

awareness of a prevalent social problem, a social phenomenon
or a concept that is worth study.
 Research Problem

1. Is there a significant relationship between a student’s

skill in managing their time and their motivation?

2. Does the students’ use of the internet affect their

performance?
Take note: Not all problems
require research.

Discrepancy of “what is”

and “what should be”
Non-researchable Problem
Researchable Problem
Statement of the Problem

The problem definition explains the existence and

seriousness of the problem.

In defining a research problem, the following

questions are usually answered:
i. Does the problem really exist? What are the
evidences of the problems’ existence?
ii. Is the problem serious? Who and how many are
affected by it?
iii. What places are affected? How widespread is it?
iv. How often does the problem occur
Defining Research Problem

Things to Remember When Defining a Research Problem

1. First review relevant literature and previous studies on
the problem,
2. Examine current available data/statistics,
3. Seek educated opinions from persons concerned with the
problem.
4. Determine the probable reasons for the existence of the
problem from social, economic, or other theories that
may explain the existence of the problem and the
possible connection between the problem and other
factors.
Characteristics of a Good
Research Problem

1. Research problem must be relevant.

2. A research problem must be feasible.
3. A research problem must be clear.
4. A research problem must be ethical.
 Conceptual
Framework

It is an elaboration of the theoretical framework in concrete

terms. This needs to be consistent with and related to the
theoretical framework and specifies the variables of the study
and the expected flow of relationship.

It explains the variables to be observed in the study and

assumed connection between the independent and the
dependent variables.
 <33
What is a
Variable?
Variables are the basic elements which are measured in a study
and they are observable and measurable. It can be classified as
dependent, independent, intervening and antecedent variables
.
Frankel and Wallen, 1996, A variable is a concept that stands for a
variation within a class of objects or persons

Schutt, 1999, A variable is a characteristic or property that can

take different values or attributes
Examples of Variables

• age • income • type of

• sex • location of work
• marital business • number of
status • revenue meetings
Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the “assumed

effect” of another variable. It is the change
that occurs in the study population when one
or more factors are changed .
 Independent Variable
is the "assumed
cause” of a Example:
problem.
It is an assumed
reason for any
"change" or EXPOSURE TO
variation in a PEER study habits
dependent variable. COUNSELING
An independent
variable is
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
sometimes treated
as an "antecedent"
variable (the
variable before).
 Intervening Variable
it is a factor that
works "between" the Example:
independent and
dependent variables. It
can weaken or
strengthen the effect
knowledge of the attitudes smoking habits
of the independent
dangers of smoking towards life
variable on the
dependent variables.
Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variable
It is also called a
"facilitating
variable," "moderator"
or a "control
variable."
 Antecedent Variable

refers to a variable
that precedes or Example:
comes before another
variable in a cause-
and-effect
relationship.
Sex, Residence extent of exposure
It is the parents education to print media
Reading ability
independent variable
that is thought to Antecedent Variable Independent Variable Dependent Variable

influence or predict
changes in the
dependent variable.
 Hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as an educated guess

or a tentative answer to a question. It is a
statement about an expected relationship
between two or more variables that can be
empirically tested.

can be classified either as null or

alternative hypothesis, and directional or
non-directional hypothesis.
 <33
Null Hypothesis

A null hypothesis is a negative statement which indicates the

absence of a relationship/correlation between two variables, an
absence of a significant difference between the proportions of two
groups of people or objects possessing a particular characteristic.
Example:
"There is no significant difference between the proportion of health
care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are
not smoking."
 <33
Alternative Hypothesis

It is the positive form of the null hypothesis. It may state the

presence of a significant relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.

Example:
"There is a significant difference between the proportion of health
care providers who are smoking and the proportion of those who are
not smoking.”
 <33
Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis states whether the relationship between

two variables is direct or inverse or positive or negative
A positive or direct relationship is present when the value of one
variable increases with the increase in the value of another.

Example:
"The higher the advertisement expenses of food establishments. the
higher their monthly gross sales." (positive)
"The more time employees spend in meetings, the less productive
they are." (negative)
Non-directional <33
Hypothesis

The non-directional hypothesis does not specify the direction of

relationship between variables.
It merely states the presence or absence of a relationship between
two variables or that one variable influences another, or there is a
significant difference in the mean values of the two variables.

Example:
" There is a significant relationship between sleep duration and
academic performance in high school students.”
 Choosing appropriate

research design

According to Sanchez et al. (1996), a research design serves as the "blueprint"

for a study, outlining the plan or approach that researchers adhere to in order to
address their research questions or solve the research problem.

Before implementing the research, the researcher must be able to identify the
research design

A wrong choice of a design puts at risk the validity and the reliability of the data.
 Choosing appropriate

research design

Guidelines for a GOOD research design (Fisher, et. al., 1991)

1. An ethical design
2. Capable of obtaining the most reliable and valid data given
all possible constraints
3. Capable of collecting the needed data or measuring
whatever it is that happens in the field
4. Helps an investigator avoid making erroneous conclusions
 Identification of target

population and sampling

Once the specific cases to be studied are chosen, researchers must then decide
how to select those cases. It's important to differentiate between the total
population and sample from which data will be gathered

Study all the available elements or cases in the population or just a sample
from the entire population.

The usual practice is to select and study a small sample of the total
population (sampling).
 Identification of target

population and sampling

Sampling
It is assumed that a sample reflects the characteristic of the entire population.
It is important to distinguish the following concepts:

Population- total number of elements intended for the study

Target population- population for which representative information is sought
Sampling population- population from which an actual sample is selected
Sampling frame- list of all elements or sampling units in a population.
Sample- An individual, an element, or a group of individuals or elements from
whom data is collected
 Identification of target

population and sampling

Why study a sample?

Cheaper
Faster
More accurate
It can yield more comprehensive information
 Identification of target

population and sampling

Basic types of sampling

Non-probability - a judgmental sampling and does NOT involve random
selection. Disadvantage is the possibility of bias. The conclusion
derived from this is limited to the sample itself

Probability sampling- involves a random selection. Allows to make

strong statistical inferences about the group
Data collection

Data
- any kind of information a researcher
obtains on the subjects, respondents or
participants of the study

-are collected and used to answer the

research question or objectives of the study
Examples of research data

Demographic information (e.g. age, sex, civil

status)
Social and economic information (e.g.
educational attainment, health status,
occupation)
Scores in a researcher-made test or laboratory
experimentation and clinical observation of
patients/clients
Grades or ratings obtained from records or
forms
 Types of Research
Primary data
Data
informations collected directly
from the subjects being studied
Quantitative data - use statistical (such as people, objects or areas)
tool
Ex. age grades, income, number of
children, level of satisfaction, etc.

Secondary data
Qualitative data - descriptive
information and has no numerical
Information collected from other
value
available source (e.g. data of
Ex. attitude towards or perception of
completed studies)
something, a person’s experiences,
etc.
Technique of Collecting Quantitative Data

First, researcher should decide;

What data to collect

Where or from whom the data will be obtained
What instrument/s or devices to use in
collecting the data
Ways of Collecting Primary Quantitative Data

Self-administered
Structured Interview
Questionnaires

Questionnaires are distributed Involve face-to-face

to the respondents interview interaction
May be administered
individually or group
How to conduct interview

1. Locate the survey respondents

2. Obtain permission to conduct
the interview
3. Ask the questions
4. Record the answer given by the
respondents as instructed
 Methods in collecting qualitative data

Example.
In a study on text messaging
In-depth Interview among students, the researcher
may ask;
Direct, face-to-face
information gathering “To whom do you often send text
messages? What kind of messages do
using probing
you usually send?”
Questions asked are open-
ended “What benefits do you derive from text
messaging? Is text messaging
hazardous? Why?“
 Methods in collecting qualitative data

Focus group discussion Direct observation

To obtain group reactions to Used to study social processes

an issue, (can be compared as they happen
later with interview responses Can generate both qualitative
from respondents in the same and quantitative data
population Requires a well-trained
To determine group reactions observer or analysis
to a certain program or researcher may empoy
intervention participant or non-participant
observation
 Participant Observation Non-Participant Observation

researcher gets involved in researcher is not directly

the situation or activities of involved but see things as they
group he/she is studying happen without disrupting the
participants
Example;
Example;
A researcher who wants to study “A
In study of fraternities,
day in the life of a government office
researcher may join the
employee,” can observe and record
fraternity to be studied to
what government employees do from
observe and experience what
the time they enter the office until
fraternity member experience
they leave
 Methods in collecting qualitative data (cont.)

Content analysis

Study of documents or records (textbooks, newspaper,

historical documents, etc.)
Used in evaluating written materials for readability,
completeness and appropriateness
To determine the balance of information or emphasis in
a certain written material

Example;
In a study “American Presence and Influence in the lives of the Filipinos,” a researcher
needs to read old newspaper, books censuses and other reading materials which are good
sources of historical information about American in the Philippines
 DATA PROCESSING

A process that involves sorting out, organizing and

presenting data in a form that will make it meaningful to
the researcher and suggest what statistical analysis needs
to be accomplished for it to be interpreted correctly.

This step involves editing, coding, encoding and creation

of data files tabulation.
editing

Made on editing tips

accomplished After interview, review the
interviews or instruments. and make sure that all
questionnaires required questions have been
to identify answered properly and clearly. If
possible any ommissions/inconsistencies has
omissions and been spotted, then the interviewer/
incompleteness researcher must ask for
of information. clarification to the respondent.
editing error example

Since there is an answer on C.1. (”yes”), question A2

should have an answer as well. Through editing, an
omission of the answer to question C.2. could be spotted
immediately, and be clarified to the respondent.
coding

A process coding manual tips

where all Identify the variables.
possible For each variable, create a label for it
(preferably <8 characters).
response Determine the categories of responses for
categories to each item & assign a code for each
a question are category.
converted to a Based on common characteristics and
unique elements, group the answers, and give a
name to each group that shows their
numerical code
commonalities then assign a code/symbol.
coding example
coding manual example
encoding and creation of data files
After coding, the data files are created in
this step and are entered and stored in a data
sheet facilitating easier data manipulation.

tabulation
This enables the researcher to have a general
view of the variables’ study population,
allowing the researcher to determine and
correct errors in data entry.
a sample coding sheet
a sample OF tabulated data
Data analysis

Process of summarizing trends and patterns

observed in the data, determining major
differentials or relationships among variables used
in the study and the application
ugug
of appropriate
statistical tests on a set of data to answer the
objectives of a study

descriptive
inferential
 Inferential
Descriptive
Analysis
Analysis
method of analysis
used to describe used in testing
the nature and hypotheses and to test
characteristics of for significance of
an event or a observed differences
population under or relationship between
among variables.
investigation.
statistical
analysis

The systematic use of statistical methods to the

analysis and interpretation of data gathered during a
research investigation. It aids researchers in
detecting trends, connections, and important
findings in the data, enabling them to reach
meaningful conclusions and take responsible action.
Interpretation
analysis

Process of explaining the meaning of the data in a

table with emphasis on the highlights and trends
shown by the data.
Generalization
analysis

Used to describe the process of extrapolating

generalizations or forecasts about a population from
a sample of that group.
 Report Preparation and
Information Dissemination

The complex procedure of research, report creation, and

information dissemination is necessary for effective
knowledge sharing and decision-making in a variety of
sectors.
A research hypothesis or a group of research questions
should be created to direct the inquiry and link it with
specific aims once research objectives have been defined.

Putting the chosen methodology into practice is part of

the data collection step.
A well-structured report is the product of the entire research
process. The introduction, literature review, methodology,
findings, suggestions, and conclusion should all be included
in this report. When necessary for greater understanding, the
report should use visual aids like charts or graphs and be
written clearly.
 Thank you
for listening!