TS 6215 Wireless Communication Systems

Lecture1:Path Loss and Shadowing

Radio Wave Propagation

 The theory of electromagnetic propagation that predicted the existence of
radio wave is formulated in 1864 by James Clerk Maxwell.
 The propagation of electromagnetic wave due to:
 Reflection
 Scattering
 Diffraction by wall, terrain, building, etc.
 The calculations of radio wave propagation are difficult since the necessary
parameters are often not available.

Free Space Path Loss

 Free space path loss is the signal propagation along a line-of-sight (LOS)
between transmitter and receiver with a distance, d.
 There is no obstruction between the transmitter and receiver.
 Free space path loss introduces a complex scale factor, resulting in the
received signal

where is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field

radiation patterns in the LOS direction.
λ is the signal wavelength.
u(t) is a complex baseband signal with in-phase component.
e -j2πd/λ is the phase shift due to the distance d.
 The ratio of received to transmitted power is:

 The received power can be expressed in dBm as:

 Free space path loss is defined as the path loss of the free-space model as:

Pt G λ2
PL dB = 10 log10 = −10 log10 l 2
Pr ( 4πd )

Ray Tracing

 Ray tracing assumes a finite number of reflectors with known location and
dielectric properties.
 It can be solved using Maxwell’s equations with appropriate boundary
conditions.
  Thus, the effect of reflection, diffraction, and scattering on the wavefront are
approximated using simple geometric equations.
 If the transmitter, receiver and reflectors are all immobile, then the
characteristics of the multiple received signal paths are fixed.
 If the source or receiver is moving, then characteristic of the multiple path
vary with time.
 The most general ray-tracing model includes all attenuated, diffracted, and
scattered multipath components.

Two-Ray Model

d
Ga

Gc
l
ht
x Gb

x’ Gd hr

Figure 1 Two-ray model.

 The model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the multipath
effect as illustrated in Figure 1.
 The received signal consists of a reflected component and LOS component.
 If the effect of surface wave attenuation is ignored, the received signal for the
two-ray model can be obtained by superposition as:


λ  Gl u (t )e − j 2πl / λ R Gr u (t −τ )e − j 2π ( x +x′) / λ  j 2πf t 

r2 −ray (t ) = Re   + e c 
4π
 
 l x + x' 
 


where τ = (x + x’ – l)/c is the time delay of the ground reflection

relative to the LOS ray.
is the product of the transmit and receive
antenna field radiation patterns in the LOS direction.
is the product of the transmit and receive antenna
field radiation patterns corresponding to the rays of
length x and x’.
 R is the ground reflection coefficient.

 If the transmitted signal is narrowband relative to the delay spread

then u(t) ≈ u(t - τ). Hence, the received power of the two-ray
model for narrowband transmission can be approximated using:

2
Gl R Gr e − j∆φ
2
λ 
Pr = Pt   +
 4π  l x + x′

where ∆φ = 2π(x + x’ – l)/λ is the phase difference between the two received signal
components

 For asymptotically large d,

x + x’ ≈ l ≈ d
θ≈0
Gl ≈ Gr
R ≈ -1

 The approximated received signal power is

2 2
 λ Gl   4πht hr  2  Gl ht hr 
Pr ≈    =
 t  d 2  Pt
P
 4πd   λd   

 The received signal in dB is

Pr dBm = Pt dBm + 10 log10(Gl) + 20 log10(hthr) – 40 log10 (d)

Ten-Ray Model

 The model assumes rectilinear streets with building along both sides of the
street as well as transmitter and receiver antenna heights that are close to street
level.
 Since some of the signal energy is dissipated with each reflection, signal paths
corresponding to more than three reflection can generally be ignored.
 The ten rays incorporate all paths with one, two, or three reflections:
specifically, there is the LOS path and also the ground-reflected (GR), single-
wall (SW) reflected, double-wall (DW) reflected, triple-wall (TW) reflected,
wall-ground (WG) reflected and ground-wall (GW) reflected paths.
 WG
SW

DW

Tx GR DW
TW
LOS

TW GW
SW
Rx

Figure 2 Overhead view of the ten-ray model.

 The received signal for ten-ray model is defined as

 λ  G u (t )e − j 2πl / λ 9 R
i G xi u (t − τ i )e
− j 2πxi / λ
 
r10−ray (t ) = Re   l
+∑  e j 2πf ct 
 4π  l i =1 xi  

where xi denotes the path length of the ith reflected ray.

τi = (xi – l)/c
is the product of the transmit and receive antenna
gains corresponding to the ith ray.
It the path corresponds to multiple reflections, the coefficient Ri is the product
of the reflection coefficients corresponding to each reflection.

 If we assume a narrowband model such that u(t) ≈ u(t - τi) for all t, the
received power corresponding to the ten-ray model is (εr = 15 is used for all
the calculation or Ri)
2
2 − j∆φi
9 R
λ  Gl i G xi e
Pr = Pt   +∑
 4π  l i =1 xi

where ∆φ = 2π(xi – l)/λ

General Ray Tracing

 General ray tracing can be used to predict field strength and delay spread for
any building configuration and antenna placement.
 The building database (height, location and dielectric properties) and the
transmitter and receiver location relative to the building must be specified
exactly.
 The model explains the basic mechanism of urban propagation and can be
used to obtain delay and signal strength information for a particular transmitter
and receiver configuration in a given environment.
 Two phenomena in general ray tracing are
 Diffraction
 Scattering
 Diffraction occurs when the transmitting signal bends around an object in its
path to the receiver as illustrated in Figure 3.
 Diffraction results from many phenomena including the curve surface of the
earth, hilly or irregular terrain, building edges, or obstructions blocking the
LOS path between the transmitter and receiver.
 Diffraction is most commonly modelled by the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction
model.

d d’

Tx Rx

Figure 3 Knife-edge diffraction.

 From Figure 3, the additional distance relative to the LOS path, ∆d is:

h2 d + d ′
∆d ≈
2 dd ′

 The corresponding phase shift relative to the LOS path can be approximated
as:

2π∆d π 2
∆φ = ≈ v
λ 2

where the Fresnel-Kirchhoff diffraction parameter is defined as

2(d + d ′)
v=h
λdd ′
General Ray Tracing

 Approximation for knife-edge diffraction path loss (in dB) relative to LOS
path loss are given by Lee as:

 20 log10 [0.5 − 0.62v] − 0.8 ≤ v < 0

 20 log [0.5e −0.95v ] 0 ≤ v <1
 10
L(v )dB = 
 20 log10 [0.4 − 0.1184 − (0.38 − 0.1v ) ] 1 ≤ v ≤ 2.4
2

20 log10 [0.225 / v] v > 2.4

 The knife-edge diffraction model yields the following formula for the received
diffracted signal:

r (t ) =Re{L (v ) Gd u (t −τ)e −j 2π( d +d ′) / λe j 2πf c t }

where Gd and τ = ∆d/c are the antenna gain and the delay associated with the
diffraction ray relative to the LOS path respectively.

 The received signal due to a scattered ray can be calculated using the bistatic
radar equation as

 λ Gσ e − j 2π ( s + s′) / λ j 2πf ct 
r (t ) = Re u (t − τ ) e 
 (4π ) 3 / 2 ss′ 

where τ = (s + s’ – l)/c is the delay associated with the scattered ray.

σ is the radar cross-section of the scattering object.
G is the antenna gain.
s

 The received power associated with scattering is

Pr dBm = Pt dBm + 10 log10 (Gs ) + 20 log 10(λ ) + 10 log10 (σ )

− 30 log(4π ) − 20 log10 s − 20 log10 ( s′)
 s
s’

Tx l Rx

Figure 4 Scattering.

Local Mean Received Power

 Local mean received power is a good indicator of link quality and is often
used in cellular system functions like power control and handoff.
 Local mean received power, P , can be calculated from ray tracing by adding
r
the squared magnitude of all the received ray.

Empirical Path-Loss Models

 A number of path-loss models have been developed over the years which is
based on empirical measurement over a given distance in a given frequency
range for a particular geographical area or building.
 Applications of these developed models are not always restricted to
environments in which the empirical measurements were made.
 The empirical path loss PL(d) fro a given environment is defined as the
average of the local mean attenuation (LMA) measurements at distance d
averaged over all available measurement in the given environment.

Okumura Model

 Okumura model is one of the most common models for signal prediction in
large urban macrocells.
 The model is applicable over distance of 1 – 100 km and frequency ranges of
150 – 1500 MHz.
 The base station heights for these measurement were 30 – 100 metre, a range
whose upper end is higher than typical base station today.
  The Okumura model at distance d parameterised by the carrier frequency fc is
given by

PL(d) dB = L(fc,d) + Aµ(fc,d) – G(ht) – G(hr) – GAREA

where L(fc,d) is free-space path loss at distance d and carrier

frequency fc.
Aµ(fc,d) is the median attenuation in addition to free-space
path loss across all environments.
G(ht) and G(hr) are the base station and mobile antenna height
gain factor respectively.
GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.

 Aµ(fc,d) and GAREA can be obtained from Okumura’s empirical plots.

 Base station and mobile antenna height gain factor are calculated using:

G (ht ) = 20 log10 (ht / 200), 30m < ht < 1000m

10 log10 (hr / 3), hr ≤ 3m

G (hr ) = 
20 log10 (hr / 3), 3m < hr < 10m

 The model has a 10-14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss
predicted by the model and the path loss associated with one of the
measurements used to develop the model.

Hata Model

 The Hata model is an empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss data

provided by Okumura and is valid over roughly the same range of frequency.
 The standard formula for empirical path loss in urban areas under the Hata
model is:

PL,urban(d) dB = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 (fc) – 13.82 log10 (ht) – a(hr)

+ (44.9 – 6.55 log10 (ht)) log10 (d)

where a(hr) is a corrector factor for the mobile antenna height based
on the size of the coverage area.

 The correction factor for small to medium-sized cities is given by

a(hr) = (1.1 log10 (fc) – 0.7)hr – (1.56 log10(fc) – 0.8) dB

For large cities at frequency fc > 300 MHz, the correction factor is
 a(hr) = 3.2 (log10 (11.75hr))2 – 4.97 dB

 Correction to the urban model are made for suburban and rural propagation, so
that these models are

PL,suburban(d) dB = PL,urban(d) dB – 2[log10(fc/28)]2 – 5.4

and

PL,rural(d) dB = PL,urban(d) dB – 4.78[log10(fc)]2 + 18.33 log10(fc) - K

where K rangeds from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert).

 The Hata model well approximates the Okumura model for distance d > 1km.
Hence it is good model for the first generation cellular system.

Indoor Attenuation Factors

 There are many factors which significant impact on path loss in an indoor
environment such as the material used for walls, floors, the layout of rooms,
hallways, windows, the location and material in obstructing objects.
 At higher frequency the attenuation loss per floor is typically larger.
 Partition materials and dielectric properties vary widely and thus so do
partition losses. Examples of partition losses measured at 900 – 1300 MHz
are as shown in Table 1.

Partition type Partition loss (dB)

Cloth Partition 1.4
Double 3.4
plasterboard wall
Foil insulation 3.9
Concrete wall 13
Aluminum siding 20.4
All metal 26

Table 1 Typical partition losses

 The experimental data for floor and partition loss can be added to an analytical
or empirical dB path-loss model PL(d) as
Nf Np

Pr dBm = Pt dBm − PL (d ) − ∑ FAFi − ∑ PAFi

i =1 i =1

where FAFi and PAFi represent the floor attenuation factor for ith floor
traversed by the signal and the partition attenuation factor associated with the ith
partition traversed by the signal respectively. The number of floors and partitions
traversed by the signal are Nf and Np respectively.

Shadow Fading

 In a wireless channel, a transmitting signal will typically experience random

variation due to blockage from objects in the signal path.
 As a result, the random variation of the received power is increased at a given
distance.
 Variation are also caused by changed in reflecting surfaces and scattering
objects. Thus, a model for the random attenuation due to these effect is also
needed.

• The most common model for this additional attenuation is log-normal

shadowing which the ratio of transmit-to-receive power ψ = Pt/Pr is assumed
to be random with a log-normal distribution

ξ  (10 log10 ψ − µψ dB ) 2 
p (ψ ) = exp − , ψ >0
2π σ ψ dBψ  2σ ψ2 dB 

where ξ = 10/ln10
µψdB is the mean of ψdB = 10 log10 ψ in decibels.
σψdB is the standard deviation of ψdB in decibels.
The mean of ψ (the linear average path gain) can be obtained as

 µψ dB σ ψ2 dB 
µψ = Ε[ψ ] = exp  + 2
 ξ 2ξ 

 The conversion from the linear mean in decibel to the log mean in decibel is
σ ψ2 dB
10 log10 µψ = µψ dB +
2ξ

Combined Path Loss and Shadowing

• The model for path loss and shadowing can be superimposed to capture power
falloff versus distance along with the random attenuation about this path loss
from shadowing.
 • The ratio of received to transmitted power in dB of the combined model is
given by
Pr d
dB = 10 log10 K − 10γ log10 −ψ dB
Pt d0
where ψdB is a Gauss-distributed random variable with mean zero and
variance

References

[1] N. Amitay, “Modelling and computer simulation of wave propagation in linear

line-of-sight microcells,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Tech., pp. 337-342, Nov 1992.