The Ear, Hearing and Balance
A-HPL-06
BRIEFING
SAFETY TIME
Perception
P Percieving the status, atributes, and dynamics
of relevant elements in the environment.
(Airspeed, position, altitude, route, weather,
ATC, etc)
Comprehension
C Comprehension of the situation and
understanding the significance of the elements
in light of the pilot´s goals.
Projection
P Projection of future actions of the elements in
BRIEFING the environment. Achieved through knowledge
of the status and dynamics of the elements.
SITUATIONAL
AWARENESS
Decision making
D Cognitive process of selecting a course of
action from among multiple alternatives.
Select, Assess, Check SOPs.
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General Objectives:
Optimize Flight Safety
Improve Situational
awareness
BRIEFING
Improve decision making
skills
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SKILLS:
BRIEFING ATTITUDES:
SPECIFIC
OBJECTIVES
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Knowledge Objectives:
Anatomy of auditory system
Hearing
Vestibular system
BRIEFING
SPECIFIC Range of hearing
OBJECTIVES
Causes of hearing loss
Air (motion) sickness
Padpilot Chapter 6: The Ear, Hearing and Balance
Scope
Anatomy of the Auditory System
Ossicles Semi-
circular
Pinna canals
Auditory nerve
Auditory
canal
Cochlea
Tympanic membrane Eustachian tube
Hearing
Hearing: the process of translating pressure
waves into nerve impulses, interpreted as
sound by the brain.
Hearing
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HEARING
FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF AUDITORY SYSTEM
The ear serves two functions, providing both a sense of hearing and sense of balance.
The ear consists of three parts, the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear.
The outer and middle ear react to vibration and are solely involved in hearing. The inner
ear consists of two parts. The cochlea is responsible for turning the atmospheric
vibrations into electrical impulses to the brain. The vestibular apparatus is responsible
for balance.
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Sound waves travel through the outer ear and cause the ear drum (tympanic
membrane) to vibrate. The Ossicles (Malleus, Incus and Stapes) amplify and
conduct the vibrations across the middle ear (the conductive system) to the
inner ear. The cochlea converts the vibrations to nerve impulses which, then
travel to the brain and are interpreted as sound.
The middle ear is an air-filled cavity connected to the back of the nasal
passage by the Eustachian Tube. This tube provides the means of equalising
pressure between the outer ear and the middle ear.
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SOUND
Sound vibrations or pressure waves have two variable factors which directly
affect any damage to the ear (noise) :
Intensity of Sound depends on the amplitude of the sound waves and
registers as loudness.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second, or pitch.
The frequency range of human hearing extends from 20 - 20 000 Hertz.
Sound intensity is usually registered in decibels (dB). A list of sounds and their
noise rating are given below:
0 dB Threshold of hearing
15 dB Whisper
30 dB Conversation
45 dB Conversation in a busy office
60 dB An orchestra playing loud music
90 dB Pneumatic drill
120 dB Piston aircraft engine a few feet away
125 dB Disco
130 dB Jet aircraft noise a few feet away
150 dB Jet aircraft with afterburner selected
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HEARING LOSE
Noise is any kind of sound considered either annoying or harmful to health.
Hearing loss is any degree of impairment of the ability to apprehend sound. Is
classified by means of different categories:
Mild
The quitest sound heard by this people are between 25-40 dB, so have difficulties
keeping up conversations, especially noisy surrounded.
Moderate
The quitest sound heard by this people are between 40-70 dB, so have difficulties
keeping up with conversations when not using hearing aid.
Severe
The quitest sound heard by this people are between 70-95 dB, so they benefit from
powerful hearing aids, but often they rely on lipreading.
Profound
The quitest is from 95 and more. Lip reading or hand language.
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Conductive hearing loss (CHL)
Result from physical blockade of sound transmission to the inner ear. Fe. Ossicles
affected by trauma.
Noise induced hearing loss (NIHL)
When there is a damage to the sensitive membrane in the cochlear receptor organ
due to overexposure to noise . The degree of severity of NHIL is influenced by the
duration and intensity of noise.
Presbycusis
Sensory hearing loss due to aging. 1/3 of people over 65 years have presbycusis.
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•For aircrew, proper functioning of hearing is vital and active
pilots wearing aids are hardly imaginable today. However in
recent times the cochlear implant has excellent results in
severe deafness , so is posible to enable airline pilots to
avoid being phased out ahead of schedule.
•Some sounds that appearently dont cause damage
(environmental), if they are at high frecuencies or long
lasting they can produce bad effects:
Table of page 150
•Any prolonged exposure to noise in excess of 90 dB can
end up in NIHL
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FACTORS, other than noise level, leading to hearing loss:
➢Diseases: Tumours, high fever, meningitis..
➢Heredity: Make someone more susceptible
➢Aging: Normal levels over the years will make the cells
inner ear languish.
➢Smoking: Associated
➢Medications: Gentamicin, ototoxic, chemotherapy drugs
➢Physical trauma
However , all the above together carry much less weight
comparing with the NIHL.
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Occupational exposure is the most common NIHL.
•Sources of Noise in aviation:
Multiple, both on the ground and in the air.
Aircraft equipment
Power plants
Transmission systems
Jet efflux
Propellers
Rotors
Hydraulic actuators
•Also by the aerodynamic interaction between ambient air and the surface of
the aircraft fuselage, wings, control surfaces, landing gear.
•Four basic sources in flight
Propeller, Aerodynamic noise, Engine´s exhaust, cabin noise.
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PROTECTION AGAINST NOISE
Hearing protection is simple and pilots should use it. The effects of jet
engines, engineering sheds, car noise, discotheques, or even personal
stereos can damage the hearing. Ear defenders (ear muffs) or ear
plugs are very effective in attenuating (weakening) noise.
Ear Plugs offer protection of up to 25 dB, while Headset or Ear
Defenders offer protection up to 45 dB.
However many flight crew find them uncomfortable to wear for long
periods of time.
So active noise reduction headset have become very popular last
years.
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Causes of Hearing Loss
One exposure to extremely loud sound -
acoustic trauma
Prolonged exposure to high sound levels
>90 dB
Noise Levels Around a Jet Engine
Wear ear defenders
Conductive Deafness
Any defect of the middle or outer ear preventing
sound being transmitted to the inner ear.
Causes include:
Middle ear infection (glue ear) Otitis media
Prolonged Osteosclerosis Bone growth
Physical damage to the ear drum
Excessive accumulations of wax
Presbycusis
Age related hearing loss
Most commonly affects the higher frequencies
Tinnitus
Tinnitus: the sufferer hears sounds and noises
almost continually.
The Vestibular Apparatus (Balance)
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The Vestibular Apparatus
Ampulla in semi-circular canals detect angular acceleration.
Otoliths in utricles and saccules detect linear acceleration, inc gravity.
Vestibular illusions occur when gravity does not act through the body’s
longitudinal axis.
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The Vestibular Apparatus
Acceleration causes inertia of endolymph to deflect ampulla.
Deflection stimulates hairs to generate nerve impulses to brain.
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EQUILIBRIUM
Functional anatomy of vestibular apparatus and balance and space
orientation system
The vestibular system of the ear consists of the semi-circular canals
which detect angular accelerations of the body, and the otolith
organs, the utricle and saccule, which detect linear acceleration or
deceleration.
SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS
There are three fluid-filled, semi-circular canals in each ear. The canals
are oriented in three planes, each at right angles to the other two.
Their names are the Lateral Canal, the Anterior Canal, and the
Posterior Canal.
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At the base of each canal is a sensory organ, the cupula. The cupula is a
gelatinous bulb anchored at one end to the semi-circular canal,
detecting movements of the fluid that surrounds it.
These movements become electrical signals. Since there are 3 canals at
right angles, the brain can use these signals to give 3-dimensional
information to help control balance and tell us which direction is up.
With no acceleration the
cupula remains vertical
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During any lateral motion, the fluid in the canal lags behind the movement.
The cupula then deflects in response to the pressure of the fluid.
As the motion of the fluid catches up to the motion of the head, a state of
equilibrium is reached, and the cupula returns to a state of rest.
When movement stops, the fluid within the
canals keeps moving due to the inertia. This
causes a deflection of the cupula in the
opposite direction.
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Since the semi-circular canals are at right angles to one another, combining the
signals from all six canals detects acceleration forces in any direction. In the absence
of visual cues, the brain interprets these stimuli as:
•Acceleration as movement
•Simple acceleration
•Changes of acceleration
•Constant velocity
In general terms, the semi-circular canals sense any angular movement of the head.
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OTOLITHS
The otolith organs are small sacs located in the vestibule. Sensory hairs
project from each macula into the otolithic membrane, an overlying
gelatinous membrane that contains chalk-like crystals called otoliths. The
otoliths are sensitive to linear movement and the force of gravity.
Changes in the position of the head relative to the gravitational force cause
the otolithic membrane to shift position on the macula. The sensory hairs
bend, signalling a change in head position. When the head is upright, the
hair cells generate a “resting” frequency of nerve impulses. When the head
tilts, the “resting” frequency alters. The brain is informed of the new
position of the head relative to the vertical.
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Linear accelerations also stimulate the otolith organs. The body cannot physically
distinguish between the inertial forces resulting from linear accelerations and
those resulting from the force of gravity. For example, a forward acceleration
results in a backward displacement of the otolithic membranes. When an
adequate visual reference is not available this can create an illusion of backward
tilt. Hence, movement in a linear sense can give a false impression of climbing or
descending.
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MOTION SICKNESS
Is the uncomfortable dizziness, nausea and vomiting that people
experience when their sense of balance and equilibrium is disturbed
by constant motion.
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SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS
Nausea, pale skin, cold sweats, vomiting, dizziness, headache, increades salivation,
fatigue, general feeling of sickness.
Psychological: Moodiness, defensive behaviour, anxiety, fear of flying, lack of
concentration….
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CAUSES
Based on sensory conflicts within the vestibular system that lead to physical and
psiychological symptoms. Airsickness represents a serioues annoyance to the
affected people such us bussiness people.
Factors wich can trigger sirsickness involve:
➢Typical flight characteristics : Vertical movements because of turbulence
➢Weather conditions
➢Individual susceptibility
➢Mismatching sensory perceptions
➢Mental factors: fear, awareness of having suffered before may increase the
susceptibility.
➢Noise and vibration
➢Alcohol and drugs….
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Air (Motion) Sickness
Caused by a mismatch between visually
detected movement and movement detected
by vestibular system.
Can also be triggered by excessive vibration
(helicopters).
Air (Motion) Sickness
Nausea Cold sweats
Hyperventilation Headache
Vomiting
Symptoms: Depression
Pallor
Air (Motion) Sickness
Coping:
Keep the head still if possible
Steady aircraft manoeuvres.
Medication may help but always consult a
AME.
PROBLEMS AREAS FOR PILOT´S COMMON
MINOR AILMENTS
EUSTACHIAN TUBE
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The human body has several gas-filled organ systems like GI tract,
sinuses, middle ear and possibly cavities in the teeth.
On ascent there are efficient measures to facilitate the equalisation of
pressure(valsalva) , but under certain conditions gas can be “ TRAPPED”
on ascent, as a consequence the air pressure inside the cavities can rise
in ascent whereas on descent the pressure in the ambient air will build
up against a steady pressure inside the cavities.
All types of discomfort or pain in the affected cavities caused by a lack of
equilisation are called “ BAROTRAUMA”.
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CLIMB AND DESCENT
Any air or gas contained within the body expands or contracts with changes in pressure.
CLIMB
An increase in altitude causes gases to expand inside the lungs and intestine. Gas collects
along the gastro-intestinal tract, both from swallowing air while eating and as a by-
product from the action of bacteria on food. If the expanding gas is not released to the
atmosphere, severe pain can result (BAROMETORISM).
If pressure changes are extreme, damage to the lungs, pneumothorax (air between the
lung and chest wall) or even rupturing can occur. Normally the rib cage protects the
respiratory system.
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Good dentistry ensures that teeth are filled correctly and the oral health of the
pilot remains at a high standard. Poor oral hygiene can result in abscesses. Poor
dentistry can lead to air pockets in filled teeth. Both of these can cause pain
during a decompression due to the expansion of gases
DESCENT
The ear and the sinuses are parts of the body that suffer most in the
descent.
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SINUSES
Sinuses are air-filled cavities in the bones of the skull that form the upper part of the
face. They help resonate the voice and make the skull lighter.
•The frontal sinuses are in the brow of the forehead above the eyes.
•The maxillary sinuses are larger cavities in the cheek bones.
•The Sphenoid and ethmoidal sinuses are deeper bones of the skull which separate the
nasal passages and the floor of the skull.
The sinuses are lined with mucous membrane, and connect to the nasal cavity by small
openings. These openings, called sinus canals, allow the pressure to equalize to the
atmosphere. The sinus canals vent air to the atmosphere as the altitude increases.
The soft mucous membrane lining the canals expands when a person is suffering from a
cold or flu. Air can still vent to the atmosphere in the climb; but in the descent the inward
passage of air is impossible.
During the descent, severe pain and injury can result. This is known as a Sinotic
Barotrauma or Barosinusitis.
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Lesson Review
Anatomy of auditory system
Hearing
Vestibular system
Range of hearing
Causes of hearing loss
Air (motion) sickness
DEBRIEFING
SAFETY TIME
01 The definition of unit Hertz (hz) is:
CONSOLIDATION
QUESTIONS 02 Diffraction is the process by which:
BASIC RADIO
PROPAGATION
THEORY
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03 When a transmitter is moving towards a receiver, the
correct description of Doppler Effect is:
CONSOLIDATION
QUESTIONS 04 SSb modulation is a technique where only one sideband
is transmitted. Ssb is used for:
BASIC RADIO
PROPAGATION
THEORY
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