Dr. M.M.

Abdel Aziz

Chapter 4

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Fundamentals of BJT Operation

Fig. 1

Considering the reverse-biased p-n junction diode of Fig. 1, the reverse saturation
current through this diode depends on the rate at which minority carriers are generated in the
neighborhood of the junction. For example, the reverse current due to holes being swept from
n to p is essentially independent of the size of the junction field and hence is independent of
the reverse bias. The reason given was that the hole current depends on how often minority
holes are generated by EHP creation within a diffusion length of the junction—not upon how
fast a particular hole is swept across the depletion layer by the field. As a result, it is possible
to increase the reverse current through the diode by increasing the rate of EHP generation
(Fig. 1b).

One convenient method for accomplishing this is optical excitation of EHPs with light
(hµ >Eg). Is it possible to inject minority carriers into the neighborhood of the junction
electrically instead of optically?
If so, we could control the junction reverse current simply by varying the rate of
minority carrier injection. For example, let us consider a hypothetical hole injection device as
in Fig.1c. If we can inject holes at a predetermined rate into the n side of the junction, the
effect on the junction current will resemble the effects of optical generation. The current from
n to p will depend on the hole injection rate and will be essentially independent of the bias
voltage. A convenient hole injection device is a forward-biased p+-n junction. The current in
such a junction is due primarily to holes injected from the p+ region into the n material. The
resulted structure is a p+- n - p ( Fig. 2) .
With this configuration, injection of holes from the p+-n junction into the center n
region supplies the minority carrier holes to participate in the reverse current through the n-p
junction. Of course, it is important that the injected holes do not recombine in the n region
before they can diffuse to the depletion layer of the reverse-biased junction. Thus we must
make the n region narrow compared with a hole diffusion length.

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

Fig. 2

The structure we have described is a p-n-p BJT. The forward-biased junction that injects holes
into the center n region is called the emitter junction, and the reverse-biased junction that
collects the injected holes is called the collector junction. The p+ region, which serves as the
source of injected holes, is called the emitter, and the p region into which the holes are swept
by the reverse-biased junction is called the collector. The center n region is called the base.
The biasing arrangement in Fig. 2 is called the common base configuration, since the base
electrode B is common to the emitter and collector circuits.

To have a good p-n-p transistor, almost all the holes injected by the emitter into the
base be collected. Thus the n-type base region should be narrow, and the hole lifetime τp
should be long. This requirement is summed up by specifying Wb << Lp, where Wb is the
length of the neutral n material of the base and Lp is the diffusion length for holes in the base .
A second requirement is that the current I E crossing the emitter junction should be
composed almost entirely of holes injected into the base, rather than electrons crossing from
base to emitter. This requirement is satisfied by doping the base region lightly compared with
the emitter, so that the p+-n emitter junction of Fig. 2 results.

It is clear that current IE flows into the emitter of a properly biased p-n-p transistor and
that IC flows out at the collector. In a good transistor, the base current will be very small since
IC is almost equal to IE.
However, the base current IB can be accounted for physically by three dominant
mechanisms, Fig.3:
(a) There must be some recombination of injected holes with electrons in the base,
even with Wb < Lp. The electrons lost to recombination must be resupplied through
the base contact.
(b) Some electrons will be injected from n to p in the forward-biased emitter junction,
even if the emitter is heavily doped compared with the base. These electrons must
also be supplied by IB.
(c) Some electrons are swept into the base at the reverse-biased collector junction due
to thermal generation in the collector. This small current reduces I B by supplying
electrons to the base.

The dominant sources of the base current are (a) recombination in the base and (b)
injection into the emitter region. IB will be a very small fraction (perhaps one-hundredth) of IE.
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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

In an n-p-n transistor the three current directions are reversed.

Fig.3

Figure 3 summarizes hole and electron flow in a p-n-p transistor with proper biasing as
follows:
(1) injected holes lost to recombination in the base;
(2) holes reaching the reverse-biased collector junction;
(3) thermally generated electrons and holes making up the reverse saturation current
of the collector junction;
(4) electrons supplied by the base contact for recombination with holes;
(5) electrons injected across the forward-biased emitter junction.

Amplification with BJTs

Basically, the transistor is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and
collector are controllable by the relatively small base current. The essential mechanisms are
easy to understand under the following assumptions :
1. neglect the saturation current at the collector
2. neglect recombination in the transition regions.
Under these two assumptions, the collector current is made up entirely of those holes injected
at the emitter, which are not lost to recombination in the base. Thus iC is proportional to the
hole component of the emitter current iEp:

iC α iEp or iC = B iEp
B is called the base transport factor.

The emitter current i E = i Ep + i En

The emitter injection efficiency

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

For an efficient transistor, we would like B and γ to be very near unity; that is, the
emitter current should be due mostly to holes (γ = 1), and most of the injected holes should
eventually participate in the collector current (B = 1). The relation between the collector and
emitter currents is:

The product Bγ is defined as the factor α , called the current transfer ratio, which
represents the emitter-to-collector current amplification. There is no real amplification
between these currents, since α is smaller than unity.

On the other hand, the relation between iC and iB is more promising for amplification.
If the fraction of injected holes making it across the base without recombination is B, it
follows that (1- B) is the fraction recombining in the base. Thus the base current is

β is the base-to collector current amplification factor.

Since α is near unity, it is clear that β can be large for a good transistor, and the collector
current is large compared with the base current.

In fact, we can show from space charge neutrality that iB can indeed be used to
determine the magnitude of iC.
Let us consider the transistor of Fig. 4, in which iB is determined by a biasing circuit.
For simplicity, we shall assume unity emitter injection efficiency and negligible collector
saturation current. Since the n-type base region is electrostatically neutral between the two
transition regions, the presence of excess holes in transit from emitter to collector calls for
compensating excess electrons from the base contact. However, there is an important
difference in the times that electrons and holes spend in the base. The average excess hole
spends a time τt, defined as the transit time from the emitter to collector.
Since the base width Wb is made small compared with Lp, this transit time is much less
than the average hole lifetime τp in the base ( τt << τp ).

On the other hand, an average excess electron supplied from the base contact spends τ p
seconds in the base supplying space charge neutrality during the lifetime of an average excess
hole. While the average electron waits τp seconds for recombination, many individual holes
can enter and leave the base region, each with an average transit time τt. In particular, for each
electron entering from the base contact, (τp / τt) holes can pass from the emitter to collector
while maintaining space charge neutrality. Thus the ratio of collector current to base current is
simply

(*)
for γ = 1 and negligible collector saturation current.

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

Fig.4

If the electron supply to the base (iB) is restricted, the traffic of holes from the emitter
to base is correspondingly reduced. If we suppose that the hole injection does continue
despite the restriction on electrons from the base contact. The result would be a net buildup of
positive charge in the base and a loss of forward bias (and therefore a loss of hole injection) at
the emitter junction. Clearly, the supply of electrons through iB can be used to raise or lower
the hole flow from emitter to collector.

Example 1
(a)Show that Eq. (*) is valid from arguments of the steady state replacement of stored charge.
Assume that τn = τp.
(b) What is the steady state charge Q n = Qp due to excess electrons and holes in the neutral
base region for the transistor of Fig. 4?

Solution
(a) In steady state there are excess electrons and holes in the base.
The charge in the electron distribution Qn is replaced every τp seconds. Thus iB = Qn / τ p. The
charge in the hole distribution Qp is collected every τt seconds, and iC = Qp /τ t. For space
charge neutrality, Qn = Qp, and

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

Example 2

For the transistor shown in Fig. 4 , calculate the space charge due to excess electrons and
holes in the base region. Find the gain factor β, and the collector current iC.

Solution:

Qn = Qp = iC. τt = iB. τp

Qn = 0.1×10-3× 10 × 10-6 = 10-9 C

iC = β iB = 100 ×0.1 mA = 10 mA

Charge Control Analysis

The steady-state operation of a BJT depends on the maintenance of an excess charge
QB ( = Qp ) in the base region. The emitter current I E = QB / τt ,τt is the transit time of
minority carriers in the base region. A base current I B is necessary to compensate for
recombined charges, IB = QB / τB , τB is the lifetime of minority carriers in the base region.
Since α ≈ 1, and IC0 = 0
IE ≈ I C = β I B

τB and τt …. charge control parameters

If a signal is applied to the base, a varying current is superimposed on the steady – state
current. Thus charge distribution will change with time

Measurement of τB and τt
Consider the circuit configuration shown in Fig.4, and a step voltage of amplitude V is applied
to the input.
Charge will be transferred from a signal source to the transistor base through R B and
C. For ΔV >> ΔV BE ( an input of few voltages ). The charge transferred initially through C is
CΔV.
This charge then leaks away exponentially through the transistor with time constant τ B to give
a component of space charge q1.

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

Vcc

RL
C

Q
Vo
V
RB

Fig.5

The charge q2 transferred through RB is given by:

( ( ))

q1
q2
C ΔV

τB ΔI

t t

iC
C > τB /R B

C = τB /R B

C < τB /R B

t
Fig.5

This charge rises exponentially to a value (τ B ΔI), where ΔI = ΔV / RB with time

constant τB.
The total transferred charge Q B = q1 + q2

The corresponding change in collector current

where

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 Dr. M.M.Abdel Aziz

The parameters τB and τt can be determined if C and R are adjusted until q1 = q2. In this
condition , the fall in q1 due to recombination in the base is exactly compensated by the rise
in q2, so that QB rises instantaneously and remains constant with time, while iC undergoes a
similar step change

So that

If ΔV is made just large enough to switch the transistor from I C = 0 to ICsat, the required change
in the base current is

If RB is held constant at the value at which the transistor is just saturated in the steady
state, C may be adjusted to produce a step change in V CE as observed on an oscilloscope.
If C is made too large, q1 > q2 and the recombination in the base is overcompensated , so that
the collector current overshoots its equilibrium value. Similarly, if C is made too small, q1 <
q2, and the recombination is insufficiently compensated , giving a rapid initial rise in I C
followed by slower exponential rise.

Example 3
In the above experiment, if ΔV required to drive the transistor from cut-off to saturation is
7V.
If RB = 10 kΩ, RL = 1kΩ, and VCC = 14V. The value of C required to obtain instantaneous
switching from IC = 0 to ICsat is C = 1nF.
What are the values of τt ,τB, and β ?

Solution

x
1

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