Basics of Verilog FPGA

programming language

FPGA e-book
part 2

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CONTENT
03 8. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - FPGA and Red Pitaya

04 9. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Introduction

05 10. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Values

07 11. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Operators

10 12. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Assignments

11 13. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Statements and Loops

13 14. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language - Tasks and Functions

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8. FPGA and Red Pitaya
In a project of a digital system the developer studies a problem and builds a combination of logic gates, registers,
flip-flops, and more complex blocks like RAM, ROM, processors, etc. Today with the advance of the technology
we can implement the project with a FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array). The FPGA is made with lots of
logic blocks and each block contains logic gates, multiplexers, registers, etc. To implement the project the
user of the FPGA has to make connections between these logic blocks and this is done with a HDL (Hardware
Description Language).

Red Pitaya uses Verilog and System Verilog as a HDL. The Red Pitaya board has a programmable logic made
by Xilinx and to write it to describe your digital system you must use the software Vivado. Vivado is used to
write your digital system with a HDL and to implement your system in the programmable logic. The result of the
implementation of a Vivado project is a file called bitstream that has an extension .bit, that has the information
about the connections of logic blocks that will be used and the connections between them.

Every application of Red Pitaya (Osciloscope, Signal Generator, etc) uses a specific bitstream file, that implements
the digital system needed for the application.

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9. Basics of Verilog FPGA programming language
9.1. Introduction
Verilog is a HDL, it is very similar to the C programming language and it was developed in 1985. Verilog became
popular because it is easy to learn if you have some programming experience with C. With Verilog you can
describe the system in a sequential or in a combinational way and the most popular tools that are used to
develop digital systems support Verilog.

In Verilog the system is described with inputs, outputs and modules that implement some logic function. The
system designer will implement modules and the software will optimize and implement the system to use less
logic cells as possible, in Red Pitaya case the software used is Vivado. Modules can be implemented inside
other modules, a module output can be another module input. A module is declared using the words module
and endmodule, the function, the inputs and outputs are declared inside it. Some characteristics of Verilog are:

• It is case sensitive, for example an input named adc_in is different from an input named Adc_in.

• All statements of Verilog language, like module, are in lowercase.

• The semicolon is used to end a line of code.

• Line comments are made with // code, and block comments with /* code block */.

9.2. Verilog Example

Next there is an example of a project that multiplies two inputs with 18 bits resulting in an output with 36
bits. First is created a module named projtest and inside parenthesis is declared the input and output ports.
The // are a comment so the line of code is invisible to the compilation. Next it is assigned to the output the
mathematical multiplication of the two inputs. It is important to know the word lengths to not occur overflow.

module projtest(
input [17:0] in_a,
input [17:0] in_b,
output [35:0] out_f
);
// design_1 instanciation1( .input_a(in_a), .input_b(in_b),
.clk(clock), .outp(out_f) );
assign out_f = in_a * in_b;

endmodule

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10. Values
10.1. Port Types
The port types can be, input, output and inout.

10.2. Data Types

There are two types of data in Verilog, one is called net and the other is called reg. A reg declaration is used to
store some temporary data and a net is used to connect blocks and processes.

10.2.1 Net
Net declarations can be wire, tri, supply0 and supply1.

wire represents a node or connection

tri represents a tri-state node

supply0 represents the logic 0

supply1 represents the logic 1

10.2.2 Reg
Reg declarations can be reg, integer, time and realtime. A variable of type reg can be designated only by
a procedure statement, task, or function. A variable of type reg cannot be the output of a port or an assign
statement.

10.3. Data Input Output Rules

If you have a variable of type net, it can be declared as input, output and inout. A variable of type reg can only
be declared of type output.

10.4. Assign Values

In Verilog numbers can be assigned with size or not. If it is not declared the size it defaults to 32 bits. Also
you must choose the base of the number and the options are decimal, hexadecimal, octal and binary. If not
specified the base it defaults to the decimal base.

Examples:

122 - Unsized number with no base, so it is a 32 bit wide number with the value 122 in the decimal base.

3’b010 - 3 bit wide with the value 010 in base two or 2 in decimal base.

8’hAA- 8 bit wide with the value AA in the hexadecimal base.

6’O77 - 6 bit wide with the value 77 in the octal base.

‘b010 - 32 bit wide with the value 2 in the decimal base.

‘d2 - Same as before.

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10.5. Negative Numbers
Negative numbers are stored as compliment two and the minus sign must be included before the specification
of size.

Example:

-10’d5 10 bit number stored as complement two of 5.

10’d-5 Illegal representation.

10.6. Special Number Characters

Character Function Example

_ used for readability 16’h15_ab_cd_ef

x or X specify unknown bits 16’h15abx

z or Z specify high impedance value 16’hz

10.7. References
Verilog HDL Basics - Altera

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11. Operators
11.1. Arithmetic Operators
For the FPGA, division and multiplication are very expensive and sometimes you cannot synthesize division.
If you use Z or X for values the result is unknown. The operations treat the values as unsigned. If a = 5, b=10,
c=2’b01 and d = 2’b0Z .

Character Operation performed Example

+ Add b + c = 11

- Subtract b - c = 9, -b=-10

/ Divide b/a=2

* Multiply a * b = 50

% Modulus b%a=0

11.2. Bitwise Operators

Each bit is operated, result is the size of the largest operand and the smaller operand is left extended with
zeroes to the size of the bigger operand. If a = 3’b101, b=3’b110 and c=3’b01X .

Character Operation performed Example

~ Invert each bit ~a = 3’b010

& And each bit b & c = 3’b010

| Or each bit a | b = 3’b111

^ Xor each bit a ^ b = 3’b011

^~ or ~^ Xnor each bit a ^~ b = 3’b100

11.3. Reduction Operators

These operators reduces the vectors to only one bit. If there are the characters z and x the result can be a known
value. If a = 5’b10101, b = 4’b0011, c = 3’bz00 and d = 3’bx011 .

Character Operation performed Example

& And all bits &a = 1’b0, &d = 1’b0

~& Nand all bits ~&a = 1’b1

| Or all bits |a = 1’b1, |c = 1’bX

~| Nor all bits ~|a= 1’b0

^ Xor all bits ^a = 1’b1

^~ or ~^ Xnor all bits ~^a = 1’b0

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11.4. Relational Operators
These operators compare operands and results a 1 bit scalar boolean value. The case equality and inequality
operators can be used for unknown or high impedance values (z or x) and if the two operands are unknown the
result is a 1. If a = 3’b010, b = 3’b100, c = 3’b111, d = 3’b01z and e = 3’b01X .

Character Operation performed Example

> Greater than a > b = 1’b0

< Smaller than a < b = 1’b1

>= Greater than or equal a >= d = 1’bX

<= Smaller than or equal a <= e = 1’bX

== Equality a == b = 1’b0

!= Inequality a != b = 1’b1

=== Case equality e === e = 1’b1

!=== Case inequality a !== d = 1’b1

11.5. Logical Operators

These operators compare operands and results a 1 bit scalar boolean value. If a = 3’b010 and b = 3’b000.

Character Operation performed Example

! Not true !(a && b) = 1’b1

&& Both expressions true a && b = 1’b0

|| One ore both expressions true a || b = 1’b1

11.6. Shift Operators

These operators shift operands to the right or left, the size is kept constant, shifted bits are lost and the vector
is filled with zeroes. If a = 4’b1010 and b = 4’b10X0.

Character Operation performed Example

>> Shift right b >> 1 results 4’b010X

<< Shift left a << 2 results 4’b1000

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11.7. Other Operators
These are operators used for condition testing and to create vectors. If a = 4’b1010 and b = 4’b10X0.

Character Operation performed Example

?: Conditions testing test cond. ? if true do this : if not do this

{} Concatenate c = {a,b} = 8’101010x0

{{}} Replicate {3{2’b10}}= 6’b101010

11.8. Operators Precedence

The order of the table tells what operation is made first, the first ones has the highest priority. The () can be used
to override default.

Operators precedence

+, -, !, ~ (Unary)

+,- (Binary)

<<, >>

<,>,<=,>=

==, !=

&

^, ^~ or ~^

&&

||

?:

11.9. References
Verilog HDL Basics - Altera

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12. Assignments
12.1. Continuous Assignment Statements
In Verilog the statements that are outside an always or initial block are called continuous. For example in the
next code the net out changes when a or b changes:

wire out = a + b; // Implicit statement

Wich is equal to:

wire out;
assign out = a + b;

When the right-hand side (RHS) changes the left-hand side updates immediately. RHS can be a net, reg, or
functions calls and LHS must be a net.

12.2. Procedural Statements

There are two types of procedural statements, the always block and the initial block. In Verilog there may
be several always blocks and they are executed in parallel. The initial block is used for simulation, it can’t be
synthesized and it executes only once in the start a simulation.

The always block executes when its pre-defined funtions, or its inputs changes. The pre-defined functions
are posedge and negedge, and they are used with clock variables to detect when it rises to 1 or decays to 0.
Example:

initial begin // used for simulation

a = 3'b101;
b = 3'b001;
end

always@(a or b) begin //executes when a or b changes

c = a + b;
end

always@(posedge clock) begin //executes in the positive edge of clock

c = a + b;
end

12.3. Blocking vs Non-blocking Assignments

If the assignments inside an always or initial block are made with the (=) symbol they are executed sequentially.
If they are made with the (<=) they are executed in parallel. They are used to update reg, integer, real, time and
realtime values. The real, time and realtime values are used in simulation and are not synthesizable. Examples:

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12.3.1. Blocking

reg a [1:0] = 2'b01;

reg b [1:0] = 2'b10;
reg c [3:0] = 4'b0000;
reg d [3:0] = 4'b0000;

always@(posedge clock) begin //executes on clock

c = a + b; // statements in sequence
d = c + a; // after the clock rising c = 4'0011
end // and d = 4'0100;

12.3.2. Non-Blocking

reg a [1:0] = 2'b01;

reg b [1:0] = 2'b10;
reg c [3:0] = 4'b0000;
reg d [3:0] = 4'b0000;

always@(posedge clock) begin //executes on clock

c <= a + b; // statements in parallel
d <= c + a; // after the clock rising c = 4'0011
end // and d = 4'0001;

12.3. References
Verilog HDL Basics - Altera

13. Statements and Loops

Behavioral statements are declared inside an always or initial block. There are three possible statements,
if-else case and loop.

13.1. If-else Statements

It has the same format as many programming languages. It tests a condition and executes the code inside the
if block and if the condition isn’t met the code inside the else block is executed. Example of a multiplexer:

always@(a or b or sel) begin

if (sel)
out = a;
else
out = b;
end

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13.2. Case Statements
Case the variable or expression is equal some value inside the case block the statement where it is true is
executed.

reg a;
case (a)
1'b0 : statement1;
1'b1 : statement2;
1'bx : statement3;
1'bz : statement4;
endcase

There are also the forms of the case block that are casez and casex. The casez treats the values as don’t cares
and all ‘z’ is represented by ‘?’ . The casex is the same but treats ‘x’ and ‘z’ as don’t cares. The default option is
used when any other condition is met.

always @(irq) begin

{int2, int1, int0} = 3'b000;
casez (irq)
3'b1?? : int2 = 1'b1;
3'b?1? : int1 = 1'b1;
3'b??1 : int0 = 1'b1;
default: {int2, int1, int0} = 3'b000;
endcase
end

13.3. Forever and Repeat Loops

They are used for test and simulation and cannot be synthesized. The forever loop executes continuously and
don’t stop. The loop repeat executes in a finite amount of time.

13.3.1. Forever

initial
begin
forever
#25 clock = ~clock; //executes forever and at 25 periods of time clock changes state
end

13.3.2. Repeat

if(rotate == 1)
repeat(8) // if rotates = 1 rotates data 8 times
begin
tmp = data[15];
data = data << 1 + tmp;
end

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13.4. While Loop
Executes the block if the condition is true, repeats the test and executes again until the condition is not met.

always@(a or b) begin

while(count < 12) begin // count 12 times and terminate

count = count + 1;
end

end

13.5. For Loop

Executes the code a finite amount of time. If the condition is true it enters the block, after the end it repeats the
test and executes again until the condition is not met. In the example the condition is i < 16. In the beginning the
i variable is declared as zero and it increases by one at the end of every loop.

always@(a or b) begin
for (i = 0; i < 16; i = i +1) begin
a <= a + 1; // executes this code 16 times
end
end

13.6. References
Verilog HDL Basics - Altera

14. Tasks and Functions

Tasks and functions are used to reduce code repetition. If in your project you need to do something many times
it is better to use a task or a function that will reduce code writing and it will be more readable.

14.1. Task
Tasks are subroutines that can be called anytime in the module they are defined, but it is possible to define them
in a different file and include the file in the module. Some charachteristics of tasks are:

• Task can include time delays, functions can’t.

• Tasks can have any number of inputs and outputs, functions can have only one output.

• If a variable is declared within the task it is local to the task and can’t be used outside the task.

• Tasks can drive global variables if no local variables are declared.

• Tasks are called with statements and cannot be used in a expression, functions can be used in a expression.

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Task example:

module task_calling (adc_a, adc_b, adc_a_conv, adc_b_conv);

input [7:0] adc_a, adc_b;
output [7:0] adc_a_conv, adc_b_conv;

reg [7:0] adc_a_conv, adc_b_conv;

task convert;
input [7:0] adc_in;
output [7:0] out;
begin
out = (9/5) *( adc_in + 32)
end
endtask

always @ (adc_a)
begin
convert (adc_a, adc_a_conv);
end

always @ (adc_b)
begin
convert (adc_b, adc_b_conv);
end

endmodule

14.2. Functions
Functions are like tasks, with some differences. Functions cannot drive more than one output and cannot have
time delays. Some differences are:

• Functions cannot include timing delays, like posedge, negedge, simulation delay, which means that functions
implement combitional logic.

• Functions can have any number of inputs but only one output.

• The variables declared within the function are local to that function.

• The order of declaration within the function are considered and have to be the same as the caller.

• Functions can use and modify global variables, when no local variables are used.

• Functions can call other functions, but cannot call tasks. Function example:

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module function_calling(a, b, c, d, e, f);

input a, b, c, d, e ;
output f;
wire f;

function myfunction;
input a, b, c, d;
begin
myfunction = ((a+b) + (c-d));
end
endfunction

assign f = (myfunction (a,b,c,d)) ? e :0;

endmodule

14.3. References
Verilog HDL Basics - Altera, ASIC World (http://www.asic-world.com/)

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ticle accelerators got together and created the first Red Pitaya board. Red Pitaya was created with
one important mission – to transform any home office or classroom into a professional engineering
lab at a low price point.

We are proud to say that with Red Pitaya you can replace many expensive lab instruments and have
excellent price performance. In the past seven years, we have worked with more than 30,000 satis-
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