Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

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Construction and Building Materials

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Treatment of date palm fibres mesh: Influence on the rheological and

mechanical properties of fibre-cement composites
Tahar Ali-Boucetta a,⇑, Amira Ayat b, Walid Laifa c, Mourad Behim a
a
Badji Mokhtar-Annaba University, Materials Geomaterials and Environment Laboratory, P.O. Box 12, 23000 Annaba, Algeria
b
20 August 1955 University of Skikda, Civil Engineering and Hydraulic Laboratory, P.O. Box 26, 21000 El-Hadaiek, Skikda, Algeria
c
Chadli Bendjedid University, P.O. box 73, 36000 El Tarf, Algeria

h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t

Treatment of date palm fibres with

linseed oil cover reduces water
absorption and improves mortar
workability.

The best tensile properties are
obtained from fibres treated with 3%
sodium hydroxide.

Sodium hydroxide treated fibres
improve the bending strength of
mortars.

Date palm fibres treated with water
boiling and sodium hydroxide
improves the compressive strength of
mortars.

Treated date palm fibres decrease the
capillary water absorption and thus
improve mortar durability.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: An experimental study was conducted on the influence of different treatments of date palm fibres on the
Received 21 January 2020 properties of mortars in both fresh and hardened states. Three types of treatment were discussed: boiling
Received in revised form 15 September water treatment, sodium hydroxide treatment and a polymer surface treatment based on linseed oil. As a
2020
first step, tests of water absorption, setting times and direct tensile strength were performed on single
Accepted 20 September 2020
Available online 6 January 2021
fibres to assess the relevance of the predominant parameter for each treatment. Thereafter, unreinforced
mortar and mortars reinforced with raw and treated date palm fibres were made and tested using a flow
table test, as well as for porosity accessible to water, three-point bending strength, compressive strength
Keywords:
Date palm fibre
and capillary water absorption. The results for individual fibres show that treatments with a 3-hour boil-
Water boiling treatment ing of the fibres, a 3% NaOH concentration, and a 1.5% linseed oil/fibre ratio yield the lowest absorption
Alkaline treatment with NaOH kinetics, the shortest setting times, and the most interesting tensile properties. However, the results for
Linseed oil coating treatment fibrous composites indicate that the workability of mortars reinforced with linseed oil treated fibres was
Cement composite properties improved compared with raw fibres. In the hardened state, boiling and sodium hydroxide treatments
improve the flexural strength of the composites. The same trend was observed for compressive strength.
Therefore, the mortar reinforced by fibre treated with linseed oil does not improve the strength and is the
most porous. The incorporation of date palm fibres decreases the kinetics of the capillary absorption of
mortars compared to unreinforced mortar. The lowest absorption coefficients are obtained after the
treatment with linseed oil.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Ali-Boucetta).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121056
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

1. Introduction ment in the tensile strength at a concentration of 1%. The same

result was found by Shalwan and Yousif [25] on date palm fibres
With the goal of achieving carbon neutrality in 2050 [1], the for a sodium hydroxide concentration of 6%. Chafei et al. [22] also
development of alternative building materials that are more envi- studied alkaline treatment at a concentration of 6% on flax fibres.
ronmentally friendly in terms of energy saving while reducing raw The authors reported a decrease in the setting time, an improve-
material consumption, is a promising path to take to reduce green- ment in the workability of the composites and an increase in the
house emissions. The reinforcement of the cementitious matrix by bending strength, reflecting a better ductility of the material.
vegetable fibres (considered to be waste of low economic value) is The third treatment chosen is a linseed oil coating of the fibre,
a solution that is attracting the increasing interest of researchers thus improving its hydrophobia, which would reduce the phe-
[2–6]. Because of their interesting properties, their natural aspect nomenon of capillarity and the kinetics of water diffusion in the
and renewability and the low carbon footprint from their produc- lignocellulosic matrix. Several authors [14,18,26–29] have tried
tion, vegetable fibres are different from other types of fibres such this treatment on different vegetable fibres and all found a signif-
as metal, glass or polypropylene fibres. These biocomposites offer icant decrease in the water absorption capacity and a growth in the
promising opportunities to reduce the environmental problems bending strength of the composites, in varying proportions.
associated with waste disposal and the consumption of non- The aim of the present paper is to report the results of experi-
renewable raw materials. mental research on the effect of treatments of date palm fibres
Among the vegetable fibres that can be used in cement compos- on the physico-mechanical properties of both the fibres and the
ites, we can mention those from date palm trees. Algeria is a coun- fibre-cement composites. The treatments used were chosen based
try that has extraordinary resources in date palms, with an area of on their availability in Algeria, their low cost and their low envi-
169,380 ha, and a total of more than 18 million date palm trees [7], ronmental impact. An initial hydrothermal treatment with boiling
while the average life of a palm tree is estimated at about 100 years water was applied for 5 min, 1, 2 and 3 h. The second chemical
[8]. Date palm trees generate a lot of waste, which comes mainly treatment with sodium hydroxide was used for a NaOH concentra-
from annual size operations. These wastes are highly undervalued tion of 1, 3, 6, and 9%. The last treatment was a linseed oil surface
and their disposal constitutes a real long-term problem. Several treatment used for mass ratios of linseed oil/fibre of 0.25, 0.50, 1
solutions for the recovery of palm waste have been proposed, most and 1.50. The effectiveness of these treatments will be assessed
of which concern the agriculture and cattle-raising sectors [7–10]. by water absorption measures, initial and final setting times, and
Another way of recovering this waste is to introduce it into build- by tensile tests on raw and treated individual fibres. The conse-
ing materials in the form of fibres for the reinforcement of the quences of these treatments on the consistency, porosity accessible
cementitious matrix. Several researchers have exploited fibres to water, flexural and compressive strength, and water absorption
from different parts of the palm tree, such as the fibres of the palm due to capillary action of unreinforced and fibrous mortar will also
trunk [11] or the stems of the fruit of the date palm [12], but also be assessed.
the sheath fibres of date palm leaves [13] and finally the surface
fibres around the trunk or base of the palm [6].
However, introducing vegetable fibres into a cementitious 2. Experimental program
matrix involves some problems. These include their high water
absorption due to their hydrophilic character, which results in a 2.1. Materials used
decrease in the consistency of the mixture [14,15], and a variation
in fibre volume leading to a poor fibre/matrix interface [16,17]. In A CEM II/A 42.5N cement conforming to the Algerian standard
addition, these fibres contain substances on their surface, which, NA 442 [30] was used. The compressive strength determined on
when dissolved, interact with hydration products, which results 28-days standard mortar is 46 MPa. The physico-chemical charac-
in delays in the setting of the cementitious materials [15,18,19]. teristics and mineralogical composition of the clinker as deter-
The treatment of vegetable fibres can be a solution to these prob- mined by the formula of Bogue are presented in Table 1.
lems. This work therefore focuses on changes in the fresh and hard- A 0/2 mm siliceous dune sand from the region of Oum Ali
ened states properties of mortars reinforced with treated date (Department of Tébéssa, eastern Algeria) was used. The physical
palm fibres. characteristics and chemical composition of the sand used are pre-
The first treatment used in this work is to boil the date palm sented in Table 2.
fibres in water. Chafei et al. [15] treated flax fibres by boiling in In order to address the problem of mortar workability loss
water for 5 min and noted that this treatment cleans the surface caused by the addition of date palm fibres, the use of a superplas-
of the fibres of impurities and fats and reduces their pectin content. ticizer is strongly recommended. For this purpose, a superplasti-
The results of this treatment are: a reduction of the setting time, cizer based on modified polycarboxylate ether, commercially
improvement of consistency and an increase in compressive and named Polyflow SR 3600 and marketed in Algeria and complying
flexion strength. Therefore, the authors report that this treatment with European standard NF EN 934–2 [31], was used for a dosage
slightly affects the mechanical properties of individual fibres but of 1.1% relative to the mass of the cement. Table 3 summarises the
does not alter their water saturation rate. Sellami et al. [18] evalu- technical data of the superplasticizer.
ated the effect of a 4-hour boiling water treatment of Diss fibres on The vegetable fibres used in this work are date palm surface
the mechanical properties of concrete. They noted a significant fibres from the region of Annaba (eastern Algeria). Surface fibres
improvement in the bending strength of the treated fibre mix com- are naturally woven. They are formed by the overlay of three plates
pared to the raw fibre mix. of lattices. These fibres are extracted from the trunk of the palm
The second proposed treatment is a chemical treatment with tree in the form of a 300–500 mm and 200–300 mm para-
sodium hydroxide. Several researchers have studied this treatment rectangular plate. The fibre plates are then separated into individ-
on different types of vegetable fibres and all claim that it con- ual fibres in the water. Individual fibres are well washed in water
tributes to the elimination of impurities and acids, as well as the to remove impurities and dried at ambient temperature for two
partial dissolution of hemicellulose [19–23]. Alawar et al. [24] days. Thereafter, the fibres are cut to lengths of 25 mm ± 2 mm
studied the treatment of date palm fibres by sodium hydroxide and are named as raw fibres (RF) (Fig. 1). The main physico-
at different concentrations. The authors noted a 290% improve- mechanical properties and lignocellulosic composition [32] of the
date palm fibres are given in Tables 4 and 5.
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T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Table 1
Physical properties and chemical mineralogy compositions of the cement.

Physical properties
App Density Abs Density S.S.B d50 Clinker Additive
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (cm2/g) (mm) (%) (%)
CEM II 1020 3000 3480 20.4 75 20

Chemical compositions
Oxides (%) CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 SiO2 MgO SO3 K2O LOI*
CEM II 60.41 5.19 2.94 21.91 1.60 2.19 – 3.83
Bogue formulas
Elements (%) C3S C2S C3A C4AF Gypsum
58.2 18.5 9.3 8.2 5

* Loss on Ignition

Table 2
Physical characteristics and chemical compositions of the sand.

Physical characteristics Unit Results

Apparent density kg/m3 1550
Absolute density kg/m3 2660
d/D mm/mm 0/2
Fineness modulus – 2.20
Sand equivalent % 67.83
Absorption coefficients Methylene blue %% 1.34 1.00
Chemical
compositions
Oxides (%) SO3 SO4 CaCO3 Cl Organic pH
matter
0.24 0.29 1.60 0.21 1.04 8.34

Fig. 1. Raw date palm fibres cut to 25 mm ± 2 mm length.

2.2. Date palm fibre treatments

Table 4
2.2.1. Boiling water treatment Physical and mechanical properties of date palm fibres.
This treatment was carried out by boiling date palm fibres in a
Property Unit Values
cooker for varying boiling times: 5 min, 1, 2 and 3 h. At the end of
the boiling, the fibres are drained and rinsed with water to remove Diameter mm 600.1 ± 118
Absolute density g/cm3 1.103 ± 0.005
the organic substances that cause delays in taking of the cement
Natural moisture content % 15.30 ± 0.5
composites. The clean fibres are then dried at ambient temperature Water absorption after 5 min under water % 70.12 ± 3
for two days. The fibres obtained are called BF. Water absorption to saturation % 104.87 ± 3.7
Tensile strength MPa 215 ± 29
Elongation at break % 21.4 ± 7.3
Young’s modulus GPa 5.1 ± 1.6
2.2.2. Sodium hydroxide treatment
This treatment consists of immersing the date palm fibres for
2 h in a NaOH solution at different concentrations: 1, 3, 6 and 9%
by weight. This is followed by rinsing with 1% concentrated acetic 2.3. Mixture proportions
acid and distilled water until chemical neutrality of the rinse
water, verified by successive pH measurements using a pH meter. The various mortars employed in this study were formulated
Finally, the fibres are dried in the oven at 60 °C for 24 h. The fibres with a sand/cement ratio (S/C) equal to 2.8 and an effective
obtained are called SHF. water/cement ratio (Weff/C) equal to 0.5. The quantification of
the superplasticizer was determined on unreinforced mortar from
the flow table test for a slump equal to 170 mm ± 5 mm, which cor-
2.2.3. Linseed oil coating treatment responds to a plastic consistency according to EN 1015–6 [33].
The fibres are dried at 50 ± 0.1 °C for 24 h and mixed with lin- Fig. 2 shows the variation of the dosage to the superplasticizer ver-
seed oil in a planetary mixer. Several mass ratios of linseed oil/fibre sus the slump, and it was found that for a 1.1% dosage the obtained
have been tested: 0.25, 0.50, 1 and 1.50. The treated fibres are slump corresponds to the set range. The amount of date palm fibres
placed in a ventilated oven at 50 ± 0.1 °C until they are fully dried, was set at 2% in volume relative to the total batch volume, to be
after approximately seven days. The fibres obtained are called LOF. substituted for sand. While, the length of the fibres was fixed at

Table 3
Technical data of the superplasticizer.

Abs Density pH Solid content Cl ion content Na2O eq content Range of use
PF SR 3600 1.11 ± 0.01 5.5 ± 1 22 ± 1% 0.1% 2.5% 0.25 à 2.5%

3
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Table 5
Lignocellulosic compositions of raw date palm fibres [32].

Compositions Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Ash

Proportions (%) 43 ± 2 8±2 35 ± 5 1.2 ± 0.3

25 mm ± 2 mm. However, a content of 2% of date palm fibres will 2.4.3. Measurement of fibre diameter by optical microscopy imaging
not enhance the thermo-hygric properties of the material (and in Prior to the traction test, images of date palm individual fibres
particular the moisture buffering value). This content was used are taken using a Nikon Eclipse LV100ND optical microscope video
only to demonstrate whether a treatment of date palm fibres following the procedure described by Page et al. [14]. Diameters
improves the physico-mechanical properties of fibres compared are measured at six locations along the fibre, and the diameter cho-
to raw fibres and if so, what is the most effective treatment. The sen for each fibre is the average of these six measurements.
different mortar compositions are presented in Table 6.
After the mixing and the finalisation of the fresh tests, mortars 2.4.4. Tensile testing of individual fibres
were cast in two layers into prismatic moulds (40x40x160 mm), Traction tests on single date palm fibres were performed on a
where each layer was subjected to 60 hits on a vibrating table in universal machine produced by Zwick/Roell Z020. This is an elec-
accordance with EN 196–1 [34]. The test pieces were demoulded tromechanical test machine with a capacity of 20 KN in traction-
24 h after manufacturing and then stored in the open air at a tem- compression, with a 66 cm width moving across between two col-
perature between 18 and 21 °C to avoid possible fibre degradation umns. The tensile tests were carried out at a crosshead displace-
by water. ment rate of 3 mm/min and with a measurement length between
the 50 mm holding grips (Fig. 3). For each treatment type, 24 sam-
ples were tested. For information purposes, Fig. 4 shows a typical
2.4. Test procedures stress–elongation curve of a fibre during a tensile test. The slopes
of the staircases observed in this figure are probably due to the
2.4.1. Water absorption test of fibres rupture of a few cellulose microfibrils which are arranged in spiral
The absorption kinetics of individual date palm fibres was according to the longitudinal axis of the fibre.
determined using the method proposed by Magniont et al. [35].
The test consists of drying three samples of 1 g of fibre in an oven 2.4.5. Consistency of cement composites
at 60 °C to a constant mass and immersing them in water for: 5, 15, Measurements of unreinforced mortar (URM), a raw fibre refer-
30, 60 min and 24 h. At every term, the samples were removed ence mortar (RFM), boiled fibre mortar (BFM), sodium hydroxide
from the water, dried superficially with absorbent paper and their treated fibre mortar (SHFM), and linseed oil treated fibre mortar
masses were determined with an accuracy of 10-4 g. The water sat- (LOFM) are evaluated using a flow table test in accordance with
uration rates for the fibres are calculated using Eq. (1). NF EN 1015–3 [37]. The test consists of filling a cone trunk with
mortar in two layers and lifting it vertically on a flow table, which
is subjected to a series of 15 shakings at a frequency of one shaking
saturated mass  dried mass
Absorptionð%Þ ¼  100 ð1Þ per second. Two perpendicular diameters are then measured.
dried mass
2.4.6. Porosity accessible to water
The water-accessible porosity of the mortar samples was deter-
2.4.2. Initial and final setting time mined after 28 days of hardening following the procedure AFPC
The time setting for the various compositions was determined AFREM [38]. Three samples were used to determine the water-
with a Vicat apparatus in accordance with standard NF P 15–431 accessible porosity according to Eq. (2).
[36]. The initial setting time is defined as the time elapsed from
Water accessible porosity
contact of water with the cement until the needle is 4 mm ± 1 mm 
from the base plate, while the final setting time corresponds to a Mass measured in air  Mass dry at 50 C
¼ ð2Þ
0.5 mm needle driven from the surface. These tests were carried Mass measured in air  Mass measured in water
out on cement paste containing a mass percentage of 2% raw and
treated date palm fibres, with a mass water/ cement ratio equal 2.4.7. Compressive and three point bending tests
to 0.4. The mechanical properties of the composites were determined
by compressive and three-point bending tests on 4  4  16 cm
prismatic specimens according to NF EN 196–1 [34]. The compres-
sive strength was carried out with a hydraulic press produced by
BeraTest with a maximum capacity of 2000 KN. Three-point bend-
ing tests were performed on a universal mechanical machine
(Zwick/Roell Z020) with a loading rate of 50 N/s. The mechanical
tests were realised at the maturation of 7, 14, 28 and 290 days.

2.4.8. Capillary water absorption

Capillary absorption was realised on 4  4  16 cm prismatic
specimens after 28 days of hardening and dried at a temperature
of 50 °C to constant mass. The side faces of the samples were cov-
ered with a sticky aluminium film to ensure a unidirectional
upwelling and to prevent water exchange with the surrounding
Fig. 2. Determination of dosage of superplasticizer on unreinforced mortar by flow environment. The test consisted of following by successive weigh-
table test. ing the amount of water absorbed by a sample immersed in water
4
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Table 6
Mortar mixture proportions used (kg/m3).

UnReinforced Raw Fibre reinforced Boiling Fibre reinforced Sodium Hydroxide Fibre reinforced Linseed Oil Fibre reinforced
Mortar URM Mortar RFM Mortar BFM Mortar SHFM Mortar LOFM
Cement 500 500 500 500 500
Sand 0/2 1400 1349,6 1349,6 1349,6 1349,6
Water 250 250 250 250 250
Superplasticizer 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5 5.5
Date palm 0 20.9 19.4 22.2 19.2
Fibres

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Date palm fibres characterisation

3.1.1. Water absorption

The water absorption kinetics of the individual raw and treated
date palm fibres versus the square root of time is presented in
Fig. 5a-c. The general shape of the absorption curves of the raw
and treated date palm fibres is similar to that of other vegetable
fibres found in the literature [14,15,18,35]. The results show that
the fibres show two-step absorption. First, the fibres are in contact
with the water and therefore the absorption kinetics is high. After
30 min of exposure to water, the raw and treated fibres have
absorption coefficients varying between 83 and 100% for the boil-
ing treatment, between 88 and 124% for treatment with sodium
hydroxide and between 16 and 98% for the last treatment with lin-
seed oil. This high absorption capacity is due mainly to the capil-
lary action caused by the high porosity of the structure of these
fibres, as well as the presence of hydroxyl groups (–OH) and amor-
phous zones in the cellulosic structure of vegetable fibres [39–41].
Page et al. [14] report that the high absorption of vegetable fibres
may become a constraint in implementation due to competition
between the fibre and the cement matrix in relation to the mixing
water at the fresh state. Also, it leads to significant dimensional
variations of fibre within the cement matrix over the long term
Fig. 3. Loading device for the tensile test. [16,17]. For the second time, after 60 min of immersion, the
absorption kinetics slows down to the full saturation level.
Treatment in boiling water reduces the absorption of date palm
fibres for a boiling time of one hour and more compared to raw
fibres (Fig. 5-a). Indeed, the longer the boiling time continues,
the more the absorption is reduced. Several authors report that lig-
nin, which is a component of vegetable fibre, is partially depoly-
merised and solubilised during hot water treatments [42,43].
Therefore, the longer the boiling time is, the greater the dissolved
lignin content. However, complete delignification is not possible
with boiling treatment alone, due to the recondensation of soluble
lignin components [44]. Thus, Komuraiah et al. [45] state that the
decrease in lignin content reduces fibre absorption, as mentioned
also by other authors [46]. A low boiling time such as 5 min only
enables the cleaning of the fibre by partially removing the pectins
from the surface [15], which does not significantly reduce the fibre
absorption.
Alkaline treatment also reduces the water absorption from date
palm fibres at concentrations of NaOH below 9%, where the lowest
Fig. 4. Typical tensile curve of a raw single fibre.
rate of absorption was obtained at a concentration of 3% (Fig. 5-b).
Several authors have been able to reduce the absorption of their
vegetable fibres by this type of treatment [22–24,47]. This decrease
at a height of 5 mm which was kept constant throughout the test. in the absorption of date palm fibres after alkaline treatment is due
The capillary absorption coefficient was determined at every term in part to the partial elimination of hemicelluloses, which are
of 0, 15, 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h according to Eq. (3). mainly responsible for the hydrophilic character of the vegetable
fibre [47]. Therefore, Salgado-Delgado et al. [48] explain the
Capillary water absorption
decrease in water absorption of alkali-treated fibres by replacing
Mass of the sample at time X  Initial mass hydrogen from the hydroxyl group with sodium. Above a concen-
¼ ð3Þ
Section of sample tration of 3% NaOH, there is an increase in water absorption pro-

5
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Fig. 5. Water absorption kinetics of raw and treated fibres as a function of time: (a) boiled water, (b) sodium hydroxide and (c) linseed oil coating.

portional to the increase in alkaline concentration. This increase calcium silicates (C-S-H) gels, which are major products of the
can be explained, according to Sreekala et al. [49], by eliminating hydration of Portland cement. In addition, several authors link
the impurities on the surface of the fibres, thus exposing new the increase of the setting time to the free sugar content in extrac-
hydroxyl groups and making them available as reaction sites. In table, among which glucose has a high inhibitory power [51].
addition, alkaline treatment will break the hydrogen bonds Indeed, Govin et al. [52] find that these sugars have an inhibitory
between the hydroxyl groups of cellulose, resulting in an increase power that delays the setting of cement and decreases the amount
in OH concentration. This results in an increase in absorption. of hydrates formed in the hardened composite.
For the linseed oil treatment (Fig. 5-c), there is a clear decrease For water boiling treated fibres, the initial setting time varies
in the water absorption kinetics of the treated fibres, with lower from 4 h 40 min to 3 h 40 min, with a reduction in setting times pro-
absorption rates than raw fibre. This decrease is proportional to portional to the boiling time (reduction of between 15 and 33% com-
the amount of linseed oil added to the fibres during treatment. pared to the RFM). In fact, the boiling water cleans the surfaces of
For linseed oil/fibre ratios equal to 0.25 and 0.5, the treated fibres date palm fibres by partially reducing the pectins on their surfaces
have the highest water absorption values. This may be due to a lack [53]. Therefore, it is expected to find a proportional decrease in pec-
of linseed oil-based polymer to cover and waterproof the lignocel- tins as a function of the duration of treatment, which translates into
lulosic matrix. Indeed, this treatment consists in coating the fibres a reduction in the initial setting time. For chemical treatment with
to improve their hydrophobic properties, which should reduce the alkaline, the initial setting time varies from 4 h 10 min to 4 h
capillary phenomena and water diffusion kinetics in the lignocellu- 20 min (reduction of between 21 and 24% in relation to RFM), where
losic matrix [28]. the increase in NaOH concentration does not reduce the setting time.
This reduction in setting time is mainly due to the partial elimination
3.1.2. Influence on the setting time of the mixture of hemicelluloses and lignin by the alkaline treatment. Indeed, these
Fig. 6a-c present the initial and final setting times measured for components of fibre are inhibitors of cement hydration and there-
the different formulations. The incorporation of raw date palm fore delay the setting time of the cement [54]. Chafei et al. [22] report
fibres delays the setting time for the mixture from 4 h 10 min for that sodium hydroxide treatment reduces the initial setting time by
the non-fibre mixture (CM) to 5 h 30 min for the raw fibre mixture dissolving pectins and impurities on the fibre surface. The lowest
(RFM). This delayed setting time is explained by the fixation of cal- setting times are observed for linseed oil treatment, with initial set-
cium ions (Ca2+) of the cementitious matrix on the chains of pec- ting times between 2 h 55 min and 2 h 00 min (reductions of
tins present on the surface of the fibres. Indeed, Sedan et al. [50] between 47 and 64% in relation to RFM). This reduction in setting
report that this phenomenon of calcium ion fixation on vegetable times is proportional to the increase in the quantity of linseed oil.
fibres, known as the ‘‘egg box”, leads to a sharp decrease in these Indeed, it seems that the treatment of fibre with linseed oil acts as
ions in the cement paste. This results in a significant decrease in an accelerator of setting. However, the setting time obtained does
the calcium concentration essential to the formation of hydrated not seem to be binding.

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T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Fig. 6. Effect of treatment of date palm fibres on setting times: (a) boiled water, (b) sodium hydroxide and (c) linseed oil coating.

3.1.3. Tensile properties of which these chains are in a state of tension. After partial elimi-
The results for the tensile properties including the tensile nation of hemicellulose by alkaline treatment, the fibrils reorganise
strength, Young’s modulus, and the elongation coefficient of raw in a more compact way, causing a narrow settlement of the cellular
and treated date palm fibres are presented in Figs. 7–9. Fig. 7a-c chains and resulting in better tensile strength [60]. The decrease in
show a slight improvement in the tensile properties of date palm tensile properties due to the increase in NaOH concentration can
fibres boiled in hot water. This improvement is proportional to be attributed to the dissolution of soluble components in contact
the duration of the treatment, where it is found that 3 h of boiling with the sodium hydroxide, generating voids within the fibrous
improves the traction strength, Young’s modulus and elongation at structure that are associated with swelling, which degrades the
break by 8.4%, 25.5% and 54.3%, respectively. Rong et al. [55] stud- mechanical properties of the fibres [60,61]. In addition, Obi Reddy
ied the effect of heat treatment on sisal fibres for a period of 4 h. et al. [62] explain this decrease in the tensile properties by a degra-
The authors noted a significant increase in the tensile properties dation of cellulose during alkaline treatment. Kareche et al. [4]
of the treated fibres relative to raw fibres; this is due to higher fibre note a deterioration of the surface of the date palm fibres at a con-
rigidity due to improved cellulose crystallisation. Wei and Meyer centration of 10% NaOH, which reduces the tensile strength of the
[56] also evaluated the effect of thermal treatment of vegetable fibres. The decrease in Young’s modulus for NaOH concentrations
fibres and concluded that there was a significant increase in the above 3% can be explained, according to Taha et al. [47], by the
tensile strength and Young’s modulus. This improvement in the removal of impurities, which generates greater fibre elasticity that
tensile properties was linked to the improved crystallisation of cel- results in a reduction of the elasticity modulus. Moreover, accord-
lulose. However, other authors noted a decrease in the tensile ing to the same authors [47], the elimination of hemicelluloses
properties for thermal treatment of fibres. Examples include the reduces the fibre diameter, resulting in less traction force being
work of Boumaud et al. [57], who found that the treatment by boil- required and a reduced elastic modulus.
ing of fibres at 100 °C has no particular effect on the tensile The linseed oil coating treatment of date palm fibres affects the
strength, Young’s modulus and fibre elongation. This same result tensile properties very little (Fig. 9a-c). Increasing the amount of
was also observed by other authors [58,59]. linseed oil does not appear to affect the mechanical properties of
Alkaline treatment of date palm fibres improves the tensile the fibres. Nevertheless, the best results are obtained for a ratio
properties over raw fibres. The improvement of the tensile proper- of linseed oil to fibre of 1.5, with an improvement in tensile
ties is achieved at a 3% NaOH concentration (25.6%, 39.2% and strength, Young’s modulus and elongation at rupture of 2%, 7.8%
27.6%, respectively for tensile strength, Young’s modulus and elon- and 21.5% respectively.
gation at rupture). After that, a gradual decrease in the tensile
properties is observed (Fig. 8a-c). The improvement of fibre resis-
3.2. Properties of fibre-reinforced composites
tance through alkaline treatment is due to the elimination of impu-
rities and acids, as well as the partial dissolution of hemicellulose,
Based on the results obtained during the characterisation of
inducing a more resistant lignin–cellulose complex [49]. The hemi-
treated fibres, a boiled-water treatment time of 3 h, a NaOH con-
cellulose contained in raw fibres is dispersed in the interfibrillar
centration of 3% and a ratio of linseed oil to fibre equal to 1.5, for
region separating the cellular chains from each other, as a result
each type of treatment guarantees the lowest absorption kinetics,
7
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Fig. 7. Tensile properties of date palm fibres, raw and treated with boiling water: (a) tensile strength, (b) Young’s modulus and (c) % elongation.

Fig. 8. Tensile properties of date palm fibres, raw and alkali-treated: (a) tensile strength, (b) Young’s modulus and (c) % elongation.

8
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Fig. 9. Tensile properties of date palm fibres, raw and treated by linseed oil coating: (a) tensile strength, (b) Young’s modulus and (c) % elongation.

the shortest setting times and the most interesting tensile It is also noted that the boiling water treatment slightly
properties. improves the workability of the BFM mortar by 6.6% compared to
the RFM mortar, due to the partial elimination of pectins from
the fibre surface, in addition to the reduction in lignin content.
3.2.1. Effect of fibres treatments on the consistency Alkaline treatment also improves the consistency of the SHFM
Fig. 10 shows the slump at the flow table of the various mortars. mortar by 10.7% compared to the RFM mortar. This is closely
The incorporation of vegetable fibres from the date palm reduces related to the partial elimination of hemicellulose. Therefore, the
the consistency of the mortars; this is valid for both raw and trea- results of both treatments are quite similar. LOFM mortar improves
ted fibres. For the URM mortar, the slump is 169 mm. This value is the consistency by 21.5% compared to RFM mortar, thanks to the
high due to the use of a superplasticizer for mortar manufacturing. waterproofing effect of linseed oil, which reduces the fibre capillar-
The incorporation of a 2% raw date palm fibre volume reduces the ity. However, although one could have expected a significant
consistency of the RFM mortar by 28.4%. This decrease in consis- improvement of consistency with this type of treatment, given
tency is due to the hydrophilic nature of the palm fibre compo- the significant reduction in absorption kinetics presented in
nents, mainly hemicellulose. As a result, raw fibres can absorb up Fig. 5-c, this was not the case. This suggests that the mechanisms
to 70.12% water for the first five minutes after the mortar is mixed, that condition the mortar rheology are not limited to the water
reducing its consistency. absorption by individual fibres.

3.2.2. Porosity accessible to water

As can be seen in Fig. 11, which presents the open porosity mea-
surements based on the treatment applied, the incorporation of
date palm fibres greatly increases the porosity of mortars over
the URM mortar. Haba et al. [63] relate this increase to the porosity
of date palm fibres, but also to the interparticle spaces created
between fibres. In addition, the introduction of fibres results in
the formation of an additional porosity, located at the interfacial
transition zone existing around the fibres [64]. This transition zone
is formed during the mortar manufacturing process and is believed
to be due to the high water absorption coefficient of raw vegetable
fibres, which generates a migration of water from the cement paste
in the fresh state to the fibres. This leads to more porosity in this
zone in the hardened state [65].
It is interesting to note that the incorporation of treated fibres
Fig. 10. Consistency of unreinforced and reinforced mortars. reduces the porosity of mortars relative to the RFM mortar. For this
9
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

Fig. 11. Influence of fibre treatment on the porosity accessible to water of mortars.
Fig. 13. Flexural strengths of the unreinforced mortar and date palm fibres
reinforced composites after 7, 14, 28 and 290 days of curing.
reason, the porosity decreased from 19.8% for the RFM mortar to
16.8% for the BFM mortar and 17.2% for the SHFM mortar. How-
ever, with these treatments, the porosity values are not lower than The BFM mortar has higher bending resistance than the RFM
those of the URM mortar. With a linseed oil treatment, however, mortar for all hardening ages, with an improvement of 9% at
this content for the LOFM mortar decreases with the ‘‘pore mouth” 28 days. According to Chafei et al. [15], the treatment of fibres with
effect of linseed oil, which reduces the absorption of the mortar. It boiling water changes the appearance of the raw fibres, which
appears that the open porosity of fibrous composites is linked to become rough and finer, which improves their adherence to the
the water absorption capacity of the fibres. Fig. 12 shows a linear matrix and results in better resistance to flexing. The same result
relationship between the porosity accessible to water and the fibre was found by Sellami et al. [18], who report that fibre treatment
absorption coefficient measured at 24 h. This confirms the exis- with boiled water significantly improves the flexural strength of
tence of a relevant correlation between these two parameters. the composite.
The best resistance at all deadlines is obtained by the SHFM
mortar, which recorded an improvement in the 28 days flexure
resistance of 60.1%. This improvement in resistance is also related
3.2.3. Three-point bending test
to better fibre–matrix adherence. The alkaline treatment changes
The results of the three-point bending tests of the mortars are
the morphology of the date palm fibres. Lassoued et al. [66] report
presented in Fig. 13. First, there is a consistent evolution of the
that a 2% NaOH concentration for 2 h changes the surface morphol-
flexural strength of the URM mortar over the time of maturation.
ogy of date palm fibres from an irregular surface covered with a
The recorded flexion values are slightly below the values in the lit-
layer of impurities to a brighter, clean surface with no holes. This
erature for the same cement type. This is mainly due to the way in
results in better adhesion and greater resistance of the composite
which the specimens are stored in the open air, unlike water mat-
[22].
uration, which promotes the hydration of composites and
LOFM mortar has lower resistance than RFM mortar for all
improves their resistance. The flexural strength of the URM and
hardening ages. Page et al. [14] report that linseed oil can interact
RFM mortars are almost identical, so the raw date palm fibres
with cement and affect more or less significantly the hydration of
appear to have no influence on the mortar’s flexural strength. Thus,
the cement matrix. In addition, the interface between the linseed
there was a modest improvement of 8.4% over the URM mortar at
oil coated fibres and the cement matrix is likely to be of lower
28 days. This inefficiency of raw palm fibres can be explained by an
quality than with raw date palm fibres. In fact, linseed oil creates
increase in volume due to the high water absorption of the fibres,
a smooth surface of very low roughness, resulting in fibre slipping
leading to a poor fibre–matrix interface [16,17] that reduces the
within the matrix and thus reducing adhesion. Other authors [41]
adhesion of the fibres with the matrix. In addition, the dissolution
explain that linseed oil coating treatment leads to an increase in
of substances on the fibre surface delays cement hydration and C-
localised porosity at the interface level.
S-H formation [18,19], which results in a small increase in resis-
Moreover, in the case of composites reinforced with treated
tance at an early age, especially at 7 and 14 days.
date palm fibres, the flexural resistance decreased at 290 days of
maturation compared to 28 days. This decrease is estimated at
8.4%, 4% and 3.6% respectively for the boiling, alkaline and linseed
oil treatments. Several authors report a degradation of vegetable
fibres in the presence of a cementitious matrix [67,68]. They
explain this degradation by the presence of alkaline water in the
pores of the cement composite, which dissolves the lignin and
hemicellulose contained in the fibre. This weakens the links
between microfibrils. In addition, an alkaline hydrolysis of cellu-
lose molecules leads to degradation of molecular chains. The result
is a decrease in the degree of polymerisation that results in low
tensile strength of the fibres. Other authors [69] link the decrease
in bending strength of a fibrous composite to a decrease in cross-
section of the vegetable fibres due to prolonged drying that causes
water loss from the fibres. This reduction causes a loss of adhesion
between the fibres and the cementitious matrix and the appear-
Fig. 12. Porosity of mortars considering the water absorption of fibres at 24 h.
ance of a localised porosity at the fibre–matrix interface. This is

10
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

not to be ruled out in our case, as our mortar samples have been
stored in the open air, which favours the departure of water from
the fibres.
The association of vegetable fibres with a cementitious matrix is
likely to have an adverse effect on the durability of the composite.
Studies [70] have sought to improve the sustainability of these
composites, so two approaches are possible. The first is the modi-
fication of the composition of the cementitious matrix to reduce
alkaline compounds. This is done by adding pozzolanic materials
or through the carbonation process. The second possibility is to
increase the durability of these composites or to modify the fibres
by chemical or physical treatments to increase their stability in the
elementary matrix. As an example, Toledo Filho et al. [70] report an
improvement in the durability of their fibrous composites by
immersion of the fibres in a silica fume suspension before use.
The treatments discussed in this study do not appear to improve Fig. 15. Capillary water absorption of the unreinforced mortar and date palm fibers
the durability of date palm fibres in contact with the cementitious reinforced composites.
matrix.

resistance is estimated at 28 days at 22% compared to the RFM

3.2.4. Compressive test mortar. In addition, no changes in resistance over time are
The results of the compressive tests of the different mortars are observed.
presented in Fig. 14. As with flexion, there is a consistent evolution
of the compressive strength of the URM mortar depending on the 3.2.5. Capillary water absorption
age of maturation. However, the values of resistance do not reflect Fig. 15 presents the evolution of the coefficient of capillary
those in the literature, for the same reason as mentioned above. water absorption of mortars versus the square root of time after
The addition of raw date palm fibres does not significantly affect 24 h in contact with water. On the effect of vegetable fibres on
the compressive strength, given that the RFM and URM mortars the capillary water absorption from fibrous composites, there is
have almost the same resistance. Date palm fibres can influence no unanimity. Several authors find that the incorporation of veg-
the compressive strength of mortars in two different ways: i) by etable fibres increases the capillary absorption, while other studies
reducing the compressive resistance, which has been reported by mention a favourable effect of natural fibres resulting in a decrease
several authors who explain this behaviour by the presence of air in capillary absorption, as noted in Fig. 15. The incorporation of
inclusions and voids between the fibre-matrix interface, which date palm fibres reduces the absorption coefficient of mortars. All
leads to a lower resistance of the fibrous mortar relative to the the fibre reinforced mortars have lower coefficients than the URM
unreinforced mortar [3–5]; or ii) by increasing the compressive mortar. Machaka et al. [71] examined the effect of palm fibres on
resistance, as is the case with Fig. 14. Boiling water treatment concrete properties for different fibre levels. The authors reported
and alkaline treatment improve the compressive strength of the a 32% decrease in capillary absorption for a 1.5% palm fibre dosage.
RFM mortar, even for the long 290-day maturation. This improve- Kesikidou and Stefanidou [72] reported that no significant changes
ment is estimated at 28 days at 11% and 19.9%, respectively. of capillary absorption were observed after the addition of natural
Sellami et al. [18] also found an improvement in the compres- fibres and explained this as due to the good fibre adhesion and the
sive strength of fibrous composites after boiling treatment. Kar- absence of capillary voids around the fibres.
eche et al. [4] report an increase in compressive strength after The boiled water treatment has no significant influence on cap-
alkaline treatment and explain this by the modification of the sur- illary absorption, since both the RFM and BFM mortars have the
face of the date palm fibres, which results in remodelling and same capillary absorption coefficients. However, alkaline treat-
improving the interface between the fibres and the matrix. How- ment slightly reduces the capillary absorption of SHFM mortar
ever, for the LOFM mortar, the linseed oil treatment does not from 8.9% at 24 h compared to RFM mortar. The best result is
improve the mechanical strength of the composite. The recorded obtained by linseed oil treatment. Because of its waterproof nature,
values are lower than that of the RFM mortar. This decrease in linseed oil treatment reduced the capillary absorption of LOFM
mortar from 69.8% at 24 h compared to the RFM mortar.
These results are interesting since the treated date palm fibres
reduce the capillary absorption of cementitious materials, which
is positively reflected in the durability of the material. Capillary
transfers in material are an important indicator of the durability.

4. Conclusions

Based on the results of this study, we can conclude that:

Treatment by boiling water reduces the absorption of date palm

fibres for boiling times of 1 h or more, while alkaline treatment
with sodium hydroxide reduces the water absorption for an
optimal NaOH concentration of 3%. However, the lowest water
absorption from fibres is obtained by linseed oil coating treat-
ment. This results in an improvement in the consistency of
Fig. 14. Compressive strengths of the unreinforced mortar and date palm fibres
the LOFM mortar compared to the raw fibre mortar.
reinforced composites after 7, 14, 28 and 290 days of curing.

11
T. Ali-Boucetta, A. Ayat, W. Laifa et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121056

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