CHAPTER 1

THE EMPIRICAL BEGINNINGS

AND BASIC CONTENTS

OF EDUCATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

Man is good. He strives to attain goodness.

If he is vile, it is because the path of goodness has been
closed to him.

-Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi

Introduction

Educational Psychology as a field of study has quite

literally struggled throughout its history with an identity problem.
Existing by definition somewhere between psychology and
education, the dis-
cipline has experienced the crosscurrents and whirpools often
created when two great oceans meet. Many educational-
psychological problems ofdevelopment that are still ofcurrent
interest were discussed in ancient times.

Historical Background

The empirical beginnings ofeducational psychology were

set forth by Aristotle in his foundation ofthe laws ofassociation:
similarity, contrast, and contiguity, supplemented by frequency.
Both Socrates and Plato showed great interest in education, but
from the point of view of developmental; psychology,
Quintilianus, a Roman Rhetorician, is particularly interesting. His
views on the bad effects ofcorporal punishment and on the value
of comradeship in school like, in
 contrast to the private instruction that was then the rule in Rome,
are relevant today. Like many ancient writers, Quintilianus was
rediscovered at the beginning ofmodern times. His views
stimulated educational thoughts, which had been rather neglected
during the middle ages.
Erasmus and Rottcrdam agreed on Quintilanus' views on
in corporal education.punishment. also but stressed denied the
categorically part played its by moral interest significancein
playing. Who
During the 17th c. Comenius, one ofthe most prominent
figurcs in the history of education, stressed the necessity of taking
the individuality of the child in consideration. Locke, towards the
end of the same century expressed the view that the child has
natural inclinations and interest, but that should be curbed on
account of the sinful nature of man. Such views dominated the
debate well into the 18th century.
Jean Jacques Rosseau, with his gospel of the natural
good. ness ofman, opposed the view that man is vile. His
educational novel, Emile, published in 1762, was the topic of
lively discussions and an important factor in modern child
psychology. He stressed that, "the
education of the child was naturally a central theme," Adults
should not force their opinions and behavior on children. The
child's own

gifts and interest should be the guiding principles, and

consideration should be paid on the wishes and impulses ofthe
child.

Pestalozzi, whose theories ofeducation have enormous

influence on the 19th century thought, wrote on similar
account. The following quotation from one of his main works
shows how much he influenced by Rosseau: "Man is good and
strives to attain goodness, and if he is vile, it is because the path
of goodness has been closed to
 The beginnings ofeducational psychology as an
experimental science, however, are to be found in the writings and
research of psychologists around the turn of the century.
Herman Ebbinghaus published the results of his

experiments on memory in 1885. He hoped to lay the basic for

scientific study of learning by memorizing long lists ofnonsense
syllables and then measuring his retention capacity. His pioneering
research on learning earned him the title "Father ofLearning
Psycholoue" His works led
 to draw two titajor conclusions:

1. Once something is learned. it is not forgotten at an even

rate. Most of what is forgotten is lost very quickly, and
the rest is lost at a slow and fairly stable rate.
2. In order to learn new material, it is more efficient to
space practice than to mass it.

James McKccn Catcll was the first to use the now familiar
"mental test." He administered tests in Columbia College
freshincluding tests ofafter-images, color vision, perception ofpitch
sensitivity to pain, color preferences, perception of time, accuracy
of movement, imagery and memory. His works on letter and work
recognition, legibility of letters and print types, and stimulus
intensity the groundwork for most basic reading research fo the
next years. to understand Alfred Binct defined intelligence as
the ability and to judge well. He developed his first test battery in
1895 used the term "mental age to" describe his scoring technique,
and early system is an example of norm-reference scoring
Edward Lee Thorndike conducted the first experiments in
learning (with chicken) and puzzle box learning (with
kittens)
hilli1898, and was appointed professor of educational psychology
at College, Columbia University, in 1901. He published a
paentitled, "animal intelligence" and thereby was catapulted
to the

of the emerging field of learning psychology For most of

term men,
first half of the 20th century, he was truly "Mr. Educational
Psy-
in the United States.
formed 30
G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer modern psychology in America,
new methods of obtaining information about children.
He

the systematic use of questionnaire, now so widely

employed. of his important contributions was in the
psychology of

a branch of psychology for which his great work of ado-

 well,
and this

maze in
Teachers per
forefront the
chology"

introduced
began
One
adolescene,
lescence

gence
the
 (Goddere, Terman, and Gessel), and because he was the first to
translate the Biner Intelligence Tests into English.
Jean Piaget was a Swiss Psychologist who made a direct,
careful, and systematic observation ofchildrens began to form a
view that will revolutionize our understanding of intellectual
growth. He formulated the most important and influential theory
ofcognitive development. When children ask "why" it is because
they each thing has a specific purpose. He conclude that reality
does not reach the individual from the outside world but from
within, from his own logic, with his dependent on the structure
ofhis mind. The mind, then, is not a passive "tabula rasa" as the
17th century English philosopher John Locke supposed, but
operates on its environment. The child image of reality is not a
passive copy but an active reconstruction of the world.
Arnold Gessel, was one of the first to advocate that
growth and development occur in an unvarying sequence. He
made the mistake though of overgeneralizing from studying
only a few children and he presentel an overly detailed "map"
of development. However, in order to understand cognitive
development, one must under-
stand more about the process of growth.

Other educational psychologists follow:

James Sully published his Outlines ofPsycholou with
Special References to the Theory ofEducation in 1884: William
James (1892-1910) his Talks to Teachers on Psycholou and to
students on Life's Ideal in 1899; Edouard Claparede, his
Experimental Pedagov and the Psycholou ofthe Child in 1905;
Thorndike First Educational Psycholou in 1903, which he
expanded the three volumes in 1913.
During the deade from 1910 to 1920, at least five
textbooks on educational psychology appeared and during the
1920s at least ten more. Heinrich E. Buchholz founded the
Journal on Educational Psychgolou in 1910. Binet's final scale
appeared in 1911. Lewis M. Terman's first American revision in
1916, and the first group tests, the Army Alpha and Beta, for
testing recruits in World War I, 1917. Those parts ofpsychology
which have been most explored for their valuesin education have
become the basic content of educa-

tional psychology.

Educational Psychology in the I'llilippines

In 1910, Educational Psychology Was first offered by the
College of Liberal Arts of the University Of the Philippines under the
Department of Philosophy and Psychology. Thus, Educational
Psychology can be best seen in the context of the discipline of
psychology as a whole.
Considered as the springboard to all education courses,
Educational Psychology is required in all educational curricula, both
undergraduate and graduate. It is also required in the present
Bachelor of Science in Nursing curriculum. Undergraduate programs
in psychology offer it as a required subject or as an elective.
Educational Psychology is useful in the development of
curriculum policy making, determination of method of teaching,
determination of course content, measurement and evaluation,
management of educational system, evidence purposes,
enhancement of community-school relationship, guidelines for
classroom management, production-selection of materials
appropriate for a grade level or curriculum and improvement of
human relations in school.
As an academic discipline, Educational Psychology has
followed the trend of psychology as a whole. When the Thomasians
arrived in the Philippines, teaching and learning in schools were
carried on with foreign concepts as guidelines. The method of
 teaching,

school administration, disciplinary methods, and educational

innovations were literally copied from abroad. The trend has not
abated in the decades that followed as returning scholars and
educational consultants transplanted into the Philippine educational
sy tem what they learned in foreign countries.
In 1923, the first English book on psychological testing in the
Philippines was printed. Isidro Panlasigui who succeeded Agustin
Alonzo to become the second chairman of the UP Department of
Psychology had a doctoral degree in Educational Psychology.

Sinforoso Padilla followed Panlasigui to the chairmanship of the

UP
Department ofPsychology and established the first psychological clinic,
the purpose of which was to provide vocational guidance and educa-
 tional testing. particularly IQ testing, to UP students.
Lupdag illustrates the sources of educational
psychology in the Philippine setting. These are ( 1) western
tradition, since the theories and principles of learning and of
behavior that were developed in the west svhen relevance to
learning and teaching are concerned; (2) indigenious
Philippine psychology, attributed to the theory advanced by
Enriquez on the bases of early or traditional psychology, such
as child-rearing practices and the so-called traditional values
(pakikipagkapwa); man and his thoughts (diwa); psychology of
awakening (pagbabagong-sip); psychology of human behavior
and abilities; social issues and problems and native language;
(3) current researches leading to the mainstream of educational
psychology.

BASIC CONTENTS

Growth and Development of the Learner

When historians divide history into periods of dates
they do so for practical reasonse _Sometimes the dates may
be exact, but frequently they give only a very approximate
estimate. It is equally difficult to divide human development
into different stages, but divisions are necessary for
practical purposes, Classification calls for a degree of
uniformity and we find that some valuable criteria cannot be
taken into account. The following classifications are
convenient but in some respects arbitrary.

THE BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGES OF

DEVELOPMENT
I e The prenatal period. This period is from conception to
birth, During this period all parts ofthe human body such
as the internal organs, skeletal bones, flesh, etc., are
formed, The inherited characteristics from the parents are
also imparted to the child during this period,

2. The period of infancy or babyhood. This period is from

birth to two years. Basic physical and physiological
behavior patterns
 begin to develop such as rolling, crawling, sitting, standing,
walking, talking, laughing, taking solid food, controlling
elimination of waste, learning sex differences, relating
emotionally with parents, kin and others. The baby begins to
learn the rudiment of right and wrong. This is also the oral stage
when the child enjoys sucking his fingers and toes and usually
puts into his mouth anything he happens to take hold of.

3. Early childhood. This is from two to six years. This is the

preschool age although some parents are already taking their
children to kindergarten. This is exploratory and inquisitive
period. The child wants to explore and ask to many questions. The
child enjoys playing with his sex organ. He continues to learn
what is right and wrong.

4. Late childhood. This is from six or seven to eleven or twelve

years. This is the elementary school period. The child learns some
annual skills taught at home and in school. He learns things taught
in school such as reading, writing, arithmetic and language and
social studies. He also begins to be interested in the opposite sex.

5. Puberty stage. This period starts at about twelve or thirteen to

fourteen to fifteen years, The stage when the urge of sex begins to
assert itself very rapidly, Physical and physiological changes in
both sexes take place very fast.

6. Early adolescence. This is the period from puberty to

seventeen years. This is the late high school period. Rapid sex
maturation occurs. Voice, feelings, and thinking continue
changing,

7. Late adolescence, This is from eighteen to twenty one years.

The process ofdeyelopnpent continues. The youth college ape
now pyeparipg fcy thei! ?89Cessiopql or yoga!iona! gaqeeps
and those aye enteging finding in pyeparation for an
iodgpendent lice. and socials, skills f9nt!gues.
8. Early adulthood. This is from twenty-one to forty years. New
life adjustments occur such as courtship and marriage,
parenthood, employment, recreational, hobby, religious
affiliation. Higher studies may be pursued, This is the start of
productive years.

9. Middle age, This period is from forty to sixty five years. This
is also the time for the preparation for retirement. Some
physical and physiological functionings begin to deteriorate.

10.Old age. This period starts at sixty five. This is the period of
retirement. The physical, physiological and mental
functionings continue to decline.

The most notable growth studies have been carried on at

Yale by Arnold Lee Gessel, who studied development and
adhered to this division strictly. These four aspects are:

l . Motor Behavior, which refers to posture, ability to

group, movement, general coordination ofthe different
parts of the body and more specific motor
coordinations.
2. Adaptive Behavior, which refers to the actions that
reflect the ability to begin new activities and take
advantage of earlier experience. It is closely related to
intelligence.
3. Language Behavior, which implies all the ways of
communicating with other people.
4. Personal-Social Behavior, which includes the child's
reaction to other people and to the cultural influences,
adjustments to home life, to "mine and thine." to social
groups, and social conventions.

Darwin made a direct contribution to child psychology by

the publication in 1899 of a biographical sketch ofan infant. It
was old manuscript begun in early 1840 when his first son was a
few days old. He believed, even at this early period, that the most
 complex and fine shades of expression must afi have a gradual
and natural origin.

It has long been recognized that instruction should be

adapted
but for which
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or
Colonial and of
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switchest,
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this and fatniliar
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Adult

The four trated

in the Table

Learning
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hood,
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 Moreover, the learner must learn how to think and to solve
nus. from the psychological point problems.
of view. education does
merely transmit the cultural heritage;more it than helps people learn to
adequate responses in a wide variety of correct
are situations, whether these
in the natuæ of motor skills, words, andresponses sentences, or unspoken
and ideas. thoughts
On the assumption that teaching will
be more effective if the teacher
knows something about the processes involved in learning, educational
psychologists have studied the research learning
of and conducted much of
their own.

Theories of Learning
1, Thorndike's Connectionism.

Acknowledged by many as the "Founderof Learning

United States,Theory"
Edward in
Leethe
Thorndike viewed the mind as a
system, which merely associatesconnection
ideas. the intellect, the greater the
According to him, the greater
number of of making. He offered the
connections the mind is capable
"law ofexercise the two fundamental
laws of learning. "belongingness" to " and the "law
describe. the connections ofeffect" as Thorndike used the
that are readily made becauseterm meaningful associations,
those they seem tb belong
Learning is facilitated when the
data are the "spread ofeffect,together.
" meaningful. He also
the readiness to facilitated learn areas adjacent
to ones with
which connections have been made.
Spread ofeffects determines training in one subject aids
whether learning another. For in training in the Greek classics
example, will help such transfer will only take
to produce better activity can even interfere with
engineer?
Apparently, place if areas "),
are and newly learned material
related. Learning one learning already learned ( "retroactive
another ( "preactive inhibition canare aspects ofthe interference
even prove descriptive to somethingmerely to the passage of time
inhibition "). These two types
set forth the conditions
under postulated the three major
laws: readiness means that
individuals rapidly if they are
ready if they
 ofinhibition theory of forgetting. Forgetting is not due but to
intervening activity.
Thorndike developed these laws that which learning best takes
place. He
Readiness. The law of more effectively and

have matured to that point and if there is a felt need. Learning will
be satisfying if tnaterials are presented when an individual meets
these standard. This law also works in reverse. It will be annoying
and dissatisfying to do something when the individual is not ready.
The closer an individual is to reaching the point of readiness the
more satisfying the act will be. Thorndike was speaking here of
neurological readiness and not maturational readiness. He was
referring to a more momentary phenomenon, a kind of neurologically
teachable moment.
O Law of Exercise. This law is similar to the law of use and
disuse. As a result of continual practice, strength is gained, but as a
result ofdisuse, weakness ensues. Thorndike made it clear that
practice led to improvement only when it was followed by positive
feedback or reward. Blind practice, with no knowledge of the
consequences of the act, had no effect on learning.
O Law of Effect. This was by far Thorndike's most important
law. The law of effect maintains that an individual will be more likely
to repeat satisfying experiences than those that are annoying. If
experiences are annoying, the learner will shift to other, satisfying
responses.

Pavlov's Classical Conditioning.

In the early 1900s the Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov conducted
a series of experiments with dogs that demonstrate the principle ofthe
conditioned response. It is the pairing of the conditioned stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus over long numbers of trials until the
conditioned response. In Pavlov's basic experiment, a dog was
vonditioned to salivate to the sound of a tone. The tone was presented
(conditioned stimulus), until the dog began salivating just to hear the
tone. Salivating at the sight of food termed as reflex or unconditioned
responses, while salivating at the sound of the tone is the result of
learning—and is termed a conditioned responses.
Pavlov's discovery, known as "classical conditioning, " left
such impression on subsequent psychology that conditioning
virtually became synonymous for learning. He also found that some
learned responses could spread to related areas C'generalization"),
and other learned
responses could be so finely distinguished that they are readily
discernible ("discriminations"). Because of generalization, acquiring a
fear of a furry rat could generalize to other furry animals. Acquiring
expertise is
 Moreover, the learner must learn how to think and to
solve problems. Thus, from the psychological point ofview,
education does more than merely transmit the cultural heritage;
it helps people learn to correct adequate responses in a wide
variety of situations, whether these responses are in the
nature of motor skills, words, and Sen.
tences, or unspoken thoughts and ideas.
On the assumption that teaching will be more
effective if the teacher knows something about the
processes involved in learning, educational psychologist have
studied the research of learning and conducted much of
their own.

Theories of Learning
1. Thorndike's Connectionism.
Acknowledged by many as the

"Founder of Learning
Theory"in the United States, Edward Lee Thorndike viewed
the mind as a connection system, which merely associates
ideas.
According to him, the greater the intellect, the
greater the num ber of connections the mind is
capable of making. He offered the "law
ofexercise " and the "law ofeffect"as the two fundamental
laws of learning. Thorndike used the term the
"belongingness"
describe the meaningful associations, those connections
that are
readily made because they seem to belong together.
Learning is
facilitated when the data are meaningful. He also
facilitated "spread of effects," the readiness to
learn areas adjacent to ones
 with which connections have been made.
Spread ofeffects determines whether training is one
subject aids in learning another. For example, will training in the
Greek classics help to produce better engineer? Apparently, such
transfer will only take place if areas are related. Learning one
activity can even interfere with learning another ("proactive inhi
bition "), and newly learned material can even prove
descriptive
 to sonwthing already learned ("retroactive inhibition"). These
two types of inhibitions are aspects of the interference theory Of
forgetting. Forgetting is not due merely to the passage of time
but to intervening activity
Thorndike developed these laws that set fortil the conditions
under which learning best takes Place. He postulated the three
Inajor laws:
Law of Readiness. The law of readiness means that individual
will learn more effectively and rapidly ifthey are ready - if they
have matured to that point and if there is a felt need. Learning will
be satisfying if material are presented when an individual meets
these standard. This law also works in reverse. It will be annoying
and dissatisfying to do something when the individual is not ready.
The closer an individual is to reaching the point of readiness the
more satisfying the act will be. Thorndike was speaking here
neurological readiness and not maturational readiness. He was
referring to a more momentary phenomenon, a kind of
neurologically teachable moment.
Law of Exercise. This law is similar to the law of use and
disuse. As a result ofcontinual practice, strength is gained, but as• a
result of disuse, weakness ensues. Thorndike made it clear that
practice led to improvement only when it was followed by positive
feedback or reward. Blind practice, with no knowledge of the
consequences of the act, had no effect on learning.
Law of Effect. This was by far Thorndike's most important
law. The law of effect maintains that an individual will be
more likely to repeat satisfying experiences than those that are
annoying. If experiences are annoying, the learner will shift to
other, satisfying responses.

2. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning.

In the early 1900s the Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov

conducted a series of experiments with dogs that demonstrate
the principle of the conditioned response. It is the pairing of the
conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus over long
numbers of trials until the conditioned response. In Pavlov's
basic
 experiment, a dog was conditioned to salivate to the sound
of a tone. The tone was presented (conditioned
stimulus), until the dog began salivating just to hear the tone.
Salivating at the sight of food termed as reflex or unconditioned
responses, while salivating at the sound of the tone is the result of
learning and is termed a conditioned responses.
Pavlov's discovery, known as "classical conditioning," left
such impression on subsequent psychology that conditioning
virtually became synonymous for learning. He also found that
some learned responses could spread to related areas
("generalization"), and other learned responses could be so
finely distinguished that they are readily discernible
("discriminations"), Because of generalization, acquiring a fear
of furry rat could generalize to Other furry animals. Acquiring
expertise is a consequence of discrimination learning, Ballistic
experts, for example can discriminate so finely that they can tell
with gun fire which bullet. The discovery of the orienting reflex,
or "what-is-it reaction," which dogs have they prick up with
their ears at a curious sound of sight, is a Pav-

lovian contribution, The concentration of human beings when they hear

s strange sound in the middle of the night is a compa-

rable response.

3. Skinner's Operant Behaviorism

Burrhus Frederick Skinner, the leading figure in "Behavioral

Psychology, '?' noted types Of conditioning;
operant .respondent. Operant \earnipg tom oxganism'y opera!
ing on its environment. Whateyer does that proyes msg-
umpptar in obtaining its objective is by the obtaining
objective, A pigeon, (or example, is ploced in the during its
endeavop to find good, happens deprpss a leyerm pallet of
food Calls into, the dish. Gvadua!ly thg get food by pressing
down leye!' and ipsVumepta! conditipping has been
established.
Skinner believes that education should maximize
Knowledge. This is done through through up a students
repertoire of responses. insists that stut
dents Can answer questions in a given area, and speaks and
write fluently about the area, then by definition, they
understand the area, A verbal repertoire is not a sign language
—it is the knowledge. Good teaching, therefore, is the ability
to arrange the proper sequence of reinforcements to make sure
that- these reinforcements are contingent upon students
emitting the appropriate responses.
Skinner also suggest that teachers should use techniques
that produce meaningful behavioral changes. Though teachers
may sometimes use primary reinforces such as candy,
condition reinforces such as good grades,nromötion and
prizes. He favored the use of teaching materials,' programmed
instruction, and behavior therapy, for it can provide immediate
reinforcement and
help bridge the gap between the students behavior and the more
instant conditioned reinforcers such as promotion or grades. Skin-
ner is against the use ofpunishment in the classroom, not
because it will not control behavior but it may produce a host
of negative emotional reactions.
According to Skinner, teachers cannot always wait for
behavior to manifest itself; therefore they must sometimes
shape the behavior of the individuaL By means of innovations
such as videotape replay, for example, students see themselves
in action and

discover their deficiences. Such devices prove beneficial in

reinforcing learning in large classes, in which the teacher is
unable to cope with all the individual problems that arise.
To generalize the laws of classical conditioning to the whole
 range of human behavior is to carelessly overwork a fairly restricted
formula. 'A Skinner pointed out, a human being is far more than a
mere jack-in-a-box with a list of tricks to be elicited by pressing the
correct buttom. The bulk of an individual's response repertoire lakes
another form.

Hull's Drive-Reduction Theory

Clark L. Hull behavior theory means learning as
response reinforcements occurring as a resulg ofdrive
reduction. Subjects learn the specific response that
occurs when a drive or need—for

foods for example, is reduced. The response then becomes

a habit. For Hull, habit, which strengthens with each added
reinforcement or stimulus responses unit, is the
fundamental law Of learning. Without either drives or
habits, the subject will not perform, for without habit
strengths there is no knowledge of how to act and without
drive there is not motivation to act. Since neither these
psychodynarnic factors could be directly observed, Hull,
called them "'mental constructs" or intervening variables. "
Hull envhasizes that learning occurs when the individual
adapts to the environment and that such adaptation is
necessary for surviva]. When the needs arise, the
 individual's survival threatened and the individual must act
in a certain manner to reduce the need. The responses that
the individual makes that lead to the reduction of the need
are reinforced, resulting in habits or learning.
According to Hull's theory, a stimuls causes a responses that
results in a need. The need evokes a response on the part of the
individual, which reduce the need. The response that resulted in
the reduction ofthe need is then reinforced, which developes
habits or learning.
The major implications of Hull's theory to education is his
finding that practice periods, which are extremely long and
lacking in reinforcement.

5. E.C. Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

E.C. Tolman, creator of "Purposive Behaviorism" a bridge
between rigid behaviorism and doctrinaire gestaltism, offered a
cognitivist thoery of learning: the mental processes at work in
the learning experience are more than mere stimulus-response
connections. The fundamental law of learning is the acquisition
of "sign-gestals," that is, of cognitive representations
intervening
It was called purposive
behaviorism because Tolman insisted that far from being
random and chaotic, leaming is goal directed. The learning
organism is a striving organism, striving to give meaning to
behavior. Yet Tolman's theory was also behavioristics
because he believed that scienctific validity could be
achieved only
 by observing objective behavior,
Tolman Was more responsive to the work of the
developmental psychologists than Were the most of the other
behaviorists. He postulated his famous Il-A-T-E variables
(Heridity, Age, Training, Endocrine) as of crucial importance
in understanding and predicting behavior.
Tolman's system is called an "S-S (sign-significance)
theory" rather than "S-R (stimulus-response) " psychology.
These cognitive processes, or sign-gestalts, consist of"cognitive
maps" (mental

layout of terrain). -aolman proved this theory by place-

learning experiments, in which his rats headed for the same
place regardless of the route they were trained to take.

Mental Health
Mental health may be defined as the ability to adapt oneself
satis-

factorily to the changes and problems met within life. By mental

hygiene, it means measure taken to maintain and foster good
mental health.
After the home, the school is the most important institution
from the point of view of mental hygiene.

Significant Factors of Mental Health in Psychology

1. Problems of social adjustments were introduced into

psychology primarily because ofthe influence of Freudian
psychoanalysis.
2. Realization that disturbed children need help before they
can be expected to do practice to their regular school work.
3. Belief that the school should not only provide an
environ-
 trated, maladjustntents are likely to occur.
- may take form of excessive daydreamin&
Escape withdrawal from school work or group tivitics
and tardiness and truancy.

ment that- aggressive

Aggression promotes is thefamiliar
mentalbehaviors
health oftoits children, but
also teach appropriate
everyone becausesocial responses
and of its is Overt as part of its
curricularlikely ture, be punished; this usually
responsibility.
increases the resentment and
Symptoms
aggravates thg ofproblems.
Maladjustment

LedAllbyindividuals haveJohn
Neil Miller and certain needs,
Donald, andofwhen
a group Yale they
Psy- are frus-
chologists in the late 1930s introduced the now famous
frustrationaggression hypothesis. According to them "The occurence of
aggression always presupposes frustration." In many instances, this
hypothesis is obviously valid. We have seen people very angry,
sometimes to the point of irrationality, over having a goal blocked.
Nevertheless, frustration-aggression hypothesis does have

some major drawbacks as an explanatory model. Some people react

to frustration no with overt aggression but merely sitting quietly and

seething inwardly. Another person may respond to goal blockage

by

regressing, that is, acting in a less mature fashion. Also, there are
countless examples of aggressive behaviors that are not triggered
by

frustration. Being annoyed or attacked by another person often re-

sults in aggression aimed at the source of the annoyance. For

ex-
ample, a student who was about to sit when without
provocation the other student pulled his chair and found
himself lying on the floor. Later he is punching the "playful
chair-puller."
Like the intelligence debate, the question of whether
aggression is primarily innate or learned has also stirred
controversy among psychologists. The nature theories see
humans as instinctively violent, destined by their genes to be
aggressive. The social psychologists, on the other hand, pointed
aggression on TV/mass media as it viewed or encouraged
violent acts being imitated by children as a avid television
viewers,
 justments made.
2, Provide counseling to change the pupil's perceptions.
3. Breakdown undesirable habits and substitute more
satisfactory methods of response,
4. Provide deep therapy, cases through psychological or
psychiatric clinic.

Techniques for Controlling Aggression

Create a non-permissive atmosphere
Limit aggressive models
Help children learn to evaluate frustrating situations
Use inductive discipline
Teach and reinforce behavior incompatible with aggression
Use nonhurtful ways of dealing with aggressive children
Stop persistent aggression by intervening and attending to
the victim
Be attentive in routine play situations
Work with parents

Group Process

Recently a combined discipline, social pychology, has

dealt with the individual in the group, and largely under the
influence of the late Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), the youngest of the
Berlin Gestalt psychologists, with the nature of the small groups.
This work has been of great interest to the educational
psychologist, who have long recognized that emphasis on the
individual tended to result in neglect of the socio-psychological
factors as found in classrooms and other school groups, such as
student councils, homerooms, clubs and other school activities.
 Styles of Leadership

Most of you have been members of many different groups

scout troops, athletic teams, school clubs and the like. You have
thus been exposed to various styles of leadership, and you may
have no-
 ticed that the eflicicney of the group's performance and the
satisfac. tion of the group members were due in large measure to
the style of the group's leadership. You may recall a coach who
was so lenient that the temn failed to perform to expectations. Or
perhaps you re. metnber a scout leader who was so rigid and
domineering that most of the members quit and the group had to
fold.

Many years ago Kurt Lewin, who had once been a StudRnt
of Max Wertheimer, conducted an experiment to assess the ways in
which

groups respond to different kinds of leadership. The study was about

the effects ofauthoritarian leader and democratic leader. The results

ofthe study indicated the completely different atmospheres were gen.
erated in the two groups. The democratic members were more satis
fied, less hostile, and better able to carry on group activities when the
leader was not present. Though the authoritarian group did have higher
rate ofproduction, the work of the democratic group was ofa higher
quality.

Styles of Leadership and Its Effects in the Learning Process

Style Effect

Authoritarian produces more agrresive behavior and Direction

less cooperative behavior.

(domineering, strict, prone to dissension but an atmosphere

stern, discipline and ofdiscipline is conducive to success.
aggression but well
-organized)

produces more satisfied, more

cooperaPermissiveLeadership tive, less hostile and better able to
carry
(democratic, flexible, on group activities when leader was not and
creative in present. approach)

Laissez-Faire leads to slackness and lack of initiative (absence

of control) teaching is inadequate for a student who (passive)
oftentimes is unsure of what to do.
 Classroom Lcndcrship

Although the teacher is handed the main leadership role in

the classroom, other leaders are also present. The broad base of
influence from which the teacher operates in large measure shapes
the social climate in the classroom. The degree to which the leader
is authoritarian or submissive or coercive or democratic sets the
tone

for norm formation in the classroom. It is also explains why a given

teacher may be successful leader with one group of students and not
so successful with a different group.
Thus, effective leadership depends on flexible behavior, the
ability to know what behaviors are needed at a particular time in
order for the group to function most efficiently, the ability to
behave as required or to get other members of the group to do so.
The effective

leader must learn to spot what the group needs in a given situation
and then be flexible enough to provide diverse types of behavior
that are required under different conditions.

The Group Process and the Contributors

Group Process Contributor

Group Dynamic Kurt Lewin the study of

interrelationships among members in different kinds
of small groups.

Role Playing Jacob L, Moreno aims at therapeutic treatment of

individual maladjustment (Psychodrama).
aims

The principles emerging from research in group dynamics,

carried on in an educational setting, are applicable to adult as well
as to juvenile groups. Group processes are taught and practiced in
student organizations and in what is referred to as teacher - pupil
planning of lessons, field trips, and other projects.
Individual Differences
 Teachers must be aware of the differences among the
students. Some factors influencing differences among learners
are: age, sexy family and community background.
Of course it is the case that some people need more
stimulation than others. We all know individuals, for example, who
seem to need constant social stimulation; who cannot eat meals
without reading or watching television; who cannot read without
listening to music; who cannot listen to lectures without doodling.
In various ways, these people are telling us that their sensory needs
are relatively high.

Age Differences and Personal Adjustment

What the schools expect of their new students does not of
course depend merely upon the chronological age entry. Clearly
a child cannot learn to write if his motor control is not
sufficiently advanced to enable him to hold and guide a pen. In
countries where there is a compulsory education for all, an age
has to be set by law at which children meet their school lives.
Seven is the norrnal school commencement age in several
countries. Since there is no reason to suppose that the children in
all these countries develop at different rates, it will be more
obvious that the child's level of maturity is not the only
consideration that. the respective activities were obliged to have
in mind drafting the laws.
Early efforts to maintain standards by the methods of failing
pupils resulted in the clogging the early grades, where they learn
more on repeating a grade than when they went out to the next.
Then, too, the effects on the _personality of the pupils of being
considered a failure, and his difficulty in getting along with a new
group younger children can sometimes be "held back" to
advantage, and fast-learners
 ahead a grade, through the latter are similarly plagued by
ofadjustment which pupils who are older and more mature.
can be put
problems

Sex Disturbance in growth and sexual maturation are caused by

Differencesearly, too strong or weak, too slow or rapid activation Of
processes, and variations even within the normal range
are The differences are caused not only by heredity.
too late orEnviconditions have much influence on these processes,
hormonal too.
puberty occurs earlier now than it did only 50 years
be attributed to change in heredity factors, but must be
to generally improved living conditions.
biological factors like anatomical, physical and
physidifferences between boys and girls may lead to
pychological Beginning in early life, the culture creates
roles for each roles are reflected in the kind of toys and
games which are children and in the kind of behavior which
is expected. are apparent when the children develop self
concepts with their roles. By the time they enter school,
certain traits and value systems have already developed.
Likewise, there is uncertainty in this development, that is,
which be developed in some cases. As a teacher, one
must be conflicting behavior. There is a need to you, for
inwhen he was a child, he is more attached to dolls and
toys his sister. On the other hand, a girl may be attracted
to her the other hand, a girl may be attracted to her
brother's toy is inevitable and in fact, gradually being
accepted by the teacher's role is important to save them
from any further through proper guidance and
counselling. The students exsuch conditions are prone to
inferiority and the stigma of society."
considerable.
ronmental The
fact that agao
cannot due
essentially
Certai
n ological
differences.
sex. These
provided to
These
patterns in
accordance
personality

gender is to
aware of the
stance, that
played by
sister. On
guns. This
society. The
conflicts
periencing
"hum iliating
Aspects for rcrsonality in which Learners
Show Wide Variations
Physical Conditions
The various parts of the body do not grow at the same
rate, nor do they reach maturity simultaneously. Rapid physical
growth and changing physical proportions are important factor in
a person's achievement of a position within his own group: By
the age Of 15-18 years girls have particulary stop growing, while
boys continue growing until they are about 20,
A number ofchildren suffer from various physical defects
such as, diseased tonsil, adenoid, lameness, speech defects
(stuttering, stammering, lipsing, etc.), and other physical
handicaps. These varying degrees and kinds ofphysical ailments
present a challenge to the teacher or any of these physical defects
 may interfere with the pupil's learning progress ånless all available
means are utilized to correct such a defect.
Emotional Response and Attitudes
Many aspects of child training aim directly at diferentiation of
the emotion - above all at control of displeasure reactions. It is true

that we can weep for joy and even laugh for our sorrow, but such
reactions seem to be exceptional expressions of emotion or due to
extraordinary conditioning. They are not normally the primary
expression of these emotions. Hence, people in our modern society
eramin ambivalent in many respects.
Learners vary in their emotional patterns or
temperament. School children bring to their school life varying
kinds of degrees of attitudes and emotional tendencies. Some
children are markedly gloomy while others are distinctly
cheerful. No two learners are alike in their degree and kind of
emotional response to people and things about them. Teachers
need to recognize the importance of the learner

ofthe effects of his own emotional nature upon his learning

success, It is very important for every learner to develop
desirable emotional control. Since emotional responses are
determined largely by the fulfillment or denial of wants and
needs of the learner and by the emotional behavior ofpeople
around him teachers can help direct and guide the learner to
achieve emotional stability.
Blcntnl Abilities and Specific Aptitudes
It is apparent that teachers must have an understanding of
the principle of intelligence and some means of measuring the
intelligence level of their pupil if they are to present meaningful
learning experi-

ences.
General intelligence is made up of several primary mental
abilities. The primary mental abilities are: ability to do arithmetic
problem, verbal meaning, spatial perception, word flucncy,
memory, and perceptual speed. These abilities, however, are
independent to one

another. On the other hand, those children who are identified as aca-
demically weak may need extra help in discovering the solution to
various problems they are required to solve. Teachers must have a
good assessment of their pupils, which means that individual
differences are discovered so that pupils can be provided with the
activities that will meet their needs. These differences between the
best and the poorest pupils in a class are considerable for it affect
methods of instruction, psyhologists have grouped the learners into:
(l) genius or mentally gifted; (2) superior or bright; (3) average; (4)
dull or borderline, and (5) mentally retarded or feeble-minded.

Social Adjustment

Social adjustment is desirable and necessary. As the individual

emerges from the sheltered life within the home toward an additional
needs and wants appear. Boys and girls differ widely in their social
adjustment due to varying circumstances and conditions in the
environment, social conditions, economic conditions defects or
laminations, incompatible needs producing internal conflicts, and
conflicts between ideals and certain needs.
Social-class di fferences have only recently been given particular
study. Human nature is exceedingly complex. However, in the edu-

cational setting, as in others, it has made remarkable advances in the

past half century or more, though the cultural lag has delayed many
of
t
he disadvantages that might otherwise have accrued. With the
deVelopment of the television and of lesson programming for
teaching machines, coupled with a public awakening, dramatic and
revolutionary changes may be expected in the forseeable future.
 SUMMARY

There has never before been such keen interest on why

children behave as they do, why they are obstinate and
disobedient, Why young people pass tllrough puberty crises, and
why it is so difficult for them to adjust themselves to the world of
adults. Yet the fact that such questions are difficult to answer is a
discovery of our time. Anger and fear, sorrow and joy are typical
emotions. But emotional life does not consist only of powerful
and violent feelings but also - and more usually in. normal people
- of calm and temperate emotional condition.

The study ofeducational psychology has arisen out

ofeducational needs and problems. The history of modern
psychology shows how closely education and psychology are
related. An understanding of the biological bases of behavior is
important to understanding de.

velopmental psychology. The teacher's role is no way minimized by

the efforts of the early experienced specialists.

Thorndike, an early associationist, posted three major laws of
learning: (1) the law of readiness, showing the importance of
neurological anticipation; (2) the law of exercise, showing the
importance

ofpractice, and (3) the law of effect, showing the importance ofmo-

tivation.
Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, discovered some lawful rela-

tionships between stimuli and responses. He showed how

learning could take place through conditioning, a
trained association among stimuli and certain response. Pavlov,
system is now called "classical conditioning" and applies only to
reflex activity.
 Leaders seem to be chosen on the basis of both personal
characteristics and the demand of the group. In a study comparing
styles of leadership, democratic versus authoritarian, it was
shown that demo-

cratic leaders were apt to have groups in which the members

were more satisfied, more cooperative, less hostile, and better
able to follow through on group projects even when the leader
was absent.
What should we, as educators, derive from this
evidence? Traditional behaviorism should no longer be
accepted at face value. What seemed like an almost non-
interactive model of conditioning we should now, most
assuredly, be viewed as extremely interactive.
should not glibly use the "instinctive drift" argument to give up on
changing behavior we can't seem to control. It becomes not too easy
to say "This kid was born to be bad" when his disruptive behavior
continues despite efforts to change it. We must keep in mind that
whatever the genetic basis might be for a particular set of responses,
the innate predisposition, is still being expressed in learning
manners.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Without consulting your text, identify and briefly explain the basic
contents of educational psychology.
2. What is the relationship of psychology to education?
3. List the main concepts and draw the implications for education of
each of the theories of learning.
4. What are the types of leadership and how are they. being used to
enhance performance?

5. Why is adolescence referred to as a period of conflict? List some of

the conflicts that you have personally encountered during this
period,

THINGS TO DO

I. Bring pictures showing the eight stages of growth and

development and label them, Cite prominent features described
by the four aspects of the development of behavior, namely:
motor havior; physical behavior; adaptive behavior, and
personal/social behavior.
2. Sociometry: Form a group of five and write the name of any
member you like most. This shall be followed by an interaction
relevant to group process.