18AS63-Aerospace Propulsion II

Unit 2
SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS
Introduction
In rocket industry, solid propellant rockets are usually referred to as motors. Solid propellant
rockets are rockets that use propellants existing in solid form. And the hard mass of solid
propellant is termed as grain. In any solid propellant rocket, the solid propellants will first be
reduced to fine particles and mixed with suitable additives. Next, the resulting slurry will be
either is casted outside (free standing grains) or directly poured (case bonded) into the thrust
chamber and casted. The grain in a solid propellant rockets will typically account for 82-94%
of the total motor mass. In case of missiles, the thrust chamber containing the propellant grain
will hermetically be sealed for long storage, sometimes 5-20 years.

Figure: Schematic of a solid propellant rocket

To start the combustion, an igniter placed at the top of the thrust chamber will provide
required electrical energy. The grain starts to burn on its exposed inner surfaces. In case of
SRP, the thrust produced by the motor cannot be regulated or controlled. Hence, to overcome
this issue, an internal cavity with predetermined shape will be provided to the solid grain.
Usually, grains come with slots, grooves, holes, or other geometric features and they alter the
initial burning surface, which determines the initial mass flow and the initial thrust. The hot
reaction gases flow along the perforation or port cavity toward the nozzle and will
subsequently be expanded to high exhaust velocities.
The inner surfaces of the case (really a pressure vessel), which are exposed directly to hot
gas, have a thermal protection or insulation layer to keep the case from becoming too hot, in
which case it could no longer carry its pressure and other loads. Nozzles will usually be made
of high temperature materials (usually a graphite and/or an ablative material to absorb the
heat) to withstand the high temperatures and the erosion. The majority of all solid rockets
have a simple fixed nozzle, but some nozzles have provision to rotate it slightly so as to
control the direction of the thrust to allow vehicle steering.
Motors come in many different types and sizes, varying in thrust from about 2 N to 4 million
Newton. Historically, solid propellant rockets are credited to their simple nature compared to
other type of rockets. They have very less moving parts, however, the more recent SPR have
movable nozzles and actuators for vectoring the line of thrust relative to the motor axis.
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Applications of solid propellant rockets

Application of Solid Rockets

Large booster Space launch vehicles;
Second stage Motors Lower Stages of long-range ballistic Missiles
Upper stages of multistage Ballistic missiles, space launch
High-altitude Motors
Vehicles; space manoeuvres
High acceleration: short-range bombardment, antitank
missile
Tactical missiles
Modest acceleration: air-to surface, Surface-to-air, short
range Guided surface-to-surface, air-to-air missiles
Ballistic missile defence Long- and medium-range ballistic missiles
Pilot emergency escape;
Push missiles from submarine launch
Gas generator
Tubes or land mobile canisters;
Automotive air bags

Solid Propellant Types and Ingredients

Gun Powder was the first propellant that was used as both an explosive as well as propellants
for Solid Propellant rockets. Gun Powder is a mixture of Salpeter, which is nothing but
Potassium Nitrate (potassium, nitrogen, and oxygen), Charcoal and sulphur. When 75%
potassium nitrate is mixed appropriately with 15% carbon (charcoal) and 10% sulfur, the
resultant black powder has explosive properties. Gun Powder was first used in the preparation
of explosive grenades, bomb and ultimately ended up as a propellant for rockets since they
were able to accelerate projectiles from the guns and cannons. Due to this gun powder ended
up as propellants for accelerating missiles and rockets. However, this old type of propulsion
had serious disadvantages
1. Highly Unpredictable- Developed through Trial and Error, No history on Burning
Characteristics, Stability
2. Developed extremely dirty gases
3. Acidic residue deposits inside the barrel caused erosion of the inner surfaces
4. Caused considerable fouling of gun barrels
5. Emitted high muzzle flash-Disclosed the location of the gun to the enemy
In 1887, Alfred Nobel formulated a new type of propellant based on the nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine, which led to the development of new propellant formulations.
Basically, solid propellants can be classified as
1. Homogenous mixtures or organic substances-
a. Single base propellants
b. Double base propellants
c. Triple base propellants
2. Heterogeneous or Composite propellants
a. Composite propellants
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Single Base Propellants

Compounds that are developed from one single base are called as Single Base Propellants.
Single Base Propellants are mainly comprised of Nitrocellulose (NC) or more exactly nitrates
of cellulose. When cellulose is exposed to nitric acid or any other powerful nitrating agents, a
highly flammable compound, nitrocellulose is formed. This nitrocellulose compound with
nitrogen content varying between 12-15% is gelatinized by mixing in ether alcohol mixture.
Later, the gelatinized Nitrocellulose is usually combined with a 10-12% of plasticizer like
Dibutyl Phthalate/ Dibutyl Sebacate/Camphor etc, plasticizer mainly acts as a binder and
helps bind the whole mixture together. This compound of Nitrocellulose and a plasticizer is
mixed with diphenylamine, which turns the whole compound into dough. Further, the
gelatinised dough is extruded through dies of required size and shape and then chopped and
dried. To improve the burning characteristics of double and triple base propellants, Tar or
rubber was used as fuel that was combined with an oxidiser.
The explosive nature of the SBP is dictated by the amount of Nitrogen content in the
compound. The higher the nitrogen content, the higher the heat of explosion. More nitrogen
is present in the molecule and more oxygen can be used to oxidize the reducing agents. Based
on the Nitrogen Content, there are two types
a. Grade A .pyrocellulose.: nitrogen content between 12.3 and 12.8%
b. Grade B .guncotton.: nitrogen content higher than 13.35%.

Advantages of NC
a. No smoke,
b. Little muzzle flash,
c. More energy,
d. Reliability in use,
e. Long storage life.

Applications
a. Used in rifles and guns
b. In nearly all calibres of handgun, rifle, machine gun, aircraft- and antiaircraft gun,
cannons and howitzers

Double Base Propellants

By adding nitrates of glycerine or just Nitro-glycerine to the Nitrocellulose, a double base
propellant can be obtained. Such propellants consist of two bases, namely Nitro-glycerine and
Nitrocellulose, and hence the name. Double base propellants are obtained by kneading NC
and NG with some stabilisers, ballistic modifiers etc, and then it will be carpet rolled at
elevated temperatures. Finally, the mix is extruded through dies. Also, the double base
propellants can be produced through casting techniques. DBP show low elongation and high
modulus especially at lower temperature and such grains are used in the free-standing
configuration. For bigger and larger application, Cast DBPs are used and for smaller
application, extruded DBPs are used.
The heat of explosion for this reaction is about 6100 J/g. This figure is 1.5 times higher than
that of NC. This gain of energy is positive and fulfils the military demand for increased bullet
velocity and prolonged range of shooting.
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Applications
1. Large calibre cannons and howitzers- shape of tubes or slotted tubes
2. Pistols and grenade launchers- flake powders are found in ammunition
3. Rockets and missiles: the antitank missile- rolled up db propellant sheets in its
numerous small motors
4. The ejection of the missile from the launcher is done by a charge of short tubes of db
propellant
5. Rockets and missiles: the antitank missile-large sized tubes

Triple base propellants

To make the propellants more energetic, a third energetic ingredient, namely nitroguanidine
(NQ) also known as picrate is added to the double base propellant consisting of NC and NG.
About 40% of weight of the propellant, NG is added.

Advantages
1. Exhibit good mechanical properties
2. Good ballistic stability

Though, SBP and DBP exhibit good burning characteristics, their size and geometry is
limited, that limits the opportunity for large scale applications like the solid rocket boosters
used as launch vehicles, primary stage of a rocket or for a long range missile. Further, DB
propellants are affected by brittleness, cracking, and high pressure index of burning, that will
be fatal for the rocket performance. Due to these demerits, homogenous propellants are not
preferred for large scale applications.
A new type of propellant namely, the heterogeneous propellants have been developed
especially for large scale applications. Like any other propellant, even a heterogeneous
propellant will consist of the basic fuel and oxidiser. Generally, nitrates and perchlorates
(NH4NO3 KNO3, KCIO4 NH4CIO4) are used as oxidisers and polymers, plastics & PVC
are used as fuels. But apart from the oxidiser and fuel, it will also consist of host of other
additives like binders, inhibitors, opacifiers, plasticizers, metallic materials, burn rate
modifiers, curatives, phase changers, solvents etc that will improve the overall burning
characteristics, manufacturability and versatility of the propellant.
The various constituents of a heterogeneous or composite propellant are detailed as follows:

Oxidiser
 The oxidiser is the major constituent of composite solid propellant system. Oxidiser
accounts for 68 to 70% by weight. Hence, it is one of the important constituent of any
propellant mixture.
 Primarily, the requirement of oxidiser is that it should have high oxygen content and
easily decompose as and when required to produce necessary oxidising elements to
maximise the energy release from the reaction.
 The two main oxidizing compounds used in composite propellant manufacture are
ammonium perchlorate (AP- NH4C104) and ammonium nitrate (AN). The most
frequently used is AP because it is more stable and safer to handle.
 One can see that during the burning process a lot of hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
developed. With the moisture in the air, this leads to an intense white smoke, so the
trajectory and the starting point of the missile can easily be observed. Adding HCl-
 18AS63-Aerospace Propulsion II

suppressant substances, like magnesium-aluminum alloys or sodium nitrate, the

formation of this white smoke will be reduced. This problem is very important for
tactical missiles, but is less important for space exploration. The heat of explosion of
AP is 1115 J/g, which is less than that of NC or NG. Because composite propellant
must burn for a relatively long time, the burning rate has to be low and a high heat of
explosion is not at the forefront.
 AN on the other hand, does not show the problem of hydrochloric acid production,
but its main drawback are the different crystal modifications. A crystal modification
change in a rocket motor is fatal. It will influence the physical properties, cracks in
the propellant could occur enlarging the burning surface. Under operational
conditions the propellant produces more gases than the nozzle can manage and the
rocket or missile finally explodes. The use of AN for rocket motor technology also
needs the addition of a crystal structure stabilizer, e.g. potassium nitrate •
 Oxidisers that are added in the propellant may come in various mesh sizes. The
particle sizes of the oxidisers are mainly varied to control the combustion rate of the
propellant. Oxidisers having fine mesh size (rapidly combine) will increase the rate of
combustion and vice versa.

Fuels
 Next important constituent of the propellant mixture is the fuel. Fuel constitutes of 14-
20% of the propellant by weight. Powdered spherical aluminum is the most common
fuel used. It consists of small spherical particles (5 to 60 μm diameter) and is used in a
wide variety of composite propellant preparation.
 During rocket combustion this fuel is oxidized into aluminum oxide. These oxide
particles tend to agglomerate and form larger particles. The aluminum increases the
heat of combustion, the propellant density, the combustion temperature, and thus the
specific impulse.
 Boron is a high-energy fuel that is lighter than aluminum and has a high melting point
(2304°C). Due to the high melting point, its difficult to burn the boron fuel, but with
particle size being very small, it can be achieved.
 Beryllium burns much more easily than boron and improves the specific impulse of a
solid propellant motor, usually by about 15 sec, but it and its oxide are highly toxic
powders absorbed by animals and humans when inhaled.

Binders
 After, fuel and oxidizer, the next important constituent is the binder. The binder is an
essential ingredient of composite solid propellants. Nearly 10 to 15% of the composite
solid propellant is comprised of binders.
 Binder is actually in the form of glue or resin. Son when all the propellant constituents
are added, it will help in binding all these particles and keep them intact.
 After they are mixed with the solid ingredients, cast and cured, they form a hard
rubber-like material that constitutes the grain.
 Polyethers, polyesters and poly-butadiene have been used as binders.
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) and polyurethane (PU) were used 40 years ago and are still
used in a few motors, mostly of old design.
 Binders also act as fuel in the propellant. Besides, they help in improving the
reliability, mechanical properties, propellant processing complexity, storability, aging,
and costs.
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 HTPB has been the favorite binder in recent years. Some polymers undergo complex
chemical reactions, crosslinking, and branch chaining during curing of the propellant.
 Polymerization occurs when the binder monomer and its crosslinking agent react
(beginning in the mixing process) to form long-chain and complex three-dimensional
polymers.

Plasticisers
 A plasticizer is usually a relatively low-viscosity liquid organic ingredient which is
also a fuel.
 Plasticisers are mainly added to improve the processability of the dense slurry of the
propellant mixture. Since, a lot of different additives are added to the mixture, it will
make the propellant slurry very strong and reduce the fluidity of the mixture. To make
it more fluid and to improve the mixing between the constituents, plasticisers are
added.
 Plasticisers are high boiling, non-volatile, low viscous, low molecular weight
substances. The modification of the flow characteristics of the propellant slurry is
very important for realising defect free propellant grains.
 Binders such as polymers, polybutadiene are used to hold the fuel and oxidizer
powders together.

Curatives
 The percentage of curatives added is insignificant in comparison with other
constituents. The percentage of curatives will be between 0.2 to 3% of the weight.
Though they are small in percentage, they have a greater role to play that affects the
physical properties, manufacturability and aging characteristics of the propellant.
 Adding a curative or a curing agent causes the prepolymers to form longer chains of
larger molecular mass and helps in providing interlocks between chains.
 The curatives react with the functional groups of the binder and forms cross-linked
polymeric network structure. The number of crosslinks in the network decides the
mechanical behaviour of the polymer. Propellant formulations utilise a crosslinking
agent, which reacts with the curatives and helps to form three dimensional network
structures.

Metallic fuels
 Metallic fuels improve the energetics or the heat of combustion of the reaction. In
doing so, the maximum temperature is increased, that increases the chemical energy
released during the exothermic reaction.
 Increasing the combustion temperature will ultimately increase the specific impulse of
the propellant.
 Aluminium and Beryllium are the most widely used metallic additives in composite
solid propellant formulations.
 Aluminium content of 18 to 20% in the propellant is found to improve the specific
impulse by 20%.
 Addition of these metals also tends to increase the grain density which decreases the
volume required for a given value of the total impulse.
 Presence of aluminium oxide particles helps to attenuate the undesirable acoustic
oscillations of the combustion products and thereby eliminate combustion instability.
Other important metallic fuel choices include magnesium, boron and beryllium.
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Metallic wires of aluminium, silver and copper are also used to enhance burn rate of
the propellant.
Burn rate modifier
 Burn rate modifier is another important constituent, added to modify the ballistic
properties of the propellant.
 Ferric oxide, ferric acetyl acetonate, ferrocene and copper chromite are usually used in
propellant formulations for this purpose.
 A burning-rate catalyst or burning-rate modifier helps to accelerate or decelerate the
combustion at the burning surface and increases or decreases the value of the
propellant burning rate. It permits the tailoring of the burning rate to fit a specific
grain design and thrust-time curve.
 Some, like iron oxide or lead stearate, increase the burning rate; however, others, like
lithium fluoride, will reduce the burning rate of some composite propellants. The
inorganic catalysts do not contribute to the combustion energy, but consume energy
when they are heated to the combustion temperature.

Anti-oxidants
 Anti-oxidants are added to propellant formulations to improve the ageing
characteristics by preventing oxidative degradation. Phenyl-β-napthylamine,
paracresol are some of the anti-oxidants used.
 Inhibitors or restrictors are used to prevent or regulate the burning of propellant grain
at some stipulated surfaces.
 An opacifier may be added to absorb heat that may otherwise be transmitted through a
translucent grain resulting in unpredictable burning.- prevent radiation heating at
places other than the burning surface
 Bonding agents are additives to enhance adhesion between the solid ingredients (AP
or A1) and the binder.
 Stabilizers are intended to minimize the slow chemical or physical reactions that can
occur in propellants.
 Catalysts are sometimes added to the cross linker or curing agent to slow down the
curing rate.

Commonly used propellant additives

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Propellant Burning Rate r

The thrust required by a rocket is not constant rather varies throughout its mission. For some
missions, the thrust required by the rocket will be high during the launch. As the rockets
altitude increase the thrust decreases due to the decrease in the gravity, decrease in the weight
of the rocket (due to the decrease in the weight of the propellant owing to consumption). In
some mission, the thrust required will be constant and some missions require the thrust to be
increased with altitude (Moving from one orbit to other, boosting is required).
The most popular and time tested method of controlling thrust on a SPR is by varying the
geometry of the solid propellant grain. We know that thrust obtained is directly proportional
to the surface area exposed to combustion. Larger the surface area exposed to combustion,
larger the exhaust gases passing through the combustion chamber and the nozzle, higher will
be the thrust obtained and vice versa. This is referred as instantaneous burning area Ab. So
by controlling the instantaneous burning area, the thrust can be controlled or altered and this
is known as internal ballistics. The branch of applied science describing the burning rate,
burning surface, and grain geometry is known as internal ballistics.
During the combustion, surface area of the propellant recedes in the direction normal
(perpendicular) to the surface at that point and due to the consumption of the grain, a new
surface area will be evolved. The newly evolved surface area will be slightly different from
the previous surface area and the cross sectional area of the grain will also be different. The
cross sectional area of the grain is an important factor which affects the performance of the
rocket. If the newly evolved surface area has a larger surface area, the mass flow rate of the
combustion gases increases which ultimately increases the thrust of the rocket.
Let us consider a two-dimensional cylindrical cavity with 5 slots as shown in figure. Upon
ignition, combustion will be initiated along all the slots of the cavity and the propellant grain
will recede in a direction normal to its surface. Initially the slots are sharp, but as time grow
and at different time intervals, a new shape with a different surface area will evolve as seen
from the figure. With the newly formed grain surface area, the thrust generated will
proportionally be affected.

Figure: Successive burning surface contours, each a fixed small time apart
The mass flow rate of the exhaust gases is given by the expression, where Ab is the burning
area of the propellant grain, r the burning rate, and ρb the solid propellant density prior to
motor start. The total mass m of effective propellant burned can be determined by integrating
the equation.

m  Ab r b (1)


m   m dt   b  Ab rdt
(2)
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In the equation, Ab and r can be varied with time and pressure to extensively understand the
burning characteristics of the propellant grain. The burn rate of any propellant is further
dependent on the chamber pressure, given by the empirical relation

r  ap1
n
(3)
where r, the burn rate, is usually in centimetres per second or inches per second, and the
chamber pressure Pl is in MPa or psia, a is an empirical constant influenced by ambient grain
temperature. Also a is known as the temperature coefficient and it is not dimensionless. The
burning rate exponent n, sometimes called the combustion index, is independent of the
initial grain temperature and describes the influence of chamber pressure on the burning rate.

Thrust Profile of a Propellant Grain Geometry

Thrust profile, sometimes referred as thrust curve is defined as the graph of the thrust of an
engine or motor with respect to time. Various thrust profiles can obtained for a given rocket
mission or application. The obtained thrust profile completely depends on the grain geometry
of the solid propellant and the propellant mass flow rate as given in eqn 1.
Basically, by changing the geometry of the propellant, thus change the propellant mass flow
rate, three different types of thrust profiles can be achieved. They are
1. Regressive Burning
2. Neutral Burning
3. Progressive burning

Figure: Progressive, neutral and regressive thrust profiles for solid propellants grains
Progressive Burning- In progressive burning, the surface area Ab of the propellant increases
during the interval of combustion. Due to this, propellant mass flow rate increases and the
overall thrust increases with time. A simple configuration that exhibits progressive burning is
a case-bonded grain with a cylindrical core. As burning proceeds, the diameter of the core
increases, causing the burning surface area to increase, resulting in increased gas production
and thrust. A sample progressive burning thrust profile is provided in figure below.
Neutral Burning- In neutral burning, the surface area Ab of the propellant remains constant
during the interval of combustion. Due to this, both propellant mass flow rate and the thrust
produced remains constant with time. Many propellant grain geometries can be configured to
approximate neutral burning. The thrust profile for a simple, end-burning propellant grain is
illustrated below, where the slight increase in thrust (typically a temperature effect) is
ignored.
 18AS63-Aerospace Propulsion II

Regressive Burning- In regressive burning, the surface area Ab of the propellant reduces
during the interval of combustion. Consequently, the propellant mass flow rate too decreases
causing the thrust production also to recede over time.
Various propellant grains with their thrust profile are describe and depicted in the figure.
(1) Solid Propellant with cylindrical channel-In such configurations, the surface area
increase with time and hence the thrust also increases with time. (Progressive Burning-Used
for Terminal Staging)
(2) Solid Propellant with a channel and a central cylinder- Such geometry produce a
relatively constant thrust, which reduces to zero very quickly when the fuel is used up.
(Neutral Burning- Mainly used for Lift Off)
(3) Solid Propellant with star shaped geometry- Develops a relatively constant thrust
which decreases slowly to zero as the last of the fuel is consumed. (Neutral Burning- Mainly
used for Lift Off)
(4) Solid Propellant with cruciform geometry - The ‘cruciform’ profile produces
progressively less thrust. (Gradual Regressive Burning- Mainly used for Orbital Insertion)
(5) Solid Propellant with double anchor profile - Produces a decreasing thrust which drops
off quickly near the end of the burn. (Instantaneous Regressive Burning- Mainly used for
Missiles)
(6) Solid Propellant with wagon wheel profile - produces a strong initial thrust, followed by
an almost constant lower thrust. (Regressive Burning- Mainly used for Missiles)

Fig : Thrust profiles for various grain geometries

Propellant Grain and Grain Configuration

As we know, grain is nothing but the processed mass of solid propellant inside the rocket
motor. The propellant grain can either be cast, moulded or extruded and its appearance is
very similar to hard rubber or plastic. Once the propellant grain is ready, it can be placed
inside the rocket motor. There are basically two methods of holding the grain in the motor
case. First one is the cartridge loaded or free standing grains and the other type is case
bonded grains.
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In case of cartridge-loaded or freestanding configuration, the propellant grain is

manufactured separately from the case (by extrusion or by casting into a cylindrical mould or
cartridge) and then loaded into or assembled into the case. In case-bonded type, the case is
used as a mould and the propellant is cast directly into the case and is bonded to the case or
case insulation. Free-standing grains can more easily be replaced if the propellant grain has
aged excessively or lost some of its properties and needs to be changed.
Cartridge-loaded grains are used in some small tactical missiles and a few medium-sized
motors. They often have a lower cost and are easier to inspect. The case-bonded grains give a
somewhat better performance, a little less inert mass (no holding device, support pads, and
less insulation), a better volumetric loading fraction, are more highly stressed, and often
somewhat more difficult and expensive to manufacture. Today almost all larger motors and
many tactical missile motors use case bonding.

Fig: Schematic diagrams of a free-standing (or cartridge-loaded) and a case-bonded grain

Liner, Insulator and the Inhibitor

Liner: Liner is a thin polymeric material applied to the inner walls of the thrust chamber
prior to casting the propellant slurry into the chamber. A typical liner will usually be made
from polypropylene glycol (about 57%), a titanium oxide filler (about 20%), a di-isocyanate
cross linker (about 20%), and minor ingredients such as an antioxidant.

Figure: Solid propellant combustion chamber showing liner and insulation

Liner will usually be like rubber and due to its rubber like material; it will render the liner not
only to be soft but also stretchable in nature. Besides, it is also sticky and non-self-burning
layer. Before applying the liner, the motor case will be heated to high temperature around 80-
90 degrees to promote good bonding between the propellant and the thrust chamber walls.
Its thickness will be anywhere between 0.5mm to 1mm and able to elongate 200 to 450%
elongation which allows relative movement along the bond line between the case and the
 18AS63-Aerospace Propulsion II

grain. This helps in providing axial motion between the grain periphery and the casing. The
elongation provided by the liner material will be useful to overcome the thermal expansion of
the propellant grain due to the high operating temperatures experienced during operation. The
usefulness of liner is even more important in case of a thrust chamber made of composite
fibres. In case of fibre wound thrust chamber cases, the liner would help seal the case and
prevent the hot gases from escaping.
Inhibitor: In any solid propellant rocket, once a propellant grain is ignited, it has a tendency
to burn along all exposed surfaces, a phenomenon known as flashing. When flashing occurs,
the propellant grain burns in an uncontrolled fashion and this might result in tremendous
increase in chamber pressure P leading to catastrophic failure of the rocket. This phenomenon
of flashing is a very undesirable one in any SPR. One of the simplest methods to prevent
uncontrolled burning is by using inhibitors. An inhibitor is very similar to a liner which is
used to inhibit certain parts of the propellant from undergoing combustion. It is also called as
a restrictor. An inhibitor is usually made from a heat resistant material that is bonded to one
(or more) surfaces of a propellant grain, and has the sole purpose of preventing combustion
from occurring on that particular surface. In doing so, the instantaneous propellant burning
surface area can easily be controlled which will ultimately help in controlling the thrust of the
rocket.

Figure: Illustration of inhibitor on a solid propellant grain

Inhibitor Examples

 Polyvinyl Chloride plastic sheet

 Marine epoxy
 Polyester resin impregnated cotton
 Epoxy resin impregnated cotton
 Silicone grease
 Lacquer
 Sodium Silicate
Insulator: Insulator is also a thin layer applied between the motor case and the propellant
grain. The main purpose of an insulator is to limit the heat transfer from the propellant grain
to the motor case and control the temperature rise of the motor. Similar to the internal
insulator, an external insulator is applied to the outside of the motor case, particularly in
tactical missiles or high-acceleration launch boosters. This insulation reduces the heat flow
from the air boundary layer outside the vehicle surface (which is aerodynamically heated) to
the case and then to the propellant.
To reduce the structural weight of the entire missile or rocket, usually rockets are made of
composite fibres. This will prevent the motor casing constructed using plastic fibre reinforced
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cases from becoming weak or the propellant from becoming soft or, in extreme situations,
from being ignited due to aerodynamic heating. Additional requirements of an insulator are
– Erosion resistant
– Good thermal resistance and low thermal conductivity
• For the plastic and composite material cases 160 and 350°C
• For most steel cases - 550 and 950°C
– Allow a large-deformation or strain to accommodate grain deflections

Figure: Representation of internal insulation for the solid propellant rocket

Ignition and Combustion Process

Ignition and combustion are two very important processes in any thrust producing machines.
These two processes are strongly intertwined to each other wherein ignition will always
precede the process of combustion.
The first process in the combustion of propellant grain is ignition, and ignition always
precedes combustion process and there is no combustion process without ignition. The
process of ignition itself consists of a series of complex rapid events that immediately start at
the receipt of an electric signal. The various processes that occur after ignition are

 Heat generation - The igniter generates the required heat for igniting the propellant
grain and in most of the cases the ignition process will not take more than fraction of
a second. Once ignition occurs, the next immediate process is increase of the pressure
in the port cavity. The combustion chamber pressure rises from a null state to an
equilibrium state quickly as seen in the figure. Heat generation - The igniter
generates the required heat for igniting the propellant grain and in most of the cases
the ignition process will not take more than fraction of a second. Once ignition occurs,
the next immediate process is increase of the pressure in the port cavity. The
combustion chamber pressure rises from a null state to an equilibrium state quickly as
seen in the figure. For the combustion process to sustain, an equilibrium pressure with
full gas flow has to be maintained which will be responsible in transferring energy
from the igniter gas to the grain surfaces.
 Transfer of the heat from the igniter to the motor grain surface - The heat
generated by the igniter will be quickly transferred to the grain surfaces.
 Spreading the flame over the entire burning surface area – Here, the flame will
quickly develop and instantly spread over the entire surface area that is exposed to
combustion and covers maximum surface area of the grain.
 Filling the port cavity with gas - With the burning of the propellant grain, the mass
flow rate of the exhaust gases tremendously increases and completely fills the entire
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port cavity of the motor. With this, the pressure in the thrust chamber tremendously
increases. For the combustion process to sustain, an equilibrium pressure with full gas
flow has to be maintained which will be responsible in transferring energy from the
igniter gas to the grain surfaces.
Conventionally, the ignition process is divided into three phases for analytical purposes:
Phase I-Ignition time lag: the period from the moment the igniter receives a signal until the
first bit of grain surface burns.
Phase II-Flame-spreading interval: the time from first ignition of the grain surface until the
complete grain burning area has been ignited.
Phase III-Chamber-filling interval: the time for completing the chamber filling process and
for reaching equilibrium chamber pressure and flow.

Figure: Ignition process showing different phases of ignition

Thrust Extinction or Thrust Termination

The thrust termination or extinction system is also an important system on board through
which the rocket motor will be shut down. This is primarily important when the motor
malfunctions and sometimes it’s is necessary to stop or extinguish the burning of the motor
before all the propellant has been consumed. Hence, the thrust extinction system forms a
failsafe mechanism and this forms an important control for a SPR. The problem with thrust
termination system is that when activated it will not only shutdown the rocket but destroys
the motor too and do not have any relighting or re-ignition possibility. The various
circumstances which requires thrust termination are
1. When a flight vehicle has reached a desired flight velocity-It can be the predetermined
velocity for a ballistic missile or a satellite which has reached the required orbit. The
thrust has to be terminated, if not the vehicle will overshoot the given orbit or altitude.
2. Achieving thrust termination is very much important during flight testing of rockets or
launch vehicles or missile. In case the test vehicle unexpectedly flies out of the safe
boundaries, then it has to be immediately terminated.
3. To avoid collisions of stages during a stage separation manoeuvre (requiring a thrust
reversal) for multistage flight vehicles.
4. During research and development testing, when one wants to examine a partially
burned motor.

To achieve thrust termination, several methods are available. They are

Rapid depressurization-Simplest method of terminating the thrust is by reducing the
combustion chamber pressure below deflagration limit. Deflagration limit is the minimum
 18AS63-Aerospace Propulsion II

pressure at which combustion can still be barely self-sustained and maintained without
adding energy. This type of depressurization occurs very slowly. Many solid propellants have
a low-pressure combustion limit of 0.05 to 0.15 MPa. We know that the burn rate of a
propellant is very much dependant on the chamber pressure given by the equation

m  Ab r b
r  ap1
n

Higher the pressure p1, faster will be the propellant burn rate r. Likewise, lower the chamber
pressure p1, the burn rate r decreases accordingly. This means that to make the thrust zero,
the pressure also needs to be reduced to zero. This can be done by rapidly reducing the
chamber pressure either increasing the nozzle throat area or rapid opening of gas escape
routes. Fast opening of the gas escape routes is commonly used on many motors. For this,
usually blow out devices are placed at the forward end of the motor. Once activated, the
devices explode, thus creating additional passages at the forward end through which the gases
escape and neutralise the thrust. When the exhaust ports are opened, they not only allow the
fast moving exhaust gases and reduce pressure but also help in decelerating the vehicle. Such
a thrust reversal using ports located on the forward bulkhead of the case is achieved in the
upper stages of Minuteman and Poseidon missiles. The location of the blow out devices is
carefully selected to prevent any unbalanced forces being established on the vehicle.
Generally, equal numbers of thrust termination blow out devices are located symmetrically
opposite (2 or more) to each other. The forward flow of gas occurs only for a very brief
period of time, during which the thrust is actually reversed. The rapid depressurization causes
a sudden stopping of the combustion at the propellant burning surface. With proper design
the explosive cords do not cause a detonation or explosion of the remaining unburned
propellant.

Figure: Solid propellant motor showcasing thrust terminating devices

Quenching with Water-Sometimes, studying the microstructure of a partially burnt

propellant will be helpful especially while developing new propellant combination. For that
purpose, the developed grain will be combusted and the thrust will be terminated halfway by
injecting flame extinguishing liquid like water. This is one of the methods for thrust
extinction specifically during research and development and not on an actual rocket.